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Barkhudarov Meaning: 1) Language is a system of signs, the most complex and universal one. Its major function is communicative 2) It exists in speech. 3) Every sign has a plane of content and a plane of expression, every language unit consists of form and meaning interrelated bcs there is no form without meaning and no meaning without form. 4) Meaning exists in speech and in texts. Meaning is not a substance but a relation: Any sign becomes a sign bcs it refers to sth outside it, to the referent, to an object in reality. Its relation to sth outside it is the meaning of the sign. He mentions 2 ways in which people learn the meaning of signs. The adults, who already have some linguistic experience, learn the new words by explanations/definitions: e.g. top hat is a man's hat, which has a narrow brim and a tall cylindrical crown But this is the secondary way of acquisition of meaning, which depends on our previous linguistic experience. When children learn language, they match the word or rather what they hear to an object in the surrounding world. Children will learn the meaning of table bcs they will hear this word in different combinations, Go to the table, Put the book on the table, etc. and they will match the phonetic unit table with the object of table, first one specific table, then all the other tables. Not the Meaning of signs but the knowledge of this meaning exists in our minds. We learn Meaning by definitions or by coming into contact with the object. Language can be used for things not observable at the moment of speech or things that do not exists or cannot exists myths. Language can describe any situation. Sign is a sign bcs it has a meaning. But this doesnt mean that sign consists of 2 parts. The garden owner or the teacher are such only if they meet certain criteria: to have a garden or to have student. Without the relation to the other object, they cannot be neither a teacher nor a garden owner. But on the other hand, the owner of the garden is the man, not the man plus garden. The sign is the material object and its relation to sth outside it. This relation is meaning. There are 3 types of relations into which a sign enters:

Referential Meaning: the relation between the sign and what it refers to. Its referent is not a single object, process, etc. but the whole class of given objects. Sometimes the sign can have only one referent: London, but such cases are rare. There are also signs without referents gram. words. We should distinguish between referent and denotation. Signs which have different referents can denote the same thing: e.g. My friend, the singer in .. refer to one and he same person. Pragmatic meaning: the relation between the sign and its users. People using signs are not indifferent, they show their attitude to a given sign and to the referent: pinch//steal; The relation is not between a single sign and a single person using it but it concerns the whole language community or certain groups.
Intrasystemic/Intralinguistic Meaning: Since signs do not exists isolated but are parts of a sign system, they enter into various complex relations with the other signs in the system. E.g. table furniture chair/sofa The semantic content of the sign consists of 3 components, which are interrelated: referential, pragmatic, intralinguistic. They correspond in semiotics to 3 relations: semantic, pragmatic, syntactic. However, not all signs have all these 3 meanings in their semantic structure. For example, there are signs, which have only intrasystemic but not referential meaning: functional grammatical words, to On the other hand all signs have intralinguistic meaning as parts of the system. There are 2 viewpoints whether all signs have pragmatic meaning, depending whether we consider the neutral words to have pragmatic meaning or just the marked words: positive, negative, to have such meaning.: , , . Theory of Translation, however, is concerned with whether all of the meanings are rendered and preserved in translation. The translators goal is to render all the meanings but there are inevitable losses of meaning, that is some of the meanings will be rendered partially. During the translation, the easiest to

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preserve is Referential, bcs languages can express anything and bcs they convey the reality. Pragmatic M is preserved in a less extent bcs of crosscultural differences between languages; bcs the attitude of different language communities to one and the same thing may be different. The intralinguistic M is usually lost bcs when we translate we change the signs of the SL with the sign system of the TL, therefore the intralinguistic Meanings of the SL arechanged with those of the TL. However, a lot depends on the text itself so to say that the Translator has to render the referential and pragmatic but not intralinguistic M is too general. In the different types of texts different Meanings are dominant: in technical and scientific lit. referential M is dominant but in prose pragmatic M, while in poetry, riddles, puns even intrasystemic M can be dominant. In order to render then the pragmatic M the translator has to ignore and lose the referntial M. In each case he has to decide which he must necessarily render with minimum loss of meaning. The rendering of Pragmatic Meaning The Pragmatic Meaning is the relationship between the sign and the people using it. People, do not use linguistic signs in the process of communication in an objective or impartial way. They react in a different way to the linguistic units and consequently to their referents. This subjective attitude to the signs and the referent is often attached to a given sign, it becomes a permanent component of its semantic structure; it becomes its Pragmatic Meaning. Barkhudarov points out that the concept of pragmatics in linguistics doesnt only refer to the notion of pragmatic meaning of linguistic and sign units. It refers also to the different degree of understanding of certain linguistic units by the participants in a communication and it is also concerned with the different interpretation of language units by people, depending on their linguistic and extralinguistic experience. Pragmatics is influenced by such extralinguistic factors as subject, situation, participants. We can talk about Pragmatic Meaning only in the cases when the attitude of the people of a language community becomes part of the semantic structure of the sign. Now, the phrases The Holy Spirit; (The Holy ghost,) the evil spirit bring/cause different reactions in pious/religious people and atheists. But in this case, the different attitude of the participants in the communicative act is not a component of the semantic structure of the signs and cannot be regarded as PM. Barkhudarov discusses the rendering of PM of language units on the lexical level, although, as he says, not only lexical words can have PM but also certain grammatical structures, such as the one in English thou knowest (associated with poetic diction in the 19th c). But usually the lexical units are pragmatically marked, while of most grammatical forms have neutral emotional and stylistic colouring. He suggests a classification of several types/subcomponents of PM, which can be used when dealing with both Russian, English, as well as other languages: 1) Style/Stylistic characteristic of words:

There are words typical for all genres and types of speech as well as words, restricted to particular genres. The use of the latter with particular genres becomes a permanent characteristic and therefore part of their PM. Generally there are 2 types of speech: informal and literary and within literary we can distinguish between fiction, scientific and technical literature and journalistic genre. Not all genres are characterized by specific, typical only for them vocabulary. Thus we cannot say that there is vocabulary, predominantly used in fiction, with the exception of poetry, since fiction is characterized by the wide usage of vocabulary, belonging to different styles./stylistic levels. He suggests 5 types of stylistic characteristics/styles: 1. neutral here belong items used in all kinds of texts; items, which are stylistically unmarked. 2. conversational here belong words which are used in spoken language, in informal situation and which are not used, as a rule, in written language, with the exception of the cases when it is used in the speech of the characters or in journalist style. Such words in English: bobby, booze, dough, buck, movie, buddy , ,

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3. literary words used in written speech - , ; ; ; inebriety, conflagration, pecuniary, commence, thereby 4. poetic words, used mainly in poetry: oft, morrow, steed; , , terminological words, used in scholarly works, scientific and technical vocabulary as well as specific words in public domain, in the sphere of law, economics, finance, government, politics 2) Register refers to certain conditions or the situation of communicative act which determine the choice of particular words, lexical devices. First of all, register is depends on the participants in the communicative act, because there are words, which are used only when talking to close friends, relatives, your family, while others are used when talking to strangers, to your superiors. Second, the register is defined by the conditions in which the communicative act happens people use different register at the workplace from that at home, even when dealing with close friends. There are 5 types of registers: 1. familiar , 2. informal - , 3. neutral 4. formal - 5. sublime - However, there are often cases when two words have the same referential meaning and belong to different registers , 3) Emotional Colouring of words: In any language there are words, which include as part of their semantic structure, the emotional attitude of the people using them. We can distinguish between 3 types of emotional colouring: positive, neutral and negative. Negative: , , ; a negative colouring may result from the use of suffix ; Positive colouring may result when using diminutive names: , , , . Words, which may have the same referential meaning, may differ in their emotional colouring: , He gives another example: Oh, youre not a spy. Germans are spies. British are agents. He says that this classification cannot reflect fully the complex and diverse nature of relations between signs and their PM. Style, Register and Rmotional colouring are interconnected, they do not exclude fully each other, so it is often difficult to decide to which of the types a word can be related. For instance, words belonging to the informal speech may belong both to the familiar and the informal register, while poetic words belong to the sublime register. There is also a close relationship between register and emotional colouring: words with negative colouring usually refer to the familiar register, while words with positive colouring to the sublime register and poetic style. Apart from the 3 subcomponents of Pragmatic Meaning, there is another one, called 4) Communicative load - We can talk about communicative load of the different components in the word order of the sentence, which is defined by the degree of information on the part of the Speaker/Writer and the Adressee. In the word order we distinguish between elements which reveal already known information and those which give new information, usually for the first time. We distinguish between given and new information concepts used by Halliday, or theme and rheme (Firbass, Functional Sentence Perspective). Usually the given , already known information precedes the new information. The end-position in English is strong. Thus in the sentence: John came. John is the given information, the Adressesse knows about him, and the new information is the fact that he came. But if we change the place of the two elements, if we have Here came John., the communicative load also changes, the new information is John, that is the receiver of the message knows that sb came but he doesnt know who he is. Communicative Load is defined by the context and the communicative situation, by the attitude of the participants. Rendering the communicative load in the right way is a requirement for the translation to be equivalent with the original text. Communicative load differs from the other subcomponents of PM in its syntactic nature because it defines not separate language units but whole

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utterances, sentences. On the other hand, not only words but whole phrases may belong to definite style, register and emotional colouring, such as elliptic, asyndentic constructions: Please, come in. (formal) Come in. (neutral) Come in, will you? (conversational) Get the hell in here. (familiar, negative colouring) Considering the role of PM in translation, it should be mentioned that the cases when two words in the SL and the TL differ in their Pragmatic Meaning are more frequent than cases when two words differ in their referential Meaning. e.g. digit (fml) (finger) In English there are informal synonyms of cinema movies/flicks, while in Bulgarian we have the word (Russian , ) There isnt either a term for the informal names of money/currency quid (A pound sterling) , bob (shilling) , buck (dollar) (Russian - ) Usually we can see the contrast even more clearly if we compare whole semantic fields, groups of synonyms. For instance , , ; enemy, adversary, opponent, foe (, , , ., ) All of them, except for opponent, share 2 referential meanings: 1) One who feels hatred toward, intends injury to, or opposes the interests of another; 2) the armed forces of a country, with which one is at war Opponent also means a person who takes the opposite side in a game, competition But they have different pragmatic meanings: Enemy netral dominant term, adversary - fml (as well as opponent), while foe is a literary, poetic term but it can be also used in newspaper headlines because it is shorter than enemy. The phrase friends or foes, belongs to the neutral style. The difference in Pragmatic Meaning of words in the SL and the TL (foe - enemy) leads to inevitable in some cases loss of meaning. Usually stylistically or emotionally marked words in the SL are replaced by neutral words in the TL. 5) Connotation subcomponent of PM, concerns the additional associations, which a word evokes Words with the same RM often have different connotations, they evoke certain reaction or no reaction at all. Thus the Bulgarian breeze is associated with the sea, while it designates only a gentle wind in English. In the same way for many Bulgarians and do not remind of Christmas, unlike mistletoe or holly (, ) for the English people. Sometimes connotation may serve to group words which have the same RM to different classes because of the different function they perform in the SL and the TL. For example bran and both refer to , but for the Russians it is food for cattle, while for the English it is a dish, served for breakfast. In the same way is something you add to food, while for the English it is something spoilt, which can no longer be eaten. Extralinguistic knowledge/Shared knowledge and its impact on rendering PM The extralinguistic knowledge or background knowledge determines to a large extent the understanding of linguistic units. Quite often the readers in the SL and those in the TL do not share the same extralinguistic knowledge. As a result a lot of things, which are familiar and are taken for granted in the SL may be partially or completely unknown to the users of the TL. The Translator has to take into account the pragmatic factor, but not equally in the different types of texts. ( A classification by A. Neubert is cited in which 4 types of translation texts are suggested, depending on the degree in which the PM is involved. 1) Scientific literature, which aims equally the TL and the SL readers 2) Local News reports and other texts, which are intended top be read by the SL readers; such texts are not always translated into a TL and they are often difficult to understand by foreign readers. 3) fiction both readers of TL and SL use it

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4) political texts, which have to manipulate, advertise, promote something and the degree of PM is very high.) There are several ways of rendering Pragmatic Meaning, when there isnt a direct equivalent in the TL words : 1) Compensation when we render the PM in the text as a whole, not in a particular word, which corresponds to another in the TT PM is different from Referential Meaning in its impact. Unlike Referential Meaning, which is connected only with a particular word, Pragmatic Meaning influences not only the words but also the whole text, in which the words are used. Therefore Pragmatic Meaning can be rendered in the TT in a different way from which it is rendered in the ST. For example: It cost him damn near four thousand bucks. Hes got a lot of dough, now. (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye) 4 . . The two texts are stylistically marked as belonging to the informal register. But there are different signs for this in the texts themselves. The stylistic characteristic and register is indicated in the English text with damn, bucks, dough; while the Bulgarian text it is indicated with and 2) The use of description of the phenomena, instead of a direct equivalent In any language there are words, whose main task is to express positive or negative attitude of the user. Thus in English, words like damned, bloody express negative attitude in themselves, while words like darling, dear express positive attitude. Barhudarov says that such words have only PM and do not have RM. Therefore when dealing with such words we can use description in certain cases: Example: you could hear his goddam footsteps coming right towards the room Goddam doesnt indicate any special quality of the footsteps, it only shows the negative attitude of the speaker. It has been translated in Russian as , , . In this sentence the emotional colouring come from the use of Using description we can render emotional colouring of diminutives: , (Chekhov) My darling old cupboard!My dear little table! But he doesnt advise you to render , , with little father and little mother (We can use description to render with sleep like a log) Rendering of metaphors: When rendering metaphors we should be careful. As you know with metaphors a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison. But not in all languages names of animals or phenomena, objects designate the same thing. Thus we can translate , sly as a fox and timid as a hare, but well have problems translating , , if we try to find direct equivalent. In English these qualities are related to other words: drunk as a fiddler, sleep like a rock, blind as a bat. Furthermore, there are comparisons in English busy as a bee, bold as a brass, dead as a doornail, for which there are no comparisons in Bulgarian. We may have adjectives instead, such as , , . We can face another difficulty when dealing with names of animals, which are transferred back to people. Sb who is sly - , stupid - . But in different cultures we may come up with different names of animals, indicating the same quality. Thus in English rat refers to a coward, while in Russian rat is not used as a metaphor. In the same way the Russian goose refers to a rascal, unreliable person, while the English goose designates sb silly. The Russian swine designates dirty, unclean man, while in Chinese it refers to a lustful man. 2) Addition of information

We can render PM by adding information especially when we are dealing with specific, cultural elements, with realia, which is usually unknown to the TL audience. We add information which is part of the background knowledge of the SL audience and is supposed to be known by SL users but which may not be known to the TL audience. Therefore the aim is to ensure complete understanding of the SL text. In this category we may have geographical names, names related to the art, history and culture of the SL society. (When we translate the names of the American states, or the Canadian provinces or the English counties) e. g. Oklahoma, New York, Massachusetts, Alberta, Surrey we should add that it is , , Examples: Where you girls from? I asked her again. Seattle, Washington. (J. Salingers book The Catcher in the Rye) ? , - on the bank of the Oka river. Every Russian reader knows that Oka is a river but not every English reader knows that, so river is added to the translation. It was Friday and soon theyd go out and get drunk. (J. Brain, Room at the Top) , , . We have to add because not every foreign reader may know that the salary in England is given on Friday. for dessert you got Brown Betty, which nobody ate (J. Salingers book The Catcher in the Rye) , , : 80-. ( , ) Im a good liberal, a man of the eighties. In this example the addition is necessary for the readers to understand Gaevs character, to understand that he lived in a time when liberalism lived together with severe political reaction 4) Omission of information usually it doesnt lead to loss of important information Example: There were pills and medicines all over the place, and everything smelled like Vicks Nose Drops. (J. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye) , . Vicks is omitted here because it is something unfamiliar for the foreign reader. 5) Substitution used to inform better the TL reader about something, not explicitly indicated in the SL text, but familiar to the SL audience; we substitute certain information, for something which should serve as an explanation The jubilant Prime Minister faced a large crowd that pressed into Downing Street. Chamberlain spoke a few words from a second-storey window in Number 10. W. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich Every British knows that 10 Downing Street is the official residence of the first lord of the Treasury,, but since not all foreign readers may know this, Barhudarov suggests that we should add In the same way it is replaced: 22 1941 . On the day when Germany attacked Russia, he joined the army. We are talking a date, familiar to every Russian, but probably not familiar at all for many foreign readers. We make substitution because it is important that the person joined the army on the first day of the war for Russia. 6) Generalization when we replace a term, referring to certain event with a more general term so as to make it easier for the TL reader to understand. a yard. where johnson grass and rabbit-tobacco grew in abundance.

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(H. Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird) , The temperature was an easy ninety, he said. , . In the first example, johnson grass and rabbit-tobacco are replaced with weeds for 2 reasons. First of all, these plants are known to the people living in these states, but their name wont be familiar to many foreign readers. Secondly, a generalization is possible because the emphasis is not on the particular types of weeds but on the fact that nobody has been looking after the yard and that weeds grow there. In the second case, ninety means ninety degrees Fahrenheit. But it is a system, which is not used in Bulgaria and Russia. On the other hand we cannot replace it, using Celsius degree scale, since the system is not used in the USA. So the translator used a generalization because the emphasis here is on the fact that it was very hot. Often in generalization a proper noun, which is usually a brand name, can be replaced with a common noun, which refers to the activity or to a particular characteristic of the original word. I could see my mother going in Spauldings (J. Salingers book The Catcher in the Rye) . I lit a cigarette and got all dressed and then I packed these two Gladstones I have. , . 7) Substitution by narrowing the scope (concretization) to replace a word with more general meaning with a word, which is specific and explains the nature of a given phenomena. The British people are still profoundly divided on the issues of joining Europe. . Not all foreign readers may be familiar with the meaning of joining Europe and the association, evoked during the 70s. 8) Footnotes ? In the footnote it will be mentioned that Buckles History of Civilization is better known in Russia than here. To have read it is a sort of cachet of popular erudition. All this discussion serves to prove that the translator needs wide extralinguistic knowledge, and he needs to know very well what the text is about. But one should be very careful when using such ways of rendering PM. The Translator can explain something not known to the reader but he shouldnt try to replace it with events, phenomena typical of the TL audiences environment. Otherwise it will lead to distorting the meaning of the original text, by trying to make it sound more modern and up-to-date. He needs to have a sense of measure. Barhudarov believes that such distortion happened in one of the translations of the Bible, where the translator tried to make it closer to the contemporary reader. 1) a woman who had an evil spirit in her that had kept her sick for eighteen years. 2) .a woman who for eighteen years had been ill from some psychological cause. 1) Then Satan went into Judas. 2) Then a diabolical plan came into the mind of Judas.