MATHEMATICS Be (Jett) la eer ProbabilityText © L. Bostock and S. Chandler 1984 ‘Original illustrations © Nelson Thomes Ltd 1984 ‘The right of L. Bostock and S. Chandler to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All ights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording ‘or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in weiting from the ‘publisher or undier licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who commits any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may 'be liabie to criminal prosecution and civil claims tor First published in 1984 by: ‘Stanley Thomes (Publishers) Ltd Reprinted in 2002 by: Nelson Thornes Lid Delta Place 27 Bath Road ‘GHELTENHAM (GL53 7TH United Kingdom 03 04 05 / 20 19 A catalogue record for this book is availabie from the British Library ISBN 0 8595 0141 8 Page make-up by Tech-Set Lid Printed and bound in Spain by GraphycemsPreface CONTENTS Notes on Use of the Book Chapter 1. Chapter 2. Chapter 3. Chapter 4. Chapter 5. Introduction Basic concepts of force and motion. Vectors. Components and Resultants. Moment ‘Vector representation. Properties of vectors. Resolution. Resultant of concurrent coplanar forces. Vector equation of a line. Vector equation of the path of a moving particle. Position vector of the point of intersection of two lines. Moment of a force, Resultant moment, Coplanar Forces in Equilibrium. Friction Equilibrium of three coplanar forces. Triangle of forces. Lami’s theorem. Contact forces between solid hadies. Laws of friction. Equilibrium of more than three concurrent forces, Velocity and Acceleration Motion in a straight line. Velocity. Acceleration. Displacement-time and velocity-time graphs. Equations f motion f ii jon, \ motion under gravity. Motion with constant velocity. Motion in a plane. Angular motion. Equations of motion for constant angular acceleration, Newton's Laws of Motion The effect of a constant force on a body. Motion of connected particles. vi 66 110 149Chapter 6. Work and Power Chapter 7. Hooke’s Law. Energy Properties of elastic strings and springs. Work done in stretching a string. Mechanical energy. Conservation of mechanical energy. Chapter 8, Momentum. Direct Impact Impulse. Inelastic impact. Conservation of linear momentum. Elastic impact. Law of restitution. Chapter 9. Projectiles General equations of motion of a projectile. Equation of the path of a projectile. Special properties, Chapter 10. Motion in a Circle Circular motion with constant speed. Conical pendulum. Banked tracks. Motion in a vertical circle. Chapter 11. General Motion of a Particle Motion in a straight line with variable acceleration. The effect of a variable force on a body. Graphical methods. Forces producing motion in a plane. Motion in three dimensions. Collision of moving particles. Distance between moving particles. Scalar product of two vectors. Work done by a constant force. Work done by a variable force, Impulse of a variable force, ‘Chapter 12. Simple Harmonic Motion Basic equations of linear and angular SHM. Associated circular motion. Simple pendulum. Moving particle attached to an clastic string or spring. Incomplete oscillations. Chapter 13. Resultant Motion. Relative Motion Resultant velocity vectors. Resultant direction of motion. Frames of reference. Relative velocity. Relative position. Line of closest approach. Interception. vii 181 232 267 338 382 420Chapter 14. Chapter 15. Resultants of Coplanar Forces. Equivalent Force Systems Coplanar forces reducing toa single force. Resultant of parallel forces. Couple. Properties of a couple. Resultant of forces represented by line segments. Replacement force systems. Centre of Gravity 454 498 Chapter 16. Uniform triangular lamina. Composite bodies. Methods using integration. Body hanging freely. Body resting on a plane, Problems Involving Rigid Bodies S45 Chapter 17. Equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of (a) three forces, (b) more than three forces. Sliding and overturning. Composite bodies. Heavy jointed rods, Frameworks 370 Chapter 18. Calculation of stress in light rods. Bow’s notation. Method of sections. Probability Possibility space. Empirical probability. Mutually exclusive events. Independent events. Conditional probability. Tree diagrams. Sample points. Venn diagrams. Expectation, 587 Appendix 632 Amswers 3 Index 655 viiiNOTES ON USE OF THE BOOK 1. Notation Used in Diagrams Force —P Velocity ©—___—___p» Acceleration Dimensions -#———— Where components and resultant are shown in one diagram the resultant is denoted by a larger arrow-head thus: —>- 2. Value of g Throughout this book the value of g, unless stated otherwise, is taken as 9.8ms™*, 3. Useful Pure Mathematics In any triangle ABC as tom in Sine Rule —_—=—_—=— a b © Cosine Rule a? = b84+¢?—2be cos A Cotangent Rule = (m+n) cot@ = mcota—ncotp Compound Angle Formulae sin(A+B) = sinA cosB+cosAsinB cos(A+B) = cos A cosB#sin A sinB ixSmall angles sind as d+0, 1 Integrals f ~ dx = Inlkg(e)| Le = esin ak J Ve 4. Instructions for Answering Multiple Choice Exercises These exercises are at the end of most chapters. The questions are set in groups, each group representing one of the variations that may arise in examination papers. The answering techniques are different for each type of question and are classified as follows: TYPED These questions consist of a problem followed by several alternative answers, only one of which is correct. Write down the letter corresponding to the correct answer. TYPE LM In this type of question some information is given and is followed by a number of possible responses. One or more of the suggested responses follows directly from the information given. Write down the letter(s) corresponding to the correct response(s). A response is regarded as correct only if it must follow from the given data. For example, in a triangle PQR: (a) P+Q4R = 180°. {(b) PQ+QR is less than PR. (c) If B is obtuse, Q and R must both be acute. (@) P=90°, Q=45°, R= 45°. ‘The correct responses are (a) and (c). (b) is definitely incorrect (d) may or may not be true of the triangle PQR so is not regarded as correct. TYPE Hit Each problem contains two independent statements (a) and (b). 1) If (a) implies (b) but (b) does not imply (a) write A. 2) If (b) implies (a) but (a) does not imply (b) write B.3) If (a) implies (b) and (b) implies (a) write C. 4) If (a) denies (b) and (b) denies (a) write D. 5) If none of the first four relationships apply write E. TYPEIV A problem is introduced and followed by a number of pieces of information. You are not required to solve the problem but to decide whether; 1) the total amount of information given is insufficient to solve the problem. If 0 write J, ' 2) all the given information is needed to solve the problem. In this case write A, 3) the problem can be solved without using one or more of the given pieces of information. In this case write down the letter(s) corresponding to the item(s) not needed. TYPE V A single statement is made. Write 7 if the statement is always true and F if the statement is false (or true only in certain cases). xiCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This book is about Mechanics and the solving of mechanical problems with the help of Pure Mathematics. Mechanics, which deals with the effects that forces have on bodies, is a science. So the laws of Mechanics are scientific laws. They come from observation and experiments and so can never be considered as universally true. The most that can be said of several of these laws is that they agree with observed results to the extent that they are accurate enough for most purposes. Pure Mathematics, on the other hand, is an art and its theorems are universally true. When Pure Mathematics is used to solve a Mechanical problem it is important to distinguish clearly between the use of a scientific law and a mathematical theorem, CONVENTIONS Certain factors which have a negligible effect on a problem are often ignored. This has the advantage of simplifying the problem without sacrificing much accuracy, and is best illustrated by an example. Consider a heavy bob suspended from a fixed point by means of a thin wire. The weight of the wire is negligible compared with the weight of the bob, and can be ignored. In such a case it would be described as a light wire. If the dimensions of the bob are small compared with the length of the wire, the bob can be considered as a point and will be described as a particle. If the bob is swinging in still air, then air resistance to its motion will be negligible. In fact air resistance is ignored in all problems unless specific mention is made of it. If the bob is in the shape of a flat disc, where the surface area is large compared to its thickness, the thickness is ignored and the bab is described as a circular lamina.2 Mathematics — Mechanics and Probability If the bob has a spherical shape and the thickness of the materia! it is made from is small compared to its surface area, this thickness is again ignored and the bob is described as a hollow sphere or spherical shell. If the bob is made to slide across a table, then there will be some frictional resistance to its motion, Although it is rare to find a frictionless surface the amount of friction is often small enough to be ignored and such a surface is described as smooth. Summary of Conventions Light... 2.00.0. Considered weightless Particle... 2... Object having no dimensions (considered as a point) Lamina... ... Flat object, having dimensions of area only Hollow . . 3.dimensional shell of no thickness Smooth. .... . . Frictionless Air resistance , . . Ignored, unless mention is made of it, UNITS Most quantities used in this book are measured in the S.1. system of units. The three basic quantities are mass, length and time, All the other quantities are derived from these three but their definitions are left until the appropriate chapters. kilogram metre second newton joule watt Mechanics deals with the effect of forces acting on bodies, and one effect is that motion is produced, Before the relationship between force and the resulting motion is discussed we will consider them separately. MOTION The following quantities are needed to describe the motion of a body: Distance is the length of a given path. The unit of distance is the metre (m).Introduction 3 Displacement defines the position of one point relative to another point; displacement includes both the distance between two points and the direction of the first point from the second point. Speed is the rate at which a moving body covers its path, no account being taken of the direction of motion. The unit of speed. The unit of distance is the metre and the unit of time is the second, hence the unit of speed is the metre per second (ms™). Velocity includes both the rate of motion and the direction of motion. Acceleration, When a velocity changes, it is because either the speed changes, or the direction of motion changes, or both change. Acceleration measures this change in either speed, or direction of motion or both, i.e. acceleration involves direction as well as a magnitude. The unit of acceleration. The unit of speed is the metre per second, so the unit of acceleration is the metre per second per second (ms~*). Note titat distance and speed inivolve'magnitude only, but displacement, velocity and acceleration Involve direction as Well as magnitude. EXAMPLES ta 1) A particle moves round a square ABCD in the sense indicated by the letters, Bis due north of A and C is due west of B and the side of the square is 10 m. Tf the particle starts from A, what distance has it travelled when it is mid-way between B and C, and what isits displacement then from A? When the particle isat P, the distance travelled = AB+PB = 15m The distance between P and A = (10?+5%)m = 5/Sm ABAP = arctan # = 26.6° Therefore the displacement of P from A is 5V5m in the direction 333.4°4 Mathematics — Mechanics and Probability 2) If the particle in Example | is covering its path at a constant rate of 2ms7, what is the speed when travelling along (a) AB, (b) BC? State also its velocity when travelling along (a) AB, (b) BC. SpeedalongAB = = 2ms™ Speed alongBC = 2ms* Velocity alongAB_ = 2ms7! due north Velocity along BC = 2ms~ due west Note that although the speed along AB is equal to the speed along BC, the velocity along AB ismoz equal to the velocity along BC. 3) If the particle in Example 1 moves so that when moving from C to D its speed increases at a rate of 2ms~?, and when moving from D to A its speed decreases at arate of 2ms~?, what is its acceleration along CD and along DA? When the particle is moving along CD (the direction of motion is given by the order of the letters, ie. C to D) the speed is increasing at a rate of 2ms~. Therefore the acceleration is 2ms~? in the direction CD. When the particle is maving along DA the speed is decreasing at a rate of 2ms~?. Therefore the acceleration is 2ms~?, but in the direction AD because the speed is decreasing. EXERCISE 12 1) A particle moves round the sides of a regular hexagon ABCDEF of side 3m. The particle starts from A and moves in the sense ABC. What is the distance travelled by the particle and its displacement from A when it is: {a) at C, (b) at the midpoint of DE? 2) If the particle in Question 1 covers its path at the constant rate of 2ms“, what is its displacement from A after 12s? 3) What is the velocity of the particle in Question 2 after: (a) 5s, {b) 108? 4) A particle moves with constant speed on the circumference of a circle. Is the velocity constant? 5) A particle moves with a constant speed along the track shown in the diagram. For which sections of its journey is the velocity constant? A BIntroduction 5 FORCE Most people have an intuitive idea of force. Consider, for instance, a book lying on a horizontal table. We know that force must be applied to the book to move it along the table, Force may be applied directly to the book by pushing it, or indirectly by, for example, tying a string to the book and pulling the string. Obviously the movement of the book is related to the amount of force used. The direction in which the force is applied also affects the movement of the book: with the string horizontal the book will move along the table; with the string vertical the book will be lifted off the table. The point at which the force is applied to the book also affects the result. If the string is attached to one edge of the book and pulled vertically the book will tilt about the opposite edge, but if the string is attached to the middle of the book and pulled vertically no tilting will take place. So three factors determine the effect that a force has on a body to which it is applied: (a) The amount, or the magnitude, of the applied force. The unit of magnitude is the newton (N). (b) The direction in which the force is applied. (c) The point of application of the force. An alternative way of expressing the direction and point of application of a force is to give its fine of action and the sense of the force along that line. We also know that the book will not move on its own account. From many such observations it is deduced that: force is necessary to make an object begin to move, Conversely, if an object starts to move then a force must have caused that motion to start. WEIGHT If a body is dropped it will start to fall, so we deduce that there must be a force acting on that bedy which attracts it to the ground. This force is called the gravitational force or the weighr of the body; thus the weight of a body is a force and is measured in force units (newtons). If we hold a heavy object we can still feel this gravitational pull, even though the object is not moving, illustrating that the weight of a body acts on it at all times, regardless of whether the object is moving or not.6 Mathematics — Mechanics and Probability MASS It is a well known phenomenon that the force with which an object is attracted to the surface of the moon is less than the force with which the same object is attracted to the surface of the earth. It is also found that the weight of an object varies slightly in different places on the surface of the earth. So, although the amount of matter which constitutes an object is an absolute property of that object, its weight is not absolute. Mass is a measure of the matter contained in an object. The unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Forces Acting on Bodies Consider again a book lying on a horizontal table. The book is not moving, but there is at least one force acting on it, ie. its weight. If the table was not there the book would fall, so the table must be exerting an upward farce on the book to counteract its weight. This force is called the reaction. A reaction force acts on a body whenever that body is in contact with another body which is supporting it. Now consider the book being pulled along the table by a horizontal string attached to the book.