Chapter 1

Semiconductor PN Junction

Theory

and

Applications

Version 1.0




Dr. Lim Soo King
















































This is a copyright document. No any part of the document should be copied or distributed
without prior approval from the writer.



Dr. Lim Soo King
May 12, 2009.

- 1 -
Chapter 1

Semiconductor PN Junction
Theory and Applications
_____________________________________________

1.0 Introduction

Semiconductor pn junction is a two-terminal device. It is the most fundamental
device element that forms the basis of many electronic devices such as pn
diodes, optoelectronic devices like light-emitting diode and photodetector, field
effect transistors and bipolar transistor. PN junction conducts high current in
one direction and conduct very small amount of current in the reversed
direction. Thus, pn junction has the property of rectification.

PN junction is formed in a single crystal of semiconductor by making one
end of the crystal p-type by doping it with acceptor atom and making the other
end n-type by doping with donor atoms. The region where p-type and n-type
meet is the junction.

1.1 PN Junction at Equilibrium

The equilibrium state is the state where the pn junction is left without any
external stimulant such as electrical potential connected to it. This is also the
state of zero bias voltage condition.

When two semiconductor material type, p-type and n-type are brought to
contact, majority carrier of each type would diffuse across the junction. This
shall mean that the majority carrier - hole from p-type diffuses to n-type
material and the majority carrier of n-type diffuses to p-type material. The
diffusion would stop after an electric field is built up sufficiently high to oppose
diffusion. As the majority carrier such as hole diffuses across the junction, it
combines with electron in the n-type side, which creates a net positive charge.
Likewise, the majority carrier electron from n-type material diffuses across the
junction recombines with hole in p-type side creates net negative charge. The
net charge at each side creates an electric field in the direction, which would
oppose further diffusion. The electric field created would drift the minority
carrier in the opposite direction across the junction. Thus when equilibrium
attained, the drift carriers and diffused carriers should be balanced in termed of
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 2 -
magnitude and in opposite direction. Mathematically, current density J due to
various carrier types can be written as shown in equation (1.1) and (1.2).

J
p(drift)
+ J
p(diff.)
= 0 (1.1)

J
n(drift)
+ J
n(diff.)
= 0 (1.2)

As the result of this process, a depletion region meaning a region that lack of
carrier of certain thickness is created at both side of the junction. At time the
depletion region is also termed as space charge region. Figure 1.1 to Fig. 1.3
illustrates the flow process of carriers in p-type and n-type materials and how
equilibrium is attained when they come in contact.

Figure 1.1: Majority carrier diffusion in pn junction


Figure 1.2: A pn junction showing depletion region, space charge layer and electric field
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 3 -


Figure 1.3: The carrier current at equilibrium cross a pn junction

1.2 Conduction of PN Junction

From the study of above Section 1.1, one would know that the conduction of pn
junction involves four carrier types, which are majority diffusion hole and
electron and minority drift hole and electron. Hence there are four current
components, which are derived from the four mentioned carrier types as
illustrated in Fig. 1.3.

Conduction in pn junction physical involves in conduction band and
valence band. Electron flows in conduction band, whereas the hole flows in
valence band.

At zero bias voltage equilibrium condition, the minority hole and electron
can drift easily under the influence of built-in electric field E. The diffusion
majority carriers have to overcome the potential barrier V
B
of the junction
created as the result of depletion region. This shall mean that majority carrier
should at least acquire energy of qV
B
electron volt before it can overcome the
barrier and diffuse into either p or n region. Figure 1.4 illustrates the energy
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 4 -
band diagram showing the location of the carrier at zero bias voltage
equilibrium condition.

Figure 1.4: The energy band diagram of a pn junction showing the location of carriers
under zero voltage bias.

1.2.1 Forward Bias PN Junction

A pn junction can be forward biased to lower the voltage across the junction. If
a positive forward voltage V
F
is applied to the p-side of the pn junction relative
to the n-side, the effective voltage across the junction is (V
B
V
F
) not V
B
. Thus,
the energy required by the majority carrier to overcome the potential barrier is
lesser than earlier zero voltage bias case. As the result more majority carrier will
be able to diffuse across the junction. Figure 1.5 shows the condition of the
carrier under forward bias voltage.



Figure 1.5: The energy band diagram of a pn junction showing the location of carriers under
forward bias voltage
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

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1.2.2 Reverse Bias PN Junction

Figure 1.6 shows that the barrier potential increases under reverse bias voltage
V
F
. The bias voltage is effectively subtracted from the potential barrier.
Consequently, the voltage across the junction is (V
B
+ V
F
). As the result, lesser
chance for majority carrier to diffuse across the junction and more easily for the
minority carrier to drift across the junction would be happened.

Figure 1.6: The energy band diagram of a pn junction showing the location of carriers under
reverse bias voltage.

1.3 Characteristics of Diode

The characteristic of diode is shown in Fig. 1.7. It consists of two parts namely
the forward biased condition part and reverse biased condition part. The current
is very small when the forward voltage is below the barrier potential. The
current increases rapidly when the forward voltage exceeds the barrier potential
V
B
. The forward-voltage V
F
dropped across the diode is approximately equal to
the barrier potential. More details explanation of the forward voltage will
discussed in the diode model section. For the case of silicon diode, the barrier
potential is 0.7V and for the case of germanium type, it is 0.4V. Barrier
potential is also named as turn-on potential or barrier height. Barrier potential
follows equation (1.3).


|
|

\
|
=
2
i
D A
B
n
N N
ln
q
kT
V (1.3)
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 6 -
n
i
is the intrinsic concentration, and N
A
and N
D
are doping concentration of p-
type and n-type of diode.



Figure 1.7: Characteristics of the diode

In reverse biased mode, the current flowed in the diode is extremely small.
However, upon further applying the reverse biased voltage until the point V
BR

where breakdown occurs. The current would increase rapidly. Normally diode
breakdowns at about negative 25.0V and avalanche breakdown occurs beyond
this voltage point.

From the characteristic curve, an ideal diode equation can be obtained
from equation (1.4).

I
F
= [ ] 1 e I
kT / qV
S
(1.4)

I
S
is the reversed saturation current which is the leakage current of the pn
junction. This is also the current come from the minority carriers of both
junctions. At room temperature T is equal to 300K. Boltzmann constant k is
equal to 1.3806x10
-23
J/K and the electronic charge q is equal to 1.602x10
-19
C.
q / kT is also called thermal voltage V
T
. At room temperature, the thermal
voltage V
T
is equal to 25.8mV.

1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

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At forward bias voltage region, for a forward voltage V of a few thermal
voltage value say 5, the term
T
V / V
e is much greater than 1. Thus, the forward
current I
F
is approximated equal to
T
V / V
S F
e I I = , which is shown as exponential
curve.

At reverse bias voltage region before breakdown, the bias voltage V has a
negative value. Reverse bias voltage of a few thermal voltage value say 3, the
term
T
V / V
e

is much less than 1. Thus, the reverse bias current I

F
is approximated
equal to I
F
= -I
S
, which is basically the reverse saturation current. In the graph is
shown as a constant horizontal line with a small magnitude.

At breakdown, the current through the diode increases sharply. There are
two types of breakdown, which are zener effect and avalanche breakdown. If
the breakdown voltage V
BR
is less the 4E
G
/q, which is 4.48V, zener effect would
occur. If the breakdown voltage V
BR
is greater than 6E
G
/q, which is 6.72V,
avalanche breakdown would occur. E
G
is the energy band-gap of the
semiconductor. For silicon, it is 1.12eV.

For zener effect to occur, it requires a very high electric field. Typical
electric field for silicon and gallium arsenide is about 10
6
V/cm or higher. To
achieve such a high electric field, the doping concentration of both p and n
regions must be greater than 10
17
cm
-3
.


(a) (b)
Figure 1.8: Zener effect shown by a heavily doped diode

When the heavily doped diode is reverse-biased, the energy bands become
crossed at the relatively reverse low voltage, which is shown in Fig. 1.8. The n-
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 8 -
region conduction band appears opposite the p-region valence band. The
crossing of band aligns the large number of empty states, which are holes in the
n-region conduction band with filled with electrons valence band in p-region. If
the barrier separation between the two bands is narrow, tunneling of electrons
can occur. Tunneling of electron constitutes a reverse current.

For lightly doped diode, which has doping concentration less than 10
15
cm
-3
,
electron tunneling is negligible and the breakdown mechanism involves the
impact ionization of host atoms by the energy of the carriers. Normally lattice-
scattering event can result in the creation of electron-hole pair EHP if the carrier
being scattered has sufficient high energy. If the reverse voltage is sufficient
high, the kinetic energy of the electron enters the n-region from p-region would
cause ionizing collision with the lattice as shown in Fig. 1.9. A single such
event results in creation of an EHP pair. The created EHP would also have the
chance to impact and create second EHP pair. The process multiple and would
go on. This process is termed as avalanche process or breakdown. The electron-
hole multiplication factor M is M =
[ ]
n
BR
) V / V ( 1
1

, whereas n is a value between

4 and 6.



Figure 1.9: Electron-hole pairs created by impact ionization

The equation governing the breakdown voltage V
BR
due to avalanche
breakdown shall be
B
2
Crit o S
BR
qN 2
E K
V

= , which equal to 21.6V if critical electric
field E
Crit
of 1.0x10
5
V/cm and bulk doping concentration V
B
of 1.5x10
15
cm
-3
are
used. K
S
is the dielectric constant, which is 11.7 for silicon and
o
is permittivity
in free space, which is 8.854x10
-14
F/cm.

1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 9 -
1.4 Model of Diode

Presented here are three models of diode, which is ideal model, piecewise
model, real model. Depending on the circumstance, the selection of right model
can be applied. For an example, ideal model can be used for the analysis of high
voltage circuit


(a) I-V characteristic of ideal diode where V < 0, I
F
= 0 and I
F
> 0,V = 0


(b) I-V characteristic of piecewise linear model of diode I
F
<, V <V
turn-on
and I
F
> 0,V >V
turn-on

Figure 1.10: Current-voltage I-V characteristics of an ideal diode

The ideal diode is modeled as an element with zero forward voltage, zero
forward resistance, zero reverse current, infinite reverse resistance and no
breakdown voltage as shown in Fig. 1.10(a) or as piecewise linear model with
non-zero forward voltage, zero forward resistance, zero reverse current, infinite
reverse resistance, and no breakdown voltage as shown in Fig. 1.10(b). The
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 10 -
non-zero forward voltage of the diode depends on the material type used. For
silicon type, it is about 0.7V, whereas it is about 0.4V for germanium type.

The real diode has a finite forward resistance R
F
and reverse-biased
resistance R
B
, which are shown in Fig. 1.8. Thus, the forward voltage V
F
for the
diode beyond turn-on shall be

V
F
= V
B
+ I
F
R
F
(1.5)

1.5 Load Line Analysis of Diode

The applied load normally has an impact on the point or region of operation. In
performing the static analysis, a load line is drawn on the characteristic curve of
the diode that represents the applied load. Consider a diode circuit shown in Fig.
1.11.


Figure 1.11: A series diode circuit

Based on ohms law, the input voltage V
in
is V
in
= V
B
+ I
F
R. If the current I
F
is
equals to zero ampere then the barrier potential is V
B
= V
in
. Likewise, if V
B
is
equal to zero volt, then forward current is I
F
= V
in
/R. From the results, the load
line of the circuit is drawn and shown in Fig. 1.12.

The point of intersection is called quiescent or Q-point, which is the static-
point defined for a dc network. The Q-point can also be determined iteratively
by solving the transcendental equation ( )R 1 e I V V
T B
V / V
S B in
+ = .

1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

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Figure 1.12: dc load line of a series diode circuit

If the input voltage V
in
of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.12 is replaced by an ac
voltage V
i
= V
p
sin t riding on dc voltage V
m
, then the Q-point will
dynamically move along the forward current (I
FQ
, V
BQ
) point. The ac resistance
r
D
of the diode is the reciprocal of the differentiation of equation I
F
=
[ ] 1 e I
kT / qV
S
at Q-point, which is equal to

r
D
= V
T
/I
FQ
(1.5)

1.6 Temperature Dependence of Diode

Diode equation shown in equation (1.4), which is I
F
= [ ] 1 e I
kT / qV
S
has two
temperature dependent terms. One is the exponential term and one is in reverse
saturation current term I
S
in which it is I
S
=
(
(

+
n
po n
p
no p
L
n qD
L
p qD
A . D
p
and D
n
are
the diffusion coefficient of hole and electron. L
p
and L
n
are diffusion length of
hole and electron. p
no
and n
po
are the minority hole concentration in n-type
material and minority electron concentration in p-type material. A is the cross
sectional area of the diode.

A silicon diode at temperature T = 300K has doping concentration N
A
= N
D

= 1.2x10
16
cm
-3
, n
i
= 1.5 x10
10
cm
-3
, D
n
= 25cm
2
s
-1
, D
p
= 10cm
2
s
-1
, K
S
= 11.7, L
p

= 2.2x10
-3
cm and L
n
= 3.5x10
-3
cm, and cross section area = 1x10
-2
cm
2
. The
minority hole in n-region p
no
is 2.25x10
20
/1.2x10
16
= 1.875x10
4
cm
-3.
The
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 12 -
minority electron in n
po
p-region is 2.25x10
20
/1.2x10
16
= 1.875x10
4
cm
-3
.The
reverse saturation current I
s
is equal to
(
(

+
n
0 p n
p
0 n p
L
n qD
L
p qD
A =
(

+


3
4
3
4
2 19
10 x 5 . 3
10 x 875 . 1 x 25
10 x 2 . 2
10 x 875 . 1 x 10
10 x 1 x 10 x 602 . 1 = 3.51x10
-13
A.

The reserve saturation current is dependent on the intrinsic concentration n
i

of the semiconductor whereby this parameter is strongly dependent on
temperature. The intrinsic concentration follows equation n
i
=
3.87x10
16
T
3/2
exp(-7.02x10
3
/T), which is dependent on density state of the
semiconductor, temperature, and energy band-gap. The value of reverse
saturation current I
S
approximately doubles for every 5
0
C increases in
temperature. The exponential term has a smaller value as temperature increases.
However, this decrease is not as significant as the increase of I
S
current. Thus,
the overall effect shall be; as temperature increases, for a given current, less bias
voltage is required. For silicon diode, the change is approximately 2.0mV/
0
C.
The temperature dependent characteristic graph of the diode is shown in Fig.
1.13. As temperature increases the forward voltage of the diode decrease, this
shall that the diode has negative temperature coefficient. Likewise, other diode
such as zener diode, it has positive temperature coefficient. This is simply
because as temperature increase, the forward voltage V
F
of the zener diode
increases.



Figure 1.13: Temperature dependent characteristic of a diode
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 13 -
1.7 Application of Diode

There are a number of diode types. Out of them some are shown in Fig. 1.14,
which are rectifier diode, zener diode, light emitter diode, and photo diode.
Physically, the terminal with a bar is cathode, whereas the other terminal is
anode.



Rectifier diode Zener diode LED Photo diode

Figure 1.14: The symbols of various types of diode

There are a few important applications for pn junction or diode, which depend
on how the diode is biased. Figure 1.15 shows different quadrants of the I-V
characteristic of diode used for six diode types, which are rectifying diode,
light-emitting diode, laser diode, zener diode, photodetector, and the solar cell.

Rectifying diode operates in quadrant one and three as shown in Fig.
1.15(a). Light-emitting diode and laser-diode operate in quadrant one as shown
in Fig. 1.15(b). Zener diode and photodetector operate in quadrant three shown
in Fig. 1.15(c). Lastly, solar cell operates in quadrant four as shown in Fig.
1.15(d).


(a) (b)
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 14 -

(c) (d)
Figure 1.15: The operating quadrants of important diode types

1.7.1 Rectifying Diode

A fundamental application of the rectifying diode is to make use of its non-
linear current-voltage I-V characteristic curve utilizing it in the rectifier circuit
as shown in Fig. 1.16. Rectifying diode or rectifier is used to convert an ac
voltage into dc voltage. Rectification can be divided into two groups namely the
half-wave and full-wave rectification. During the positive cycle of the ac V
in
=
V
p
sin t, output voltage V
out
is equal to
0 0
180 t 0
P
) 7 . 0 t sin V (

and during the
negative cycle, output voltage V
out
is equal to zero.


(a) (b)
Figure 1.16: A half wave rectifier circuit and its output results

One can also use the dc load line curve shown in Fig. 1.12 to obtain the Q-point
and subsequently obtaining the result shown in Fig. 1.16. The average output
voltage is equal to V
avg
=

2 / T
0
p
tdt sin ) 7 . 0 V (
T
1
=

7 . 0 V
p
, which approximately
1/3 of the peak voltage.

Since half of the input cycle, the diode is in reverse bias mode, therefore, it
is necessary to know the peak inverse voltage PIV of the diode. If the peak
voltage V
p
of the circuit is large than the peak inverse voltage of the diode, the
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 15 -
diode will eventually be damaged by high voltage. For a reliable half-wave
rectifier circuit design, the maximum input voltage should be less than the peak
inverse voltage PIV of diode i.e. PIV V
p
.

If a capacitance of capacitor with value C is connected parallel with the
resistance R as shown in Fig. 1.17, the capacitor would act as a filter. Owing to
charging and discharging of capacitor, it would produce a V
pp
ripple voltage
riding on a dc voltage level V
dc
as shown in Fig. 1.17(b).


(a) (b)
Figure 1.17: The circuit and output result of a half wave rectifier with filter capacitor

For a small ripple voltage V
pp
as compared with dc voltage level V
dc
, this
condition is called light loading. The load current in resistor R shall be
considered constant. For small ripple voltage, the charging and discharging can
be considered linear. The change in ripple voltage V
pp
follows equation (1.7).


C
t I
V
F
PP

= (1.7)

If the charging time or discharging time t is equal to period T of the ac voltage
then equation (1.7) becomes equation (1.8) after substituting V
dc
= I
F
R.


RC
V
C
I
V
dc F
PP
f f
= = (1.8)

From the result shown in Fig. 1.17, the dc voltage V
dc
is equal to equation (1.9).

V
dc
= V
p
0.7 V
pp
/2 (1.9)

Substituting equation (1.8) into (1.9), it yields equation (1.10) for dc voltage
V
dc
.
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 16 -
V
dc
=
RC 2
1
1
7 . 0 V
P
f
+

(1.10)

The ratio of V
pp
/V
dc
=
RC
1
f
is defined ripple factor for half wave rectification.

A full-wave rectification circuit and its corresponding output are shown
Fig. 1.18. The voltage at the secondary coil is
n
t sin V
V
p
sec

= , where n is the coli

ratio. Since it is a centre tapped type rectifier, the maximum voltage at the
resistance R is 7 . 0
n 2
V
7 . 0
2
V
p
sec
= .



Figure 1.18: A full wave rectifier circuit and its output

If a capacitance C of value C farad is connected across resistor of R ohm, The
change of ripple voltage is
C
t I
V
F
PP

= . If the charging time or discharging time

t is equal to period T/2 of ac input then ripple voltage is
RC 2
V
V
dc
PP
f
= after
substituting V
dc
= I
F
R. The dc voltage V
dc
= V
sec
/2 0.7 V
pp
/2. Thus, the dc
voltage V
dc
is equal to V
dc
=
RC 4
1
1
7 . 0 2 / V
sec
f
+

. The average dc voltage before filtering

shall be V
avg
= V
avg
=

2 / T
0
sec
tdt sin ) 7 . 0 2 / V ( 2
T
1
=

) 7 . 0 2 / V ( 2
sec
. The ripple factor
is equal to
RC 2
1
f
for full-wave rectifier circuit.

1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 17 -
During the positive input cycle, the maximum voltage at the cathode
terminal of diode D
1
and diode D
2
is V
sec
/2-0.7V. The anode of diode D
2
is
receiving a maximum voltage V
sec
/2. Thus, the maximum reverse bias voltage
across diode D
2
is V
sec
/2-0.7 (-V
sec
/2) = V
sec
-0.7V. Based on the analysis, the
peak inverse voltage of the diode used for the circuit should be at least (V
sec
-0.7)
volt.

A full- wave bridge rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 1.19. The peak voltage
of the secondary coil is V
sec
= V
p
/n. The maximum voltage at node D shall be
V
sec
1.4V, which is V
p
/n-1.4V.



Figure 1.19: A full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

During the positive cycle of the signal, the maximum voltage at node B is. The
minimum voltage at node A is zero. Therefore, the reverse bias across diode D
1

is V
sec
. Thus, the peak inverse voltage PIV of diode is V
sec
.

1.7.2 Zener Diode

Zener diode is designed to utilize the breakdown voltage V
BR
of the diode. At
breakdown, the reverse current increases rapidly with a small increase of
reverse voltage. This makes it useful as the reverse bias of voltage regulator and
voltage reference because of its ability to maintain a nearly constant voltage
over a wide range of reverse current. It operates in quadrant three of the I-V
characteristic curve, which shall mean operate in reverse bias voltage mode i.e.
negative part of characteristic shown in Fig. 1.7.

1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 18 -
Figure 1.20 shows the simple voltage regulator designed using zener
diode. In order for a zener diode to be conducting, the voltage at node A should
be at least equal to the breakdown voltage of the zener diode V
Z
, which is V
A

in
S
V
R R
R

+
. Once the V
A
is greater than V
Z
, the voltage at node shall then be
maintained at voltage V
Z
.


Figure 1.20: A simple voltage regulator designed using zener diode

From Kirchhoffs current law, current I
S
is I
S
= I
L
+ I
Z
and Kirchhoffs voltage
law, -V
in
+ I
S
R
S
+ V
Z
= 0. Thus, the resistance R
S
is equal to

R
S
=
L Z
Z in
I I
V V
+

(1.11)

I
Z
is the zener current flows in the zener diode in breakdown region and I
L
is the
load current. V
in
is the power supply voltage. Zener diode also has a maximum
power rating P
ZM
which defined as maximum allowable current flows into the
zener diode I
ZM
multiply by V
Z
.

1.7.3 Light-Emitting Diode and Laser Diode

Light-emitting diode LED and laser-diode utilize the principle of recombination
of majority carrier in pn junction to produce light, which is also termed as
injection electroluminescence. It is basically converting current into light.
Forward biasing the pn junction would inject the majority carrier across the
junction whereby it will recombine with the majority carrier at the other side of
the junction to produce visible light. Indirect semiconductor such as silicon and
germanium produce heat and dissipate in the lattice because there is change in
momentum. Recombination of electron-hole pair in direct semiconductor such
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 19 -
as gallium arsenide or gallium indium arsenide phosphide is very efficient and
produces photon, which has an energy equal in magnitude to the transition
energy. By proper mixing gallium indium arsenide phosphide compound or
alloy semiconductor, LED that produces visible light range from red to violet
can be achieved. Figure 1.21 illustrates the structure of light-emitting diode
LED diode.

Figure 1.21: Structure of LED

Light-emitting diode LED integrated into an optical cavity is laser diode. The
working principle is similar to an LED that it is essentially forward biased pn
junction in which recombining carrier produces light. In the laser diode, the
excited electrons are stimulated to recombine simultaneously and produce an
intense beam of photon of the same wavelength. Some of these photons are then
reflected back in the optical cavity through the device to generate more
electron-hole pair, which in turn recombines to produce more light. Figure 1.22
illustrates the structure of laser diode.

Figure 1.22: Structure of laser diode

1.7.4 Photodetector and Solar Cell

Photodetector and solar cell convert optical signals into current. Photodetector is
also called photo diode operates in third quadrant and solar cell is using the
fourth quadrant of the current-voltage I-V characteristic curve of the diode.
When pn junction is illuminated, electron-hole pairs EHP are optically
generated. The minority carriers generated are swept across the depletion region
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 20 -
by drifting provided they are within the diffusion length of the depletion region.
Depending on the amount of illumination received by the pn junction, the
amount of reverse saturation current can be increased substantially as shown in
Fig. 1.23. The method of creating minority carrier is also known as optical
injection. The carriers are called "excess" carrier because they are extra to those
generated thermally.

Figure 1.23: Typical I-V characteristic of pn junction under dark and light condition

If the pn junction is forward biased, the diffusion would increase and drift
current is negligible. If the pn junction is reverse biased, the diffusion current
would be negligible and the drift current would increase drastically.

The typical structure of a photodetector is shown in Fig. 1.24. It consists
of a pn junction separated by a wide depletion region. The depletion region is
wide so that a large electric field E can be exerted across it. The electric field E
then sweeps the excess holes and electrons across it to contribute as
photocurrent.

Figure 1.24: Structure of photodetector
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

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A typical solar cell is shown in Fig. 1.25.


Figure 1.25: Structure of solar cell

Power is generated from solar cell since it operates in forth quadrant of the
current-voltage I-V characteristic curve of the diode. The negative generated
current, which comes from minority carrier and forward bias of the pn junction
given rise to negative power, which shall mean power is generated. Usually the
contact area of electrode should large and at the same time the exposed area for
the incident photon should very much larger than the area of electrode. The
electrode is designed having comb-like structure. Individual solar cell is not
capable of delivering sufficient power, so it is commonly connected in the form
of large arrays.

Figure 1.26 shows the characteristic curve of a solar cell. The power
generated is the product of I
max
and V
max
.


Figure 1.26: Characteristic curve of a solar cell
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 22 -
All solar cells have a figure of merit associated with them, which is used to
indicate how good the device is. The figure of merit is the fill factor or power
efficiency , which is defined as

=
oc sc
max max
oc sc
max
V I
V I
V I
P
= (1.12)

where I
sc
is the short circuit current, V
oc
is the open-circuit voltage. I
max
and
V
max
are maximum current and voltage respectively.

Solar efficiency
s
is defined as


solar
max
s
P
P
= (1.13)

where P
solar
is the amount of solar power reaching the cell. Ideally,
s
would be
equal to one indicating that all incident solar radiation is being converted to
electrical power. However, the known solar efficiency so far is less than 30%
utilizing gallium arsenide.

1.8 Diode in Circuit Designs

Diode is also widely used in the circuit design. Some usages of diode in the
circuit design are discussed here. Examples are DTL logic, clamper, voltage
multiplier and etc.

1.8.1 Diode-Transistor Logic Design

Diode is used in the diode-transistor logic DTL digital logic gate design like OR
gate and AND gate. Figure 1.27(a) is an OR gate. Therefore, it follows logical
function

V
out
= V
A
+ V
B
+ V
C
(1.14)

Fig. 1.27(b) shows an AND gate that follows logical function

V
out
= V
A
V
B
V
C
(1.15)

1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 23 -

(a) (b)
Figure 1.27: Logic gate (a) OR gate and (b) AND gate

1.8.2 Voltage Multiplier

Design of voltage multiplier - voltage doubler - utilizing diode such as the half-
wave doubler circuit is shown in Fig. 1.28.

(a) Positive cycle charge via diode D
1
(b) Negative cycle charge via diode D
2

Figure 1.28: Voltage doubler circuit

During the positive cycle of the ac voltage, capacitor C
1
is charged to voltage
V
P
0.7V via diode D
1
, whilst during the negative cycle, capacitor C
1
holds its
charge and at the same time charge capacitor C
2
via diode D
2
. From Kirchhoffs
voltage law, during positive cycle -V
in
+ V
C1
+ 0.7 = 0. This implies V
C1
= V
p

0.7V since RC constant is small. During the negative cycle, -V
in
- V
p
+ 0.7 + 0.7
+ V
C2
= 0. This implies that V
C2
= 2V
p
1.4V since RC constant is small. If
ideal diode model is used, then voltage across capacitor C
2
is V
C2
= 2V
p
.

Voltage tripler and quadrupler circuit can be designed with extension of the
half wave doubler circuit shown in Fig. 1.28.

1.8.3 Clipper or Limiter Circuits

Clipper circuit is used to clip or cut-off unwanted voltage. There are four clipper
configurations, which are negative series clipper, positive series clipper,
negative shunt clipper, and positive shunt clipper. Figure 1.29 shows the
mentioned configurations.
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 24 -
In the analysis of clipper circuit, one may use ideal diode model shown in
Fig. 1.10(a), where the diode is in forward bias, it is assumed to have zero
forward voltage. When it is in reverse bias, it is assumed to be an open circuit.
The piecewise linear model of the diode shown in Fig. 1.10(b) can also be used
depending on the significance of the forward bias voltage to the overall results.

Negative series clipper clips the negative portion of the ac voltage, while
the positive series clipper clips the positive portion of the ac voltage. If the
amplitude of the ac voltage is V
p
, then the maximum voltage of the clipper shall
be (V
p
0.7) for negative series clipper circuit and minimum voltage is (V
p
-
0.7) for positive series clipper circuit.

(a) Negative series
clipper
(b) Positive series
clipper
(c) Negative shunt
clipper
(d) Positive shunt
clipper
Figure 1.29: Type of clipper configurations

From Kirchhoffs voltage law, the equation for the load voltage V
L
for negative
series clipper is

( )
2 / T t
0 t
P L
7 . 0 t sin V V
=
=
= ;
T t
2 / T t
L
0 V
=
=
= (1.16)

The equation for load voltage V
L
for positive series clipper is

( )
T t
2 / T t
P L
7 . 0 t sin V V
=
=
+ = ;
2 / T t
0 t
L
0 V
=
=
= (1.17)

Figure 1.30 shows the operation of a negative shunt clipper.

Figure 1.30: The operation of a negative shunt clipper
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 25 -
During the positive cycle of the ac signal, diode D
1
is in reverse bias mode.
Thus, by voltage divider law, the voltage across the load R
L
is equal to
in
S L
L
V
R R
R

+
= t sin V
R R
R
P
S L
L

+
.

During the negative cycle of the ac signal, diode D
1
is in forward bias
mode. Thus, the voltage drops across the load resistor R
L
shall be the forward
bias voltage of the diode, which is - 0.7V. This can be explained using KVL.
V
in
+0.7V +I
F
R
S
= 0. Thus voltage across R
L
is -0.7V.

The operation of a positive shunt clipper can be explained like the
operation of negative shunt clipper but in the reverse manner.

A positive and a negative biased clipper circuits are shown in Fig. 1.31.
The bias voltage V
B
is used to shift the clipped voltage a voltage level V
B
either
above or below the reference zero level. For a positive bias V
B
, the clipped
signal is shifted V
B
positive. For a negative bias V
B
, the clipped signal is
shifted V
B
voltage level below the zero reference level.

(a) Positive bias clipper

(b) Negative bias clipper
Figure 1.31: (a) The positive-biased clipper and (b) the negative-biased clipper

1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 26 -
For positive bias clipper circuit, during the positive cycle of the ac signal, the
diode is in forward bias. Thus, the voltage across the load R
L
is clipped to 0.7 V
+ V
B
.

During the negative cycle of the ac signal, diode D
1
is in reverse bias
mode. Thus, the voltage across the load R
L
is equal to
in
S L
L
V
R R
R

+
.

For negative bias clipper circuit, during the positive cycle of the ac signal,
diode D
1
is in reverse bias mode. Thus, the voltage across the load R
L
shall be
in
S L
L
V
R R
R

+
= t sin V
R R
R
P
S L
L

+
.

During the negative cycle of the ac signal, diode is in reverse bias mode.
Thus, the voltage drops across the load resistor shall be forward bias voltage of
the diode, which is (0.7 V + V
B
).

1.8.4 Clamper

A clamper is a circuit designed to shift ac waveform either above or below a
given reference voltage, which is usually the zero reference. A negative clamper
circuit is shown in Fig. 1.32.

Figure 1.32: A negative clamper circuit

During positive cycle of the ac signal, the diode is in forward bias mode and the
capacitor will charge very quickly to its amplitude V
p
due short time constant.
During negative cycle of the ac signal, the diode is in reverse bias. Owing to
large discharging time, the capacitor is able to maintain its charge. Thus, from
Kirchhoffs voltage law, the maximum voltage across the load R
L
shall be
approximately equal to 2V
p
. If the input ac voltage is V
in
= V
p
sint, by KVL,
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 27 -
during the positive cycle, V
p
sint = V
C
+ V
L
. Knowing that during the positive
cycle V
C
is approximately equal to V
p
, the voltage across the load L shall be

V
L
= -V
p
(sint + 1) (1.18)

A positive bias clamper circuit is shown in Fig. 1.33. The bias voltage V
B
is
used to shift the negative clamped signal to a voltage level V
B
above the zero
reference level.



Figure 1.33: A positive clamper circuit

During the positive cycle of the input voltage V
in
= V
p
sint, the maximum
voltage across the capacitance V
C
is V
C
= V
p
- 0.7 - V
B
V
p
- V
B
. By
Kirchhoffs voltage law, during the positive cycle, V
p
sin t = V
C
+ V
L
= V
p
-
V
B
+ V
L
. Thus, the load voltage V
L
is

V
L
= V
p
sin t (V
p
V
B
) (1.19)

If one changes the bias voltage V
B
to a negative value, the output negative
clamped signal would shift a voltage level V
B
below the zero reference level.
The equation of the voltage across the load V
L
is

V
L
= V
p
sin t (V
p
+ V
B
) (1.20)

1.8.5 Peak Detector

The diode and operational amplifier can be configured as a peak voltage
detector such as the one shown in Fig. 1.34. If the input voltage V
in
has a
variable magnitude, its peak voltage would be stored in capacitor C and
subsequently, it can be measured.
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 28 -

Figure 1.34: A peak voltage detector

The input voltage V
in
would produce a high-level voltage at the output. This
would cause forward bias of the diode and begins to charge the capacitor C. As
soon as the voltage of the capacitor C reaches the voltage of the input voltage
V
in
. It causes the output of comparator to swing low. This prevents to the
capacitor to discharge because the diode is in reversed bias mode and the input
current of the operational amplifier is negligible. For next instant, if the V
in
is
less than previous instant, the V
out
would hold the highest voltage vlue of the
previous instant.

1.8.5.1 Positive Signal Detector

The diode and operational amplifier are configured as current buffer for a
positive signal detector as shown in Fig. 1.35.


Figure 1.35: A positive signal detector
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 29 -
The current source is used to keep the diode current constant irrespective of the
value of input voltage. Thus, the voltage drop across diode shall remain
constant. The diode that has highest input voltage will conduct and the output
voltage is approximately equal to the input voltage.

1.9 Voltage Regulation

An example of 5V voltage supply utilizing 7805 voltage regulator is shown in
Fig. 1.36. This circuit is also a power supplies circuit that supplies 5V.
Regulator combines with capacitor input filter can produce dc voltage with
reduce ripple voltage from input power.


Figure 1.36: A 5.0V power supply circuit

As the line dc input change, which should be within a certain limit, there is no
change at the output is called line regulation. Line regulation can also be
defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a given change in the
line input voltage. Thus, mathematically line regulation can be express as

Line regulation =
( )
in
out out
V
% 100 V / V

(1.21)

When the output voltage remains constant within a certain limit for a change of
output load is called load regulation. Load regulation also is defined as the
percentage change of output voltage for a given change in load current. Thus,

Load Regulation =
current load of change given
voltage output of %
(1.22)

In terms of voltage, it can be expressed as percentage change in output voltage
from no-load NL to full-load FL conditions.
1 Semiconductor PN Junction Theory and Applications

- 30 -
Load regulation =
( ) V V
V
NL FL
FL
100%
(1.23)