IPG KSAH

CHEMICAL BONDING Metallic Bonding

Metals are strong and can be deformed without breaking. They are malleable and are ductile. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity in the solid state, a property not shared by other classes of compounds, either ionic or covalent. These properties are make metals very useful in industry.

Due to their low electronegativity, the valence shell electrons of metals are easily removed with the formation of metal cations. Take the case of sodium, for example, the atoms are packed very closely in the solid state until the 3s orbitals ( which contain one electron ) of the sodium atoms overlap with one another to form a giant molecular orbital extending over three dimensions. The valence electrons are free to move

throughout the whole of the giant molecular orbital. They are delocalized.

This is shown in the diagram below.

PPISMP 2009 SCIENCE

Page 24

IPG KSAH

CHEMICAL BONDING

There are now attractive forces between the positive ions and the delocalized electrons. This is called metallic bonding. Thus, metallic solids can be visualized consisting of an infinite array of positive ions immersed in a sea of delocalized valence electrons. This strong attractive force is responsible for the strength of metals.

The presence of the delocalized electrons explains the electrical conductivity of metals as well as its high thermal conductivity. When heat is applied to one end of a piece of metal, the kinetic energy of the electrons increases. This is then transmitted to the other end through the system of delocalized electrons. When a potential difference is applied across a piece of metal, the delocalized electrons will be attracted to the positive terminal.

Strength of Metallic Bonds

The strength of the metallic bond depends on the number of electrons per atom which can be contributed to the formation of the bond. The table below lists the melting points and boiling points for sodium, magnesium and aluminium. Element Melting point/k Boiling point/K Na 371 1156 Mg 923 1380 Al 933 2740

PPISMP 2009 SCIENCE

Page 25

IPG KSAH

CHEMICAL BONDING

The number of electrons per atom which can be contributed to form the metallic bond increases from 1 for sodium, 2 for magnesium to 3 for aluminum. Hence, the strength of the metallic bond as well as the melting points increases in the order.

Na<Mg<Al

The strength of the metallic bond also depends on the size of the atom and the way the atoms are arranged in the solid lattice. Generally, the melting points decreases with increasing atomic size. When the size of the atom increases, the distance between the nucleus and the electrons in the metallic bond increases thus causing the attraction to be weaker.

Table : The melting points and the boiling points for elements in group 1,2,13 and the block Element Melting point (0C) Boiling point (0C) No of Na 98 892 Mg 650 1107 2 Al 660 2450 3 Li 180 1330 1 Be 1280 2480 2 B 2300 3930 3

valence 1

electron

PPISMP 2009 SCIENCE

Page 26

IPG KSAH

CHEMICAL BONDING

Conductor and Insulators

Some solid are good conductors of electricity e.g. Mg, Al, Fe), while others are non-conductors (e.g. P, S, diamond). There are also solids which are semi-conductor (e.g. Si). The conductivity of solids can be explained using the energy band theory. The valence shell orbitals of a solid overlap with one another to form two energy bands: the valence band and the conduction band.

The valence band is of lower energy than the conduction band. Electrons in the conduction band are mobile and can move freely throughout the whole of the solid lattice, but the electrons in the valence band cannot. The energy difference between the two bands determines the conductivity of a solid.

PPISMP 2009 SCIENCE

Page 27

IPG KSAH

CHEMICAL BONDING

Conductor In solid conductors, the valence band is fully filled while the conduction band is partially filled. There is no energy gap between the two bands. In the presence of a potential difference, electrons from the valence band can migrate into the conduction band an thus can conduct electricity.

Insulator In insulators, the valence band is fully filled, while the conduction band is empty. There is a large energy gap between the two bands. The electrons in the valence band cannot move into the conduction band due to the large energy gap between the two bands.

Semiconductor In semiconductors, the valence band is fully filled, while the conduction band is empty. The two bands are separated by a small energy gap. At room temperature, some electrons in the valence band might have enough energy to be promoted to the conduction band and thus conduct electricity. The conductivity of semiconductors is lower than that of conductors because the number of electrons in the conduction band of semiconductors are fewer.

PPISMP 2009 SCIENCE

Page 28