APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key

EE1451-ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION

April/May 2008 1)i).Today the entire world is talking about the need for discovering an alternative source of energy. This situation popped out because of the fact that petroleum prices fluctuate at a regular interval in the international market and most of the time it is priced high. Many countries have already started hunting out for an alternative energy and the results are quite convincing. ii)The current available stock of fossil fuels on earth is very limited, so before we completely consume them, it is essential to come up with some alternative energy source. Big investments have been made towards the direction of researching and producing different sources of alternative energy. Alternative fuel is also known as non conventional fuel. It could be any material which can be used as fuel other than the conventional fuels of petroleum, coal, propane, and natural gas. iii)Bio diesel, butanol, fuel cells, hydrogen, methane, natural gas, vegetable oil, biomass and peanut oil are some options available as alternative renewable fuel sources. The prime advantage of alternative fuel is that they burns cleaner hence causing less pollution. It also helps in reducing harmful emissions like carbon monoxide, organic compounds, nitrogen oxide and sulfur thus maintaining the greenhouse gases effect. Moreover, alternative fuels are cheaper than the conventional fuel and also last longer. Experts are of view that alternative fuels are capable of enhancing the power of the engine which adds to low maintenance of the car. iv)Today the new technology in the hybrid cars and other hybrid vehicles are using renewable energy like hydrogen fuel cells and electric motor. With such alternative energy, we are sure to save on gasoline and protect the earth from the danger of global warming. 2. The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with reference to time is known as a load curve. 3. Geothermal comes from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat. Geothermal means heat from the ground. Geothermal power is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earth's surface. 4. Advantages of Power factor improvement: Reduces KVA demand, T & D losses and IR loss. Reduce downside capacity of equipment. 5. Properties of heating material. High specific resistance. It should have high specific resistance so that a short length of wire will be required for a particular resistance or the same length and current the heat produced will be same. High melting point. So that higher temperature can be obtained. Free from oxidation. It should not oxides at higher temperature; otherwise its life will be shortened.

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key Low temperature coefficient of resistance. So that its resistance does not change during its temperature range of operation. Also with this the current drawn by the element at cold will not be much different from that when it is hot.

6. There are two laws of illumination 1. Inverse square law 2. Lamberts Cosine law Inverse square law Illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the surface and the light source provided that the distance between the surface and the source is sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as point source. Lamberts cosine law The illumination at any point on a surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal At that point and the direction of luminous flux. 8.. 9. load equalization. In this process energy is stored during the interval of light load and given out during the interval of peak load. Thus the power drawn from the supply mains remains almost constant. The most common method of load equalization is by use of flywheel. 10).Individualdrive

Group drive

. 11a) TIDAL ENERGY

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key The tides contain energy that can be harnessed to produce electricity. Two types of tidal energy can be extracted. Kinetic energy can be harnessed from the ebbing (outgoing tide) and surging tides. Potential energy can be harnessed from differences in the high and low tides. Using tidal current remains the primary method of generating electricity. Tidal energy is the utilization of the variations in sea level caused primarily by the gravitational effects of the moon, combined with the rotation of the Earth. When Earth, the moon and the sun are positioned in a straight line (called a full, or new, moon), the gravitational attractions are combined, resulting in very large spring tides. At half-moon, the sun and the moon are at right angles, resulting in lower tides called neap tides. Coastal areas experience two high and two low tides over a period of slightly longer than twenty-four hours. TYPES OF TIDAL PLANTS 1. Tidal Fences 2. Barrage Tidal Plants 3. Tidal Turbines used to determine cost effectiveness and efficiency of tidal power site Advantages 1. Renewable 2. Abundant (estimated that it could produce 16% of worlds energy.) 3. Pollution free (except during construction) 4. Relatively consistent (unlike wind that is inconsistent and is highly concentrated in certain areas depending on the topography.) 5. Water is a free resource 6. Presents no difficulty to migrating aquatic animals (avoidable) Disadvantages 1. Disturbance/Destruction to marine life (effect wave climate that effects shallow/shore plant life) 2. Expensive to construct (estimated 1.2 billion dollars.) 3. Reliability(have not been around long so we do not know long term reliability) 4. Recreational costs (visual impact, sport fishing, swimming, etc.) 5. Cost of Maintenance Higher 6. Power transmission from offshore facilities harder 7. Power quality (waves fluctuation) WIND ENERGY Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into useful form, such as electricity, using wind turbines. In windmills, wind energy is directly used to crush grain or to pump water. At the end of 2007, worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was 94.1 gigawatts. Although wind currently produces just over 1% of world-wide electricity use, it accounts for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 9% in Spain and Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland (2007 data). Globally, wind power generation increased more than fivefold between 2000 and 2007. India ranks 4th in the world with a total wind power capacity of 6,270 MW in 2006, or 3% of all electricity produced in India. The World Wind Energy Conference in New Delhi in November 2006 has given additional impetus to the Indian wind industry. The wind farm near Muppandal, Tamil Nadu, India, provides an impoverished village with energy. India

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key based Suzlon Energy is one of the world's largest wind turbine manufacturers. Wind power is produced in large scale wind farms connected to electrical grids, as well as in individual turbines for providing electricity to isolated locations.
World total (MW) 59,091 74,223 93,849

DEFINITION- WIND ENERGY The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into other forms of energy, either mechanical energy or electrical energy. 1. wind energy turns the rotor ... 2. This turns a generator, often through gearing... 3. This generates electricity. 4. Some wind turbines have a narrow "effective operating range". Wind energy is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, cleans, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions when it displaces fossil-fuel-derived electricity. The intermittency of wind seldom creates insurmountable problems when using wind power to supply a low proportion of total demand, but it presents extra costs when wind is to be used for a large fraction of demand.
Fig.1.30. Map of world wind

ELECTRICITY GENERATED BY WIND TURBINE All moving objects contain kinetic energy. The kinetic energy contained in wind can be transferred to other objects, such as boat sails, or transformed into electrical energy through wind turbine generators. Wind blows over the angled blades and results in a turning force. The force will turn the shaft, gearbox and generator, which are all connected. The gearbox increases the rotational speed, enabling the generator to produce electricity. The yaw control would turn the rotor and nacelle to face the wind.

Components of wind turbine

Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to "lift" and rotate. Brake: A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in emergencies. Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph because they might be damaged by the high winds. Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes. Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity. High-speed shaft: Drives the generator. Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute. Nacelle: The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on. Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity. Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor. Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity. Wind direction: This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the wind. Other turbines are designed to run "downwind," facing away from the wind. Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind. Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive; the wind blows the rotor downwind. Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive. WORKING PRINCIPLES OF WIND TURBINES Wind is the motion of the atmosphere, which is a fluid. As the wind approaches an airfoil-shaped object, the velocity changes as the fluid passes the object, creating a pressure gradient from one side of the object to the other. This pressure gradient creates a net force on one side of the object, causing it to move in the fluid. When wind hits the airfoil-shaped blade of a turbine, the lift force that is created causes the blade to rotate about the main shaft. The main shaft is connected to an electric generator. When the rotor spins due to forces from the wind, the generator creates electricity that can be fed directly into the electric grid or into a system of batteries. It has also been used to capture energy from the wind. Drag mechanisms consist of flat or cup-shaped devices that turn the rotor. The wind simply pushes the device around the main shaft. Anemometers used to measure wind speed are often drag devices, as are traditional farm windmills. Airplane propeller analysis relies upon the axial momentum theory, which is based on energy, momentum, and mass conservation laws. This theory has been applied to wind turbines as well. The power (Pw) of a fluid passing across an area perpendicular to the flow is

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key

Where, is the air density, A is the disk area perpendicular to the wind, Vw is the wind speed passing through the disk area. TYPES OF WIND TURBINES 1. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) 2. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) 3. Offshore Turbine 1. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Drag is the main force Nacelle is placed at the bottom Yaw mechanism is not required Lower starting torque Difficulty in mounting the turbine Unwanted fluctuations in the power output

Fig.1.32. Vertical axis wind turbine

2. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Lift is the main force Much lower cyclic stresses 95% of the existing turbines are HAWTs Nacelle is placed at the top of the tower Yaw mechanism is required

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key

Fig.1.33. HAWT-Downwind turbine

Fig.1.34. HAWT-Upwind turbine

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key 3. Offshore Turbines More wind speeds Less noise pollution Less visual impact Difficult to install and maintain Energy losses due long distance transport Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind energy Advantages 1. Wind energy is fueled by the wind, so it's a clean fuel source. Wind energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. 2. Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gasses. 3. Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind, which can't be used up. 4. Wind is actually a form of solar energy; winds are caused by the heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the rotation of the earth, and the earth's surface irregularities. . Disadvantages 1. Wind power must compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis. 2. Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10 years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators. 3. The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that the wind is intermittent and it does not always blow when electricity is needed. 11)b) Distributed generation INTRODUCTION Electricity demand is growing in all the countries of the world. The electric utility installed capacity in the world, at present, is about 3100000MW and to meet the increasing demand about 80000MW of new capacity has to be added every year. In India the utility installed capacity is about 118GW at present and is expected to increases by at least 55 every year in the coming years. The situation in many other countries is almost similar. Another phenomenon taking place everywhere is power system deregulation and opening up of competition. This is likely to compel the generating companies to set up small generating plants close to the customers. This system of generation is called decentralized or Distributed generation. The significant applications of DG systems include backup generator utility grid enhancement, peak saving, load management etc. It has been estimated that DG, in the world, would be about 20% in near future

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key The DG systems are small in size, less than 10MW and typically 1 or 2MW.They feed into the distribution system directly and may be installed by the utility or by big consumers. They may be of any type but are most likely to be solar plants or wind energy plants. ADVANTAGES OF DG SYSTEMS DG systems offer promise to help in modernization and improvement of electric distribution systems. The advantages will accrue to the utility, consumer as well as commercial power producers and can be summarized as under; a. Advantages for utilities Transmission capacity relief Distribution capacity relief Hedge against high market prices Grid investment deferment Improved grid asset utilization Improved grid reliability VAR support Voltage support Contingency reserves Energy and load management b. Advantages for consumers Efficient use of energy from combined heat and electricity Improved reliability by having backup generation Incentives from utility to provide capacity reserve Low cost electricity Improved power quality c. Advantages for commercial power producer Power market Ancillary service market. DG SYSTEM ENEGY SOURCES DG system energy sources can be classified into conventional and non conventional. The conventional sources include combustion turbines, reciprocating engines, micro turbines and fuel cells. Natural gas and petroleum are used for these forms of DG. However there is growing trend towards using non conventional sources. This is, evidently, due to the fact that natural gas and petroleum sources are fast depleting and also due to growing environmental concerns. Biomass, solar and wind energy distributed generation systems are being increasingly added to the grids and this and trend will continue in future. The non-conventional energy sources have the disadvantage of high investment cost. A significant part of this investment cost is the cost of power electronic interface.

APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key APPLICATIONS OF DG YSTEMS Local voltage regulation Frequency responsive spinning reserve Power factor correction Fault current limitation Congestion management Circuit isolation islanding Intelligent power scheduling Power leveling and peak shaving Power quality services Load shedding Unit commitment Power flow control 12)a)i)Need for energy conservation Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be achieved through efficient energy use, in which case energy use is decreased while achieving a similar outcome, or by reduced consumption of energy services. Energy conservation may result in increase of financial capital, environmental value, national security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are direct consumers of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy costs and promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit. Electrical energy conservation is an important element of energy policy. Energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita and thus offsets some of the growth in energy supply needed to keep up with population growth. This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the most preferred methods of energy production. By reducing emissions, energy conservation is an important part of lessening climate change. Energy conservation facilitates the replacement of non-renewable resources with renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages, and is a more environmentally benign alternative to increased energy production

12)a)ii) An energy audit is a preliminary activity towards instituting energy efficiency programs in an establishment. It consists of activities that seek to identify conservation opportunities preliminary to the development of an energy savings program.

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key The Role of an Energy Audit To institute the correct energy efficiency programs, you have to know first which areas in your establishment unnecessarily consume too much energy, e.g. which is the most cost-effective to improve. An energy audit identifies where energy is being consumed and assesses energy saving opportunities - so you get to save money where it counts the most. Contents of an Audit An energy audit seeks to document things that are sometimes ignored in the plant, such as the energy being used on site per year, which processes use the energy, and the opportunities for savings. In so doing, it assesses the effectiveness of management structure for controlling energy use and implementing changes. The energy audit action plan lists the steps and sets the preliminary budget for the energy management program. 1. Analysis of energy use Identifying where energy is used is useful because it identifies which areas the audit should focus on and raises awareness of energy use and cost. The results of the analysis can be used in the review of management structures and procedures for controlling energy use. Important Points to Consider When Collecting Site Load Data 2. Identification of energy projects Opportunities for energy savings can range from the simplest, such as lighting retrofits, to the most complex such as the installation of a cogeneration plant. The important thing to remember is to focus on major energy users and areas. Always apply the 80/20 rule, focus on opportunities that provide 80% of the saving but require 20% input. After the preliminary identification of opportunities, spend more time on those which have shorter payback periods. 3. Cost benefit analysis The identified energy conservation opportunities should be analyzed in terms of the costs of implementing the project versus the benefits that can be gained. If you want to, say, install a heat plate exchanger to recover waste heat, you need to calculate the total cost of installation and compare that with the savings you will derive from recovering waste heat. It makes sense to go on with the project if there is a net positive benefit from the project. 4. Action plan to set implementation priority

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key After passing the cost benefit test, an action plan should be developed to ensure that the opportunities identified are implemented. The action plan should include all the major steps for implementing the opportunity as well as the people responsible. Furthermore, there should be a plan for monitoring the results. 12)b)i) After the introduction of Available Based Tariff (ABT) by the Power Ministry of India in the year 2003, the state electricity boards are encouraging the industrial units by giving incentives for maintaining power factor close to unity. Power factor can be improved by the following methods.
Installingstaticpowercapacitors. Operatingsynchronousmotorinoverexcitedcondition. InstallingstaticVARcompensators.

Above three Static capacitor is a commonly used method since it has various advantages:
Lossesarelessthan0.5%oftherating. Easytoinstall,operateandmaintain. Longlifeandgreaterreliabilitysinceithasnomovingparts. Canbelocatedclosetoinductiveload. ReducesKVAdemand,T&DlossesandIRloss. Reducedownsidecapacityofequipment.

Advantages of Power factor improvement:

Methods of power factor compensation: Centralized/Group Compensation. Distributed/Individual Compensation. Mixed Compensation.

12)b)ii power quality& the important parameters of power quality: The power quality means the supply of power within the permitted values of voltages &frequency and without any distortion of sinusoidal waveform in balanced condition. Power quality mainly deals with the following four important parameters of power supply Frequency Voltage Harmonics Power Supply disturbances such as Sag, Swells, Transients, Flickers, Interruption, Outages, etc Voltage sags

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key It is defined as a decreased in RMS voltage or current at the power frequency followed by a rapid return to initial value. The voltage dips and saga are caused by ground faults, energizing heavy loads etc. The problem caused due to the voltage sags includes shutting of the equipments, motor starters and contractors, loss of data and damage to equipment. Voltage swell An increased in RMS voltage or current at the power frequency for duration from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute is known as voltage swell. Voltage Transients These are very short duration over voltages usually associated with lightning impulses or switching transients. These can result in a feeder outage. Flickers The variation of input voltage that is in sufficient duration to allow visual observation of a change in electric light source intensity. Interruption It is defined by most of utility industry as a loss of power for 5 minutes or more. Outage A long term power interruption is called as blockout. Power interruption with duration longer than 1 to 5 minutes is called outage. 13)a)i) Sodium vapor lamp A sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp which uses sodium in an excited state to produce light. There are two varieties of such lamps: low pressure and high pressure. High pressure Sodium vapor lamp

Theory of operation An amalgam of metallic sodium and mercury lies at the coolest part of the lamp and provides the sodium and mercury vapor in which the arc is drawn. The temperature of the amalgam is determined to a great extent by lamp power. The higher the lamp power, the higher will be the amalgam temperature. The higher the temperature of the amalgam, the higher will be the mercury and sodium vapor pressures in the lamp. An increase in these metal pressures will cause a decrease in the electrical resistance of the lamp.

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key For a given voltage, there are generally three modes of operation: The lamp is extinguished and no current flows. The lamp is operating with liquid amalgam in the tube. The lamp is operating with all amalgam evaporated. The first and last states are stable, because the lamp resistance is weakly related to the voltage, but the second state is unstable. Any anomalous increase in current will cause an increase in power, causing an increase in amalgam temperature, which will cause a decrease in resistance, which will cause a further increase in current. This will create a runaway effect, and the lamp will jump to the high-current state (#3). Since actual lamps are not designed to handle this much power, this would result in catastrophic failure. Similarly, an anomalous drop in current will drive the lamp to extinction. It is the second state which is the desired operating state of the lamp, because a slow loss of the amalgam over time from a reservoir will have less effect on the characteristics of the lamp than a fully evaporated amalgam. The result is an average lamp life in excess of 20,000 hours In practical use, the lamp is powered by an AC voltage source in series with inductive "ballast" in order to supply a nearly constant current to the lamp, rather than a constant voltage, thus assuring stable operation. The ballast is usually inductive rather than simply being resistive which minimizes resistive losses. Also, since the lamp effectively extinguishes at each zerocurrent point in the AC cycle, the inductive ballast assists in the reignition by providing a voltage spike at the zero-current point. High pressure sodium lamps are quite efficient about 100 lm/W, up to 150 lm/W, when measured for photopic lighting conditions. They have been widely used for outdoor lighting such as streetlights and security lighting. 13)a)ii)r=12.247 cos =0.408 illumination at each corner = CP/r2* cos =1.361 lux 13)b)i) Design of heating element Normally, the wires of circular cross section or rectangular cross section ribbons are used as heating element. Under steady state condition. A heating element dissipates as much heat from its surface as it receives the power from the electric supply. Power input P=Heat dissipated Heat dissipated according to Stefan's law 4 4 4 2 ---------1 2 1 Electrical input=V2/R R=l/a= l / (d2/4)=4l/ d2 for a circular wire Electrical input P=V2/(4l/ d2 )= d2V2 / 4l l/d2= V2 / 4P ---------------------------- 2 Surface area S=dl Heat dissipated= d l H Since at steady temperature Power input P=Heat dissipated

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key P =dlH d V /4l =dlH d / l2 = 4 H / V2 ----------------------- 3 Solving expression 2 and 3 length and diameter of wire can be determined. For ribbon type of conductor let is the width and t is the thickness. Electrical input P=V2/R=V2/(l/ a )= V2 /( l/ t) = V2t / l 2 l / t = V / P Since at steady temperature Power input P=Heat dissipated (2 l H) V2 /( l/ t)= 2 l H t / l2 = 2 H / V2 ------------------------------------- 4 So by solving the two equations 3 and 4, length l and width for a ribbon of thickness t will be evaluated. 13)b)ii) WELDING TRANSFORMER - A.C SUPPLY In tapped reactor method, output current is regulated by taps on the reactor. This has limited number of current settings.
2 2

In the moving coil method of current control, relative distance between primary and secondary windings is changed. When coils are more separated out current is less.

In magnetic shunt method, position of central magnetic shunt can be adjusted. This changes the magnitude of shunt flux and therefore, output current. When central core is more inside, load current will be less and vice versa.

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key In continuously variable reactor method, output current is controlled by varying the height of the reactor. Greater the core insertion, greater the reactance and less the output current. Reverse is true for less height of core insertion

In saturable reactor method, the reactance of the reactor is adjusted by changing the value of d.c excitation obtained from bridge rectifiers by means of rheostat. When d.c current in the central winding of reactor is more, reactor approaches magnetic saturation. This means the reactance of reactor becomes less. Vice versa happens on the decrease of d.c excitation.

Rectifier bridge Rheostat

Saturable reactor Sy A.C Supply Py

14)a)i) TRACTION MOTOR CONTROL The control of traction motors for starting and for smooth acceleration is very much essential to avoid damage to the motors. The control equipment is provided for manual and automatic operation. Usually a master controller is used for the purpose. 1. D.C series motor control or plain rheostat control 2. Series Parallel control i. Open circuit transition ii. Shunt transition control iii. Bridge transition control 3. Metadyne control 4. Multiple unit control

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key

14)a)ii) MECHANICS OF TRAIN MOVEMENT

Fig.4.4.Transmissionoftractiveeffort

How traction motor produces tractive effort at the train wheel is shown in fig.4.4. Armature of the driving motor drives pinion which meshes with gear wheel keyed to the driving axle. Let, T=the torque exerted by motor F=the tractive effort exerted by driving wheel F=the tractive effort exerted by the pinion d= diameter of pinion in meter d= diameter of gear wheel in meter D= diameter of driving wheel in meter Tractive effort exerted by the pinion

= Efficiency of transmission of power from motor to driving axle

Coefficient of adhesion The above equation suggests that tractive effort at the driving wheels can be increased by increasing the torque exerted by the motor. This is possible up to a certain limit after which any increase in the motor torque does not increase the tractive effort but causes driving wheels to slip. It has been found that the maximum value of tractive effort

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key at which driving wheels will not slip, depends upon the dead weight over the driving axle. F W F = W if F is expressed in Newton and W in tonnes Where, is called the coefficient of adhesion Coefficient of adhesion in electric train is greater than steam traction due to the following two reasons. 1. In electric traction the torque exerted is continuous whereas in steam engine the torque is pulsating which causes jolting and skidding. In electric traction the driving wheels are distributed over a much greater length whereas steam engine they are close to each other 14)b) RECENT TRENDS IN ELECTRIC TRACTION The modern trend is towards the use of d.c motors (both separately excited and d.c series motors) equipped with thyristor control. The operating voltages are 600V or 1,000V. Braking employed are mechanical, rheostatic and regenerative, Thyristorised converters provide accurate control and fast response. Main advantages of thyristor control are the absence of bulky on load tap changer and electro magnetic devices, saving of energy, notch less control, incease in pulling ability of the motive power, and minimum wear and tear because of absence of conventional moving parts in the motor control circuits. In electric traction, it is desirable that the train accelerates and decelerates at a constant rate for the comfort of the passengers. Using thyristors, this objective can be met in the following way: When the speed goes down during braking the generator voltage decreases. For a particular braking torque a particular armature current is required. This is achieved by increasing the field excitation to a relatively high value. If, however, the generator voltage exceeds the supply voltage, in dynamic braking, this increase is permissible as the armature is not connected to the supply and the energy of the generator can be dissipated in the braking resistors, external resistances in series with the armature are connected in case of regenerative braking to absorb the voltage difference between the armature voltage and supply voltage. With this, of course, part of the generated power is wasted in the external resistors and the efficiency of the overall system is decreased. Various methods of speed control and electric braking employing thyristors have already been studied in power electronic subjects.

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key

From catenary

Anti-parallel full converters

To Rail

Fig.4.25 Thyristorised DC Electric traction system

In addition to ordinary phase control methods, cycle selection methods of control of SCR for varying the voltage applied to the traction motors are also employed. In this

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APR/MAY-'08/EE1451-Answer Key method the required average voltage is obtained by accepting or rejecting a certain numbers of complete half cycles. In practice, at the start only one half out of eight is accepted and as the speed builds up, it is gradually raised to 2/8, 3/8 and finally 8/18 for full power operation. This method is advantageous due to low frequency harmonics, low rate of rise of current, better power factor etc. In chopper control of traction motors, at start, the on period of pulse is kept very short which lengthens during the period of controlled acceleration. Thus the average voltage applied across the traction motors is gradually increased keeping the mean value of the input current close to the desired value. Fig.4.25 shows a typical thyritorised dc traction system supplying a group of four separately excited motors. The armatures are supplied from half controlled bridge converters. However, it is desirable to feed the field windings through fully controlled bridge converters so as to reduce the ripple in the field current. Low ripple in the field current ensures low iron losses in the machines. However, if regenerative braking is required then the armature should be supplied from fully controlled bridges. Freewheeling diodes are connected as illustrated to ensure good waveform of armature current. The armatures are connected in series parallel arrangement to ensure good starting and running characteristics. It is seen that armatures are supplied by three bridges connected in series. For starting first only bridge A is triggered and firing angle is advanced as speed builds up. When bridge A is fully conducting (i.e. when =0), bridge B is triggered and then bridge C is triggered. During starting field currents are set to maximum to provide high starting torque. The use of three bridges ensures better power factor than would be possible with a single bridge. 15)a) MOTOR SELECTION AND RELATED FACTORS 1. Nature of electric supply 2. Types of drive 3. Nature of loads 4. Electrical characteristics 1. Transient characteristics : starting and braking 2. Steady state characteristics: Running 3. Speed control 5. Mechanical consideration 1. Type of enclosure 2. Bearing 3. Transmission of power 4. Noise level 6. Service capacity 1. Continuous intermittent or variable load cycle 2. Over load capacity and maximum torque 7. Appearance 8. Cost 1. Capital cost 2. Running cost

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15)b)Various methods of speed control of Industrial drive: i)Constant torque applications ii)Variable torque applications DC Variable drive Speed control of induction motors a)AC Variable frequency drive b)Slip power recovery drives

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