Lesson 1 Introduction Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to: 1.

Narrate the history of meat industry; 2. Relate the stages of animal domestication to the present and future stat us of meat industry; 3. Explain the importance, compositional and nutritive values of meat; 4. Discuss the problems in the consumption and trade of meat. What is the history of meat Industry? The meat industry, in contrast to most large industries, has its roots i n prehistoric times, and the basic procedures for processing meat had been well established by the dawn of recorded history, meat was dried by the aborigines; s moking and salting techniques were well-established long before Homers time (abou t 1000BC); storage of meat in natural caves where the temperature was relatively low even during warm months. Later, as dwellings were built, cellars were const ructed for food storage. Much more recently ice gathered from frozen ponds and l akes in winter, was used to keep cellar temperatures low. The principles of refr igeration date from about 1750. Commercial scale operations based on mechanical refrigeration were in use 100 years later. Preparation of spicing of some kinds sausages were also common practices in Europe and in the Mediterranean countries well before the time of the Caesars. This huge industry developed through a gradual evolution of traditional production, processing, and distribution procedures. Chemical laboratories were established by large meat packing companies but was limited to analytical work o n raw materials and manufactured products, including salt, sugar, spices, water, lard and other fats and cured products. Then a marked upsurge in scientific cur iosity about the composition and dietary significance of meat and meat products occurred. This also resulted to changes in nutritional concepts and in medical o pinions regarding meat in the diet. The changing consumer requirements and expanding population led to the d evelopment of the industry with efficiency and convenience as the guiding princi ples. These necessitated the development of resources especially human resources . How do you define meat and its sources? Meat is any flesh of animals consumed as food. It includes the skeletal muscles, glands and organs, tongue, liver, heart, kidneys, brain, etc. of animal s. It is coming from animals especially from cattle, swine, and sheep but includ es dogs, domesticated and reared specifically for meat production, from birds or reptiles which are still hunted for meat, fish and shellfishes. What are the stages of domestication? The stages of domestication of animals by man involved firstly loose con tacts, with free breeding. This phase was followed by the confinement of animals , with breeding in captivity. Finally, there came selected breeding organized by man, planned development of breeds having certain desired properties and exterm ination of wild ancestors. Domestication was closely linked with the development of agriculture and although sheep were in fact domesticated before 7000B. C., c ontrol of cattle and swine did not come until there was settled agriculture, i.e . about 5000 B.C. What are the effects of domestication? Domestication alters many of the physical characteristic, such as form o f the body; animals are protected against predatory carnivores (other than man),

to have access to regular supplies of nourishing food and to suffer less from n eonatal losses. Improved breeds are early maturing; also tend to give greater ca rcass yield than semi-wild breeds because of their increased level of fatness, h igher percentage of fat in the carcass than later maturing. Moreover, the subcut aneous appears to increase and more developed which are related to the overall s ize. Why are meats important? Meat has formed part of the diet as a source of protein since prehistoric and th e development of hunting skills. Meat has high biological value of 0.75 compared to other sources of protein such as wheat, which only has 0.50. Meat has high satiety value or high feeling of satisfaction. What are the compositional and nutritive values of meat? Meat is considered, justifiably, as a high protein food (Table1). Of the total n itrogen content of muscle, 95% is protein + 5% peptides, amino acids and other c ompounds Meat proteins have similar digestibility with that milk and eggs and higher comp ared to plant proteins (78-88%) Meat has lipid content so has dietary significance as it relates to energy and o besity Meat contains cholesterol and saturated fatty acids Meat has high biological value compared to some protein sources Meat Protein Wheat Protein Wheat Flour = = = 0.75 0.50 0.52

Table 1. the composition of lean muscle tissue of meat animals (%) Species Water Protein Lipid Ash Beef 70-73 20-22 4-8 1.0 Chicken 73-75 20-23 4-7 1.0 Lamb 73 20 5-6 1.4 Pork 68.70 68-70 9-11 1.4 What is biological value and net protein utilization? These are parameters of protein quality: BV = IN UN- FN IN - FN Where: IN UN FN = = = Nitrogen intake Urinary Nitrogen Output Fecal Nitrogen Output

Net Protein Utilization is the ratio of nitrogen retained, total nitroge n intake, and is then influenced by BV and digestibility of the protein. What are some problems related to meat consumption? The role of meat should, however, be placed in perspective: Meat consumption among Americans is certainly high and largely unlimited by fina ncial constraints There is also a tendency to consumption of high fat products such as burgers Meat consumption is only a part of the equation since non-meat energy intake is also high and contributes to the laying down of fat as a long term reserve Meat contains cholesterol and saturated fatty acids, a predisposing factors to h eart diseases

Lean meat Kidney liver

= =

= 400 430

65-75 mg/100g mg/100g mg/100g

Low energy requirement for sedentary work and over-all dietary habits and life s tyle are underlying causes of obesity How the types of meat are, differ in degree of saturation? Beef and mutton have the highest followed by pork and then chicken. How does the degree of unsaturation be altered? Degree of unsaturation can be altered by means of supercritical CO extrac tion. This is technically but not commercially feasible.

Guide Questions: True or False 1. The development of huge meat industry was fast because of popularity of meat as a food. 2. The changing consumers food requirements influenced the direction of the industry. 3. Dogs are included among the sources of meat. 4. Meat has low satiety value so one does not feel easily hungry after a me at-meal. 5. Domestication has a positive effect to the over-all quality of the meat. 6. Meat is rich in fats so has high caloric value. 7. Degree of saturation can easily be altered by means of supercritical CO e xtraction. 8. Meat is limited t o animal sources. 9. Chemical laboratories were established earlier to take care of the needs meat industry. 10. Meat proteins have similar digestibility with that of milk and eggs. Enumerate the ff:

1. 2. 3.

Stages of domestication Importance of meat Sources of meat

Exercises and Activities for the Lesson 1 I. The students will conduct an interview to the slaughterhouses owners reg arding their farm meat technology practices and compare it to the past farm prac tices. Based on the gathered data, the students will predict the future advancem ent in meat processing technology. II. Sensory Test The students will bring meat samples taken from the local market (fresh carcass, frozen and open air ventilated carcass) about .50 kilograms in every sample a. Distinguish the carcass quality by the following standards: Textural characteristics Carcass colorOdor characteristics Taste (cooked)III. The students will conduct an ocular observation to the various equipment and materials being used by the local Slaughterhouse. Classification of slaughterhouse according to standard. Name of slaughter house International And local market (AA) National market (A) Provincial market (B) rket (C) 1 2 3 4

Local ma

IV. The students will visit various stalls and public market in the local co mmunity and determine the following: Types of meat Demand in 2010 (%) Supply in 2010 (%) Demand Gap (%) pork beef carabeef mutton Poultry meat Note: the students will determine/gather the data on the total population of th e community.

Lesson 2 Muscle and Associated Tissues Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to: 1. Discuss the different muscle type and associated tissues; 2. Understand the growth and development of muscles; 3. Outline the muscle components and their mechanism of contraction. What is meat structurally composed of? Meat is composed primarily of muscles, plus variable quantities of all t he types of connective tissues, adipose (fatty) as well as some epithelial and n ervous tissues. Bone is an essential part of the meat animal. What are associated connective tissues? Surrounding the muscle as a whole is a sheath of connective tissue known as the epimysium: from the inner surface of the latter, septa of connective tis sue penetrate into the muscle, separating its essential structural elements, the muscle fibers into bundles. The separating septa constitutes the perimysium, wh ich contains the larger blood vessels and nerves. From the perimysium a fine con nective tissue around each fiber called the inwards to surround each muscle fibe r. The connective tissue around each called the endomysium of reticulin is an am orphous, nonfibrous sheath and associated with fine connective tissue fibers. A structure, referred to as the basement membrane, links the collagenous fibers of the endomysuim to the cell membrane. Only about 40 per cent of the dry weight o f the basement membrane is collagen, the remainder consisting of complex polysac charides, proteoglycans and glycoproteins. How are muscle fibers attached to the bone? Muscle fibers do not themselves directly attach to the bones which they move or in relation to which their force is exerted; the endomysium, perimysium and pimysium blend with massive aggregates of connective tissue (or tendons) and these attach to the skeleton, but the precise mode of connection between the co ntractile proteins and tendon is not yet clear. Microscopic examination of tendo ns shows that the constituent bundles of collagen fibrils have regular crimp at in terval of ca. 100 um. It seems possible that this feature permits the collagen t o take up the initial shock of movement by straightening the crimp before the te ndon sustains the full load. The ultimate tensile strength of tendon, at an exte nsion of 10 15 per cent, is ca. 1lOONnm~ compared with ca. 220Nnm for aluminum (Bai ley, 1989). Connective tissue includes formed elements and an amorphous ground subst ance in which the formed elements are frequently embedded. The latter consist of the fibers of collagen, which are straight, inextensible and non-branching; and of elastin, which are elastic, branching and yellow in color. What are muscle tissues? Muscle tissues, the lean portion of the meat, are bundles of fibers or m uscle held together with connective tissues (Fig. 1). There are two types of con nective tissues collagen, which is white, and elastic, which is yellow. Collagen can be tenderized by proper cooking. If cooked for a long time at a low tempera ture by moist heat, it gradually breaks down and turns to gelatin and water. Mea t cuts that are high in collagen, such as brisket, plate and chuck, are therefor e cooked by moist heat methods. Meat cuts that are low in collagen and have fine

-textured fibers, such as steaks and loin cuts can be cooked by dry-heat methods . Elastin remains tough no matter how it is cooked. The only way to deal with el astin is mechanical grinding for example. Ground beef, such as used to make hamb urgers, is often made from tougher meats that need to be mechanically ground bef ore they are tender enough to eat. The muscles are attached by tendon (connectiv e tissue) to the bone in living animals. The thickness of the muscle fiber, the tissue binding them together determine the grain of the meat. When the fibers an d the bundles are small, the meat is fine, and velvety therefore of top quality. What is the general structure of collagen? Collagen is one of the few proteins to contain large quantities of hydro xypoline of about 12.8%. The polypeptide chains of its primary structure each ha ve the repeating sequence-gylcine-proline-hydroxypoline-glycine-one of the other amino acids. It was shown that one chain in three had a somewhat different amin o acid composition from the other two; and the two chain types are refferred to as a and a. Subsequently at least twelve different forms of collagen have been iso lated and identified, each having a unique sequence of amino acids in the primar y polypeptide chainds and associations with different carbohydrate molecules. What determine the chain sequence? Different genes, these ofthen being located on different chromosomes, de termine the chain sequences. The three a-chains are able to pack together very i n forming the triple a-helix of the tropocollogen molecule because each third r esidue is glycine in which the side chain consists only of hydrogen. The amoount s of proline and of proline and of hydroxyproline are directly related to the he rmal stability of the triple helix; and this is important for the eating quality of meat. The N- and C- terminal, non helical regions of the chains are only 2525 amino acid residues in lenght. The N-terminal region always has a lysine resi due at position 9. The chain of type 111 collagen only contain cysteine at the C -terminal end; the contents of hydroxylysine vary markedly. The individual muscle fiber is a specialized, multinucleated (Fig. 2). E longated cell, varying in size depending on its functions and amount of use (Fig . 3). The muscle cell has a triple-layered outer membrane called the sarcolemma with a system of tubules opens to the exterior. What are the types of muscle proteins? The three of muscle proteins are sarcoplasmic, myofbrillar and proteins of conne ctive tissues and other formed tissues. 1. Sarcoplasmic Proteins

Those which are soluble in waer or dilute salt solutions These include myogen and globulins Represent a complex mixture of about 50 components, many of which are enzymes of the glycolytic cycle. Although it constitutes 2 per cent of the total sarcoplasmic proteins (in pig L dorsi) It does not appear t correspond to any of the known enzymes of the glycol ytic pathway Almost all have been crystallized Differ in various other paramaters including their relative susceptibility to de naturation In vivo, they might be present in a less mobile phase Is now known that the glycolytic enzymes (which constitute the major proportion of the sarcoplasmic proteins) are bound to the myofibrillar protein, actin, in v ivo a feature which may well assist in the orientation and control of enzymic re

actions in the muscle Several enzymes consist of more than one molecular species (isozymes) The proportion of each glycolytic enzymes which is bound increase on stimulation of glycolysis (e.g. electrical) and decrease when such stimulation ceases The enhanced binding on stimulation to activity is especially marked in respect of phosphofructokinase, triose phosphate dehydrogenase, aldolase, phosphopyruvat e hydratase and phosphospyruvate kinase The binding of aldolase and of triose phosphate debydrogenase