Analysis of SIGMUND FREUD Articles

Submitted By: Nanditha Jagadish : 50095

Analysis of SIGMUND FREUD Articles

Nishita Sharma INTRODUCTION

: 50099

Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Freud is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression, and for creating the clinical method of psychoanalysis for investigating the mind and treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud established sexual drives as the primary motivational forces of human life, developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association, discovered the phenomenon of transference in the therapeutic relationship and established its central role in the analytic process; he interpreted dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. For the genius that Freud was, we decided to analyze what people have to say about him over the generations. We have done this analysis based on a few articles that have been chosen from various sources that have been cited. We have thoroughly reviewed each article. Each review follows a certain framework. The article is given for perusal, after which there is an: 1. Introduction 2. Analysis 3. Conclusion The articles have been thoroughly analyzed and a conclusion is drawn from each article.

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ANALYSIS
1.

The first article for the analysis is as follows:

Sigmund Freud - The Sole Scientist if the Field of Psychology

This is the 150th Birth Anniversary year of Sigmund Freud. He was the first and sole scientist in the field of psychology. After him many psychiatrists and psychoanalysts have come. But none could get entry to the Hall of Fame of Scientists. In the field of physics there are world famous scientists like Sir Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein and some more. Likewise, in other branches of knowledge and sciences too there is no dearth of great names. In the science of human mind there is Sigmund Freud and none else. Mankind is immensely indebted to Alexander Fleming for inventing penicillin, the wonder drug for treating bacterial infections. For a diseased mind there is Sigmund Freud and mankind is much more indebted to him. It is a different matter that mankind has either understood him very little or completely misunderstood him. The common opinions about Sigmund Freud and his contributions to the science of psychology can be summed up in one word sex. There can not be a more erroneous idea. Definitely, Sigmund Freuds contributions in understanding sex and sexual relationship are path breaking. In the process he freed humanity from guilt complex. If not for anything else, simply for this mankind should be grateful to him. But Freuds researches go much broader and deeper. He explored the dark and grey areas of human mind. Ironically he never had an inkling of an idea that he would one day enter the field in which he became an undisputed master. Sigmund Freud was a medical graduate and a practicing doctor. His specialization was not psychiatry at that time. A particular case of his friend and mentor created interest in psychoanalysis in him. However, that is immaterial here. His first finding was about male hysteria. The egoistic male thought that hysteria is a mental disease of women exclusively. Even great doctors were no exception. The very name hysteria has its origin in the Greek word uster meaning the womb. The doctors thought that the changes
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in the positions of the womb made women emotionally unstable and extreme conditions of emotional disturbance and loss of emotional equilibrium is a result of that. But Sigmund Freud found some thing new and shocking. He found out that hysteria is a mental condition of not only women but also men. His association with Dr. Charcot, a famous French physician in Paris, confirmed his findings about male hysteria. When he presented his paper on male hysteria in Vienna, the then medical capital of Europe, the entire medical community rejected it. Now even a school boy knows they were wrong. Sigmund Freud could delve deep into the human mind by hypnotizing his patients. Human mind can be divided into two parts: the conscious and the subconscious. If the subconscious mind can be compared to a dark cave full of secrets, the conscious mind is like the entrance of the cave, a miniscule portion of the cave. Man himself is not aware of the secrets of his subconscious mind. By hypnotism, Sigmund Freud could bring out, through the words of the patients themselves, the problems lurking over there which make them behave in abnormal ways. Like a true scientist, Sigmund Freud was truly objective. He took down his observations while treating his patients very meticulously and studied those deeply and brought out epoch making works on psychology. Though he showed humanity that sex is a very natural biological impulse that can come between two opposite sexual beings irrespective of their social relationship, (remember Oedipus Complex?), he never meant to be licentious in sexual behaviour. He lived for more than ninety years and remained loyal to his wife throughout his life time. Freudian theory of sex never justifies debauchery. Sigmund Freud was the first man who tried to and did give a scientific foundation to the study of human mind. And his works are to be studied, as one studies any branch of science, objectively and with a scientific mind. That is the tribute we can pay to Sigmund Freud in his 150th Birth Anniversary. Source: ArticlesGratuits.com - Free Articles

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1. Introduction
The article talks primarily about who Sigmund Freud was and how his discoveries have been significant over the years. Written on his 150th birth anniversary as a tribute to him, the article acknowledges Freud as one of the few to get an entry to the Hall of Fame of Scientists. The author has tried to put across Freud as one of the greatest scientists of all times and has made a mention of Freuds discoveries to support his opinion.

2. Analysis
This article talks about Freuds findings in a nutshell. He said that the human mind could be divided into A subconscious mind comparable to a dark cave full of secrets A conscious mind comparable to the caves entrance Freud used hypnotism to delve deep into the human minds. A doctor by profession, Freud still looked beyond practicality and science. In the time where the purpose of most inventions for human beings was to cure diseases of the human body, his focus was the human mind of which explored the dark and grey areas. Freud comes across as someone who did not pay much attention to the societal norms and traditions; he rather based his observations on them. His path breaking contribution to the understanding of sex and sexual relationship surely seems the fall out of the same. Even his early findings about male hysteria proved everyone else in his profession wrong.

3. Conclusion
We conclude that Freud was the only and the greatest scientists of all times in the field of psychology. Through his dedicated research, he showed humanity that sex is a very natural biological impulse that can come between two opposite sexual beings irrespective of their social behavior, thereby
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freeing humanity from guilt complex. He was the first man who tried to and did give a scientific foundation to the study of human mind. And his works are to be studied, as one studies any branch of science, objectively and with a scientific mind.
2.

The second article is as follows:

"The Structure of the Unconscious" Sigmund Freud

Conscious, Unconscious, Preconscious The starting point for this investigation is provided by a fact without parallel, which defies all explanation or description--the fact of consciousness. Nevertheless, if anyone speaks of consciousness, we know immediately and from our own most personal experience what is meant by it. Many people, both inside and outside the science of psychology, are satisfied with the assumption that consciousness alone is mental, and nothing then remains for psychology but to discriminate in the phenomenology of the mind between perceptions, feelings, intellective processes and volitions. It is generally agreed, however, that these conscious processes do not form unbroken series which are complete in themselves; so that there is no alternative to assuming that there are physical or somatic processes which accompany the mental ones and which must admittedly be more complete than the mental series, since some of them have conscious processes parallel to them but others have not. It thus seems natural to lay the stress in psychology upon these somatic processes, to see in them the true essence of what is mental and to try to arrive at some other assessment of the conscious processes. The majority of philosophers, however, as well as many other people, dispute this position and declare that the notion of a mental thing being unconscious is self-contradictory. But it is precisely this that psychoanalysis is obliged to assert, and this is its second fundamental hypothesis. It explains the supposed somatic accessory

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processes as being what is essentially mental and disregards for the moment the quality of consciousness.... We are soon led to make an important division in this unconscious. Some processes become conscious easily; they may then cease to be conscious, but can become conscious once more without any trouble: as people say, they can be reproduced or remembered. This reminds us that consciousness is in general a very highly fugitive condition. What is conscious is conscious only for a moment. If our perceptions do not confirm this, the contradiction is merely an apparent one. It is explained by the fact that the stimuli of perception can persist for some time so that in the course of it the perception of them can be repeated. The whole position can be clearly seen from the conscious perception of our intellective processes; it is true that these may persist, but they may just as easily pass in a flash. Everything unconscious that behaves in this way, that can easily exchange the unconscious condition for the conscious one, is therefore better described as "capable of entering consciousness," or as preconscious. Experience has taught us that there are hardly any mental processes, even of the most complicated kind, which cannot on occasion remain preconscious, although as a rule they press forward, as we say, into consciousness. There are other mental processes or mental material which have no such easy access to consciousness, but which must be inferred, discovered, and translated into conscious form in the manner that has been described. It is for such material that we reserve the name of the unconscious proper. Thus we have attributed three qualities to mental processes: they are either conscious, preconscious, or unconscious. The division between the three classes of material which have these qualities is neither absolute nor permanent. What is preconscious becomes conscious, as we have seen, without any activity on our part; what is unconscious can, as a result of our efforts, be made conscious, though in the process we may have an impression that we are overcoming what are often very strong resistances. When we make an attempt of this kind upon someone else, we ought not to forget that the conscious filling up of the breaks in his perceptions--the construction which we are offering him--does not so far mean that we have made conscious in him the unconscious material in question. All that is so far true is that the material is present in his mind in two versions, first in the conscious reconstruction that he has just received and secondly in its original unconscious condition.

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Id, Ego, Super-ego [The id is] . . . a chaos, a cauldron of seething excitement. We suppose that it is somewhere in direct contact with somatic processes, and takes over from them instinctual needs and gives them mental expression, but we cannot say in what substratum this contact is made. These instincts fill it with energy, but it has no organisation and no unified will, only an impulsion to obtain satisfaction for the instinctual needs, in accordance With the pleasureprinciple. The laws of logic-- above all, the law of contradiction--do not hold for processes in the id. Contradictory impulses exist side by side without neutralising each other or drawing apart; at most they combine in compromise formations under the overpowering economic pressure towards discharging their energy. There is nothing in the id which can be compared to negation, and we are astonished to find in it an exception to the philosophers' assertion that space and time are necessary forms of our mental acts. In the id there is nothing corresponding to the idea of time, no recognition of the passage of time, and (a thing which is very remarkable and awaits adequate attention in philosophic thought) no alteration of mental processes by the passage of time. Conative impulses which have never got beyond the id, and even impressions which have been pushed down into the id by repression, are virtually immortal and are preserved for whole decades as though they had only recently occurred. They can only be recognised as belonging to the past, deprived of their significance, and robbed of their charge of energy, after they have been made conscious by the work of analysis, and no small part of the therapeutic effect of analytic treatment rests upon this fact. It is constantly being borne in upon me that we have made far too little use of our theory of the indubitable fact that the repressed remains unaltered by the passage of time. This seems to offers us the possibility of an approach to some really profound truths. But I myself have made no further progress here. Naturally, the id knows no values, no good and evil, no morality. The economic, or, if you prefer, the quantitative factor, which is so closely bound up with the pleasure- principle, dominates all its processes. Instinctual cathexes seeking discharge,--that, in our view, is all that the id contains. It seems, indeed, as if the energy of these instinctual impulses is in a different condition from that in which it is found in the other regions of the mind. It must be far more fluid and more capable of being discharged, for otherwise
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we should not have those displacements and condensations, which are so characteristic of the id and which are so completely independent of the qualities of what is cathected.... As regards a characterization of the ego, in so far as it is to be distinguished from the id and the super-ego, we shall get on better if we turn our attention to the relation between it and the most superficial portion of the mental apparatus; which we call the Pcpt-cs (perceptual-conscious) system. This system is directed on to the external world, it mediates perceptions of it, and in it is generated, while it is functioning, the phenomenon of consciousness. It is the sense-organ of the whole apparatus, receptive, moreover, not only of excitations from without but also of such as proceed from the interior of the mind. One can hardly go wrong in regarding the ego as that part of the id which has been modified by its proximity to the external world and the influence that the latter has had on it, and which serves the purpose of receiving stimuli and protecting the organism from them, like the cortical layer with which a particle of living substance surrounds itself. This relation to the external world is decisive for the ego. The ego has taken over the task of representing the external world for the id, and so of saving it; for the id, blindly striving to gratify its instincts in complete disregard of the superior strength of outside forces, could not otherwise escape annihilation. In the fulfilment of this function, the ego has to observe the external world and preserve a true picture of it in the memory traces left by its perceptions, and, by means of the reality-test, it has to eliminate any element in this picture of the external world which is a contribution from internal sources of excitation. On behalf of the id, the ego controls the path of access to motility, but it interpolates between desire and action the procrastinating factor of thought, during which it makes use of the residues of experience stored up in memory. In this way it dethrones the pleasure- principle, which exerts undisputed sway over the processes in the id, and substitutes for it the reality-principle, which promises greater security and greater success. The relation to time, too, which is so hard to describe, is communicated to the ego by the perceptual system; indeed it can hardly be doubted that the mode in which this system works is the source of the idea of time. What, however, especially marks the ego out in contradistinction to the id, is a tendency to synthesise its contents, to bring together and unify its mental processes which is entirely absent from the id. When we come to deal presently with the instincts in mental life, I hope we shall succeed in tracing this fundamental characteristic of the ego to its source. It is this alone that
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produces that high degree of organisation which the ego needs for its highest achievements. The ego advances from the function of perceiving instincts to that of controlling them, but the latter is only achieved through the mental representative of the instinct becoming subordinated to a larger organisation, and finding its place in a coherent unity. In popular language, we may say that the ego stands for reason and circumspection, while the id stands for the untamed passions.... The proverb tells us that one cannot serve two masters at once. The poor ego has a still harder time of it; it has to serve three harsh masters, and has to do its best to reconcile the claims and demands of all three. These demands are always divergent and often seem quite incompatible; no wonder that the ego so frequently gives way under its task. The three tyrants are the external world, the super-ego and the id. When one watches the efforts of the ego to satisfy them all, or rather, to obey them all simultaneously, one cannot regret having personified the ego, and established it as a separate being. It feels itself hemmed in on three sides and threatened by three kinds of danger, towards which it reacts by developing anxiety when it is too hard pressed. Having originated in the experiences of the perceptual system, it is designed to represent the demands of the external world, but it also wishes to be a loyal servant of the id, to remain upon good terms with the id, to recommend itself to the id as an object, and to draw the id's libido on to itself. In its attempt to mediate between the id and reality, it is often forced to clothe the Ucs. commands of the id with its own Pcs. rationalisations, to gloss over the conflicts between the id and reality, and with diplomatic dishonesty to display a pretended regard for reality, even when the id persists in being stubborn and uncompromising. On the other hand, its every movement is watched by the severe super-ego, which holds up certain norms of behaviour, without regard to any difficulties coming from the id and the external world; and if these norms are not acted up to, it punishes the ego with the feelings of tension which manifest themselves as a sense of inferiority and guilt. In this way, goaded on by the id, hemmed in by the super-ego, and rebuffed by reality, the ego struggles to cope with its economic task of reducing the forces and influences which work in it and upon it to some kind of harmony; and we may well understand how it is that we so often cannot repress the cry: "Life is not easy." When the ego is forced to acknowledge its weakness, it breaks out into anxiety: reality anxiety in face of the external world, normal anxiety in face of the superego, and neurotic anxiety in face of the strength of the passions in the id.

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I have represented the structural relations within the mental personality, as I have explained them to you, in a simple diagram, which I here reproduce. You will observe how the super-ego goes down into the id; as the heir to the Oedipus complex it has, after all, intimate connections with the id. It lies further from the perceptual system than the ego. The id only deals with the external world through the medium of the ego, at least in this diagram. It is certainly still too early to say how far the drawing is correct; in one respect I know it is not. The space taken up by the unconscious id ought to be incomparably greater than that given to the ego or to the preconscious. You must, if you please, correct that in your imagination. And now, in concluding this certainly rather exhausting and perhaps not very illuminating account, I must add a warning. When you think of this dividing up of the personality into ego, super-ego and id, you must not imagine sharp dividing lines such as are artificially drawn in the field of political geography. We cannot do justice to the characteristics of the mind by means of linear contours, such as occur in a drawing or in a primitive painting, but we need rather the areas of colour shading off into one another that are to be found in modern pictures. After we have made our separations, we must allow what we have separated to merge again. Do not judge too harshly of a first attempt at picturing a thing so elusive as the human mind. It is very probable that the extent of these differentiations varies very greatly from person to person; it is possible that their function itself may vary, and that they may at times undergo a process of involution. This seems to be particularly true of the most insecure and, from the phylogenetic point of view, the most recent of them, the differentiation between the ego and the superego. It is also incontestable that the same thing can come about as a result of mental disease. It can easily be imagined, too, that certain practices of mystics may succeed in upsetting the normal relations between the different regions of the mind, so that, for example, the perceptual system becomes able to grasp relations in the deeper layers of the ego and in the id which would otherwise be inaccessible to it. Whether such a procedure can put one in possession of ultimate truths, from which all good will flow, may be safely doubted. All the same, we must admit that the therapeutic efforts of psycho-analysis have chosen much the same method of approach. For their object is to strengthen the ego, to make it more independent of the superego, to widen its field of vision, and so to extend its organisation that it can take over new portions of the id. Where id was, there shall ego be.

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It is reclamation work, like the draining of the Zuyder Zee. Sources: From An Outline of Psychoanalysis [1940], translated by James Strachey. N.Y.: Norton. And from New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis [1933], translated by W. J. H. Sprott. N.Y.: Norton.

1. Introduction
In this article, the author talks mainly of Psychoanalysis as given by Freud. He explains the conscious mind, the unconscious mind and the Id, Ego and Superego. Psychoanalysis is primarily the study of human psychological functioning and behavior. It can be applied to other forms of life as well and other groups generally. However, psychoanalysis mainly deals with a set of techniques to understand the underlying motives. This article consists of extracts from James Strachey and W. J. H. Sprott. The first part of the article consists of a lecture on the conscious, unconscious and preconscious. The second part has details on the id, ego and superego.

2. Analysis
In the given article, the authors have tried to talk about Sigmund Freud, his psychoanalytical theory. For this, they have first defined the three terms: conscious, unconscious and preconscious. Conscious is an umbrella term that is subjective experience, awareness or wakefulness of the main or executive control system of the mind. Unconscious is that part of the mind in which psychic activity takes place, of which the person is unaware. It is the vast, unknowable and the unexaminable part of the mind, which Freud calls a Dynamic Structure, which is conflict with itself. The unconscious is much larger than the conscious or the preconscious.

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Preconscious is applied to thoughts which are unconscious at the moment, but are not repressed and hence freely available to the consciousness later on at any stage. It is, in a nutshell, the sum of memories that one is not aware of, but which can be recalled through conscious effort. The authors further state that the division between these three classes of material is neither absolute nor permanent. What is preconscious can be made conscious through efforts. Moreover, what is unconscious can also be made conscious, albeit there might be strong resistances to overcome in these. The authors then go on to state details about id, ego and super-ego, which are the three parts of the psychic apparatus as given by Sigmund Freud. The Id consists of all the primitive energies and instincts underlying all psychic activity. The authors state that this is repressed. However, even over time, the repressed does not change. Naturally, the Id knows no morals, no values, no good, no evil and no morality. In the Id, contrary principles can exist side by side without nullifying each other. Moreover, Id is that part of the psychic apparatus which seeks to avoid pain or unpleasure aroused by increase in instinctual tension. The Id can be describes as a newborn child, in the sense that it is a mass of instinctive drives and impulses and needs immediate satisfaction. The Ego acts as the reality check or the reality-principle. It seeks to fulfill the Ids wishes in the most realistic way possible. The way forward to this can be done only be achieving goals and not lead to self destruction. The Ego forces the Id to take note of the reality. The ego, therefore, is the organized part of the mind that includes quite a few functions. The Ego is almost always forced to mediate between the Id and the Super-ego. To do this, the ego employs defense mechanisms. They can be done directly or indirectly, conscious or unconsciously. In the
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article, the authors have used the proverb, One cannot serve two masters at once. There is a third evil master in this equation, which is the external world. The ego has to serve the Id, the super-ego and the external world and try to mediate between all of these. The ego can be tensed or happy depending on the particular level of balance it achieves with all these forces. The authors further state that the human mind is elusive and mysterious, because of which there can never be a balance between all of these. The Super-ego aims for perfection. It is mainly, but not entirely unconscious. It is that part which works in complete contradiction to the Id. The super-ego strives to act in a socially acceptable manner, whereas the Id wants instant satisfaction and self gratification. Over here, the authors have talked about the Oedipus Complex, which denotes the emotions and ideas in the mind keep sin the unconscious, dynamically repressed, that concentrate upon a boys desire to kill his father and sexually possess his mother. This is because the super-ego acts as a father figure to the Id. The Oedipus Complex has long been under the critical views because of its perceived sexism, as the girl is not taken into account here. Freud goes on to mention that he believes than the human being combines characteristics of both man and woman to form one.

3. Conclusion
As we can see from the analysis, the authors have done a good job of analysis each of these terms and explaining them. Freud himself wrote das Es, das Ich and das Uver-Ich, that translates to the It, the I and the Over-I.

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The authors further go on to describe that this is reclamation work, like the draining of the Zuyder Zee. The authors also state that the object is to strengthen the ego, make it more independent of the super-ego and to widen its field of vision which can take over new portions of the Id. Where Id was, there ego shall be.

4.

The third article is as follows:

PSYCHOANALYSIS
Name given by Sigmund Freud to a system of interpretation and therapeutic treatment of psychological disorders. Psychoanalysis began after Freud studied (188586) with the French neurologist J. M. Charcot in Paris and became convinced that hysteria was caused not by organic symptoms in the nervous system but by emotional disturbance. Later, in collaboration with Viennese physician Josef Breuer, Freud wrote two papers on hysteria (1893, 1895) that were the precursors of his vast body of psychoanalytic theory. Freud used his psychoanalytic method primarily to treat clients suffering from a variety of mild mental disorders classified until recently as neuroses (see neurosis ). Freud was joined by an increasing number of students and physicians, among whom were C. G. Jung and Alfred Adler. Both made significant contributions, but by 1913 ceased to be identified with the main body of psychoanalysts because of theoretical disagreements with Freud's strong emphasis on sexual motivation. Other analysts, including Melanie Klein and Jacques Lacan, also have contributed greatly to the field. Psychoanalysis and its theoretical underpinnings have had an enormous influence on modern psychology and psychiatry and in fields as diverse as literary theory, anthropology, and film criticism. Psychoanalytic Therapy and Theory The basic postulate of psychoanalysis, the concept of a dynamic unconscious mind, grew out of Freud's observation that the physical symptoms of hysterical patients tended to disappear after apparently forgotten material was made conscious (see hysteria ). He saw the unconscious as an area of great psychic activity, which influenced personality and behavior but operated with material not subject to recall through normal mental processes.
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Freud postulated that there were a number of defense mechanisms including repression, reaction-formation, regression, displacement, and rationalizationthat protect the conscious mind from those aspects of reality it may find difficult to accept. The major defense mechanism is repression, which induced a "forgetfulness" for harsh realities. Observing the relationship between psychoneurosis and repressed memories, Freud made conscious recognition of these forgotten experiences the foundation of psychoanalytic therapy. Hypnosis was the earliest method used to probe the unconscious, but due to its limited effectiveness, it was soon discarded in favor of free association (see also hypnotism ). Dreams, which Freud interpreted as symbolic wish fulfillments, were considered a primary key to the unconscious, and their analysis was an important part of Freudian therapy. To clarify the operation of the human psyche, Freud and his followers introduced a vast body of psychoanalytic theory. In considering the human personality as a whole, Freud divided it into three functional parts: id, ego, and superego. He saw the id as the deepest level of the unconscious, dominated by the pleasure principle, with its object the immediate gratification of instinctual drives. The superego, originating in the child through an identification with parents, and in response to social pressures, functions as an internal censor to repress the urges of the id. The ego, on the other hand, is seen as a part of the id modified by contact with the external world. It is a mental agent mediating among three contending forces: the outside demands of social pressure or reality, libidinal demands for immediate satisfaction arising from the id, and the moral demands of the superego. Although considered only partly conscious, the ego constitutes the major part of what is commonly referred to as consciousness. Freud asserted that conflicts between these often-opposing components of the human mind are crucial factors in the development of neurosis. Psychoanalysis focused on early childhood, postulating that many of the conflicts which arise in the human mind develop in the first years of a person's life. Freud demonstrated this in his theory of psychosexuality, in which the libido (sexual energy) of the infant progressively seeks outlet through different body zones (oral, anal, phallic, and genital) during the first five to six years of life. Criticisms of and Changes in Freudian Psychoanalysis

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Orthodox Freudian psychoanalysis was challenged in the 1920s by Otto Rank, Sandor Ferenczi, and Wilhelm Reich; later, in the 1930s, by Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, and Harry Stack Sullivan. These critics of Freud stressed the interpersonal aspect of the analyst-patient relationship (transference), and placed more emphasis on the processes of the ego. Despite a number of detractors and a lack of controlled research, Freudian psychoanalysis remained the most widely used method of psychotherapy until at least the 1950s. Today, Freud's method is only one among many types of psychotherapy used in psychiatry. Many objections have been leveled against traditional psychoanalysis, both for its methodological rigidity and for its lack of theoretical rigor. A number of modern psychologists have pointed out that traditional psychoanalysis relies too much on ambiguities for its data, such as dreams and free associations. Without empirical evidence, Freudian theories often seem weak, and ultimately fail to initiate standards for treatment. Critics have also pointed out that Freud's theoretical models arise from a homogeneous sample groupalmost exclusively upper-class Austrian women living in the sexually repressed society of the late 19th cent. Such a sample, many psychologists contend, made Freud's focus on sex as a determinant of personality too emphatic. Other problems with traditional psychoanalysis are related to Freud's method of analysis. For Freudian analysis to reach its intended conclusions, the psychoanalyst required frequent sessions with a client over a period of years: today, the prohibitive costs of such methods compels most to seek other forms of psychiatric care. Traditional psychoanalysis involved a distancing between therapist and clientthe two did not even face each other during the sessions. In recent years, many clients have preferred a more interactive experience with the therapist. The subject matter of Freudian analysis has also fallen into disuse, even among those who still practice psychoanalysis: early childhood receives much less emphasis, and there is generally more focus on problems the client is currently experiencing. By the early 21st cent., various kinds of psychoanalysis continued to be practiced, but the theory and practice of psychoanalysis was increasingly overshadowed by cognitive psychology and discoveries in neurobiology.

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1. Introduction

The article focuses on the system of interpretation and therapeutic treatment of psychological disorders (known as psychoanalysis). The article is divided into two parts, first which talks about the Psychoanalytic Therapy and Theory and the second, which talks about the Criticisms of and Changes in Freudian Psychoanalysis. The article makes a mention of J.M. Charcot and Josef Breuer in collaboration with whom Freud wrote his papers on Hysteria. It also talks of C.G. Jung and Alfred Adler who contributed significantly to Freuds studies as students and physicians.

2. Analysis

Freud enforced the idea of psychoanalysis and its theoretical underpinnings having had an enormous influence on modern psychology and psychiatry and in fields as diverse as literary theory, anthropology, and film criticism.

In the Psychoanalytic Therapy and Theory, the basic postulate of psychoanalysis, the concept of a dynamic unconscious mind, grew out of Freuds observation that the physical symptoms of hysterical patients tended to disappear after apparently forgotten material was made conscious. He postulated that there were a number of defense mechanisms including repression, reaction-formation, regression, displacement, and rationalization that protect the conscious mind from those aspects of reality it may find difficult to express. Observing the relationship between psychoneurosis and repressed memories, Freud made conscious recognition of these forgotten experiences as foundation of psychoanalytic therapy. He also associated dreams and hypnotism with the unconscious. To introduce a vast body of pschycoanalytic theory, Freud divided the human personality into three

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functional parts: id, ego and superego. He briefly explains what the above means in this article.

Psychoanalysis focused on early childhood, postulating that many of the conflicts which arise in the human mind develop in the first years of a persons life. Freud demonstrated this in his theory of psychosexuality, in which the libido (sexual energy) of the infant progressively seeks outlet through different body zones (oral, anal, phallic, and genital) during the first five to six years of life

In Criticisms of and Changes in Freudian Psychoanalysis, the author author talks about critics to the Freudian theory like Otto Rank, Sandor Fereczi, Karen Horney etc. these critics stressed the interpersonal aspect of the analyst-patient relationship (transference), and placed more emphasis on the processes of the ego.

Talking of the present scenario, Freuds method is only one among many types of psychotherapy used in psychiatry. Traditional psychoanalysis methodological rigidity and its lack of theoretical rigor have been objected to because of its reliance on ambiguities for its data like dreams and free associations. Critics have also pointed out that Freud's theoretical models arise from a homogeneous sample group and not all sections of the society. Such a sample, many psychologists contend, made Freud's focus on sex as a determinant of personality too emphatic. Other problems with traditional psychoanalysis are related to Freud's method of analysis. For Freudian analysis to reach its intended conclusions, the psychoanalyst required frequent sessions with a client over a period of years: today, the prohibitive costs of such methods compels most to seek other forms of psychiatric care

3. Conclusion
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We conclude that traditional psychoanalysis, no matter criticized for having distanced therapists and clients, for laying more emphasis on early childhood and for being narrow in terms if its study group, it forms the foundation of any psychoanalytic theory so far. Freud, over the years, has successfully been able to cure his patients with traditional psychoanalysis. But today, various kinds of psychoanalysis continue top be practices.
4.

The last article is this:

Sigmund Freud's theories on the elements that compose an individual's personality.

In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud developed the psychodynamic view of human behavior. This model relies on the premise that human behavior is brought about by inner forces over which the individual has little control. Dreams and slips of the tongue are clues to what the individual is really thinking. We may have one point in our lives been caught speaking a Freudian slip, or slip of the tongue. For example we may have intentions of saying to a member of the opposite sex: "I believe we have not been properly introduced yet." Instead, we might accidentally say: "I believe that we have not been properly seduced yet." According to Freud such events are not just random slip ups. Rather, such slips of the tongue may be an indication of deeply felt emotions and thoughts that reside in the unconscious, a part of the personality of which a person is not aware. The unconscious is the safe haven for our recollection of painful events and also it is where we store our instinctual drives. It is in this part of the personality that infantile desires and demands are hidden from the conscious of one's personality because they would conflict with a person's day to day living. To understand the conscious and unconscious forces guiding an individual's behavior, Freud developed a personality model. He divided the personality into three elements: the id, the ego and the superego. These elements are not physical structures found in the brain, instead they represent a general model of personality that describes the interaction of various behaviors and drives that motivate us. The id refers to the raw, unorganized, inherited part of the personality. Its main goal is to reduce tension created by our primitive drives which are related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. The id operates
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according to the pleasure principle, in which its goal is immediate gratification and reduction of tension. In most people, reality prevents the id's instant demands from being fulfilled. We cannot always eat when we are hungry, and we can act on sexual drives only in the right place and time. The ego is the buffer between the id and the world's realities. The ego operates on the reality principle. In this principle, instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society. The ego is sometimes called "the executive" of an individual's personality. The ego makes the decisions, controls actions and allows for a higher capability of problem solving. The id is not capable of such higher level of thinking. The ego is responsible for the higher cognitive functions such as intelligence, thoughtfulness and learning. The superego is the final element of Freud's model of personality. It is similar to the id in that it is somewhat unrealistic. The superego represents the rights and wrongs of the society as handed down to an individual over their lifetime. The superego has two subparts: the conscience and the egoideal. The conscience prevents us from doing morally bad things. The egoideal motivates us to do what is morally proper. The superego helps to control the id's impulses, making them less selfish and more morally correct. Both the id and the superego are unrealistic in that they do not consider the actualities of society. The lack of reality within the superego, if left unchecked, would create perfectionists who would be unable to make compromises that life requires. Likewise, an unrestrained id would create a pleasure-seeking thoughtless individual, seeking to fulfill every desire without delay. It is the ego that compromises between the demands of the id and superego, permitting a person to obtain some of the gratification of the id while maintaining the superego, which would prevent such gratification. The most compelling criticisms of Freudian personality point out that this theory is created upon a lack of scientific data. There are no physical parts of a person's brain that represent these three elements of personality. Freud based his theory on a wealth of individual assessments, but no actual concrete data. Another criticism is that we can often explain behavior after the fact using Freudian concepts, but we can rarely predict behavior. Also, Freud made his observations and thus derived his theory from a limited population, primarily upper-class Austrian women living in a strict era of the 1900s. Despite the criticisms of the theory, Freudian personality has had an enormous impact on the field of psychology. The idea of the unconscious and the elements of personality have often lead us to wonder about our own motivations for our behavior. Freud's emphasis on the unconscious has been
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partially supported by some current cognitive psychology research. Such work has revealed that mental processes about which people are unaware have an important impact on thinking and actions. The most important contribution of Freud's psychoanalytic theories is perhaps the fact that it ignited more study of the human mind, and the motivation behind an individual's behavior, thus leading to more study and discovery of new ideas and theories. Source: http://www.essortment.com/

1. Introduction
This article has been taken from the online site, www.essortment.com, which is an online assortment of articles on various topics, mainly educational. The author of this article mainly talks about the elements that comprise an individuals personality. This refers to the six basic terms that will be discussed: The conscious, the unconscious, the preconscious and the Id, the ego and super-ego.

2. Analysis
To understand the unconscious and the conscious, Freud developed a personality model. He divided the personality into three elements: the id, the ego and the super-ego. The id refers to the raw, unorganized part of the personality. It operated according to the pleasure principle. The ego is the buffer between the id and the worlds realities. It operates on the reality principle. The ego is sometimes called the executive of an individuals personality. The superego is the final model of Freuds personality theory which helps control the ids impulses.

3. Conclusion
The author has pointed out the criticisms of the Freudian personality theory, mainly that there is a lack of scientific data. It is all individual assessment,
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which has, of course gained a lot of popularity and momentum over the years. He also gained his assumptions from a particular class of people, not looking at all sections of society in the process. The most important contribution of Freuds psychoanalytical theory is the fact that it has helped not only in the assessment of people but also in medical cases in the diagnosis of psychological disorders.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
An Introduction to Contemporary Psychoanalysis (1981); J. Reppen, ed., Beyond Freud (1984); C. G. Jung, The Collected Works, Vol. 4: Freud and Psychoanalysis (tr. 1985); www.essorment.com www.du.ac.in e-resources Ratan Tata Library

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