ISSN 1870-9095 LATIN AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS EDUCATION www.journal.lapen.org.

mx Volume 2 Number 1 January 2008 A publication sponsored by Centro de Investigacin en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnologa Avanzada del Instituto Politcnico Nacional and the Latin American Physics Educati on Network

LATIN AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS EDUCATION Electronic version of this journal can be downloaded free of charge from the web resource: http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx Production and technical support Danie l Snchez Guzmn dsanchez@ipn.mx EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Cesar Mora, Instituto Politcnico Nacional, Mxico. EDITORIAL POLICY Latin American Journal of Physics Education is a peer-reviewed, electronic international journal for the publication of papers of instructional and cultural aspects of physics. Articles are chosen to support those involved with physics courses from introductory up to postgraduate levels. Papers may be comprehensive reviews or reports of original investigations that make a definiti ve contribution to existing knowledge. The content must not have been published or accepted for publication elsewhere, and papers must not be under consideratio n by another journal. This journal is published three times yearly (January, May and September), one volume per year by Centro de Investigacin en Ciencia Aplicad a y Tecnologa Avanzada del Instituto Politcnico Nacional and The Latin American Ph ysics Education Network (LAPEN). Manuscripts should be submitted to cmoral@ipn.m x or lajpe@lapen.org.mx .Further information is provided in the Instructions to A uthors on www.journal.lapen.org.mx Direct inquiries on editorial policy and the r eview process to: Cesar Mora, Editor in Chief, CICATA-IPN Av. Legaria 694, Col I rrigacin, Del. Miguel Hidalgo, CP 11500 Mxico D. F. Copyright 2007 Csar Eduardo Mor a Ley, Latin American Physics Education Network. (www.lapen.org.mx) ISSN 1870-90 95 INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE Carl Wenning, Illinois State University (USA) D iane Grayson, Andromeda Science Education (South Africa) David Sokoloff, Univers ity of Oregon (USA) Edward Redish, University of Maryland (USA) Elena Sassi, Uni versity of Naples (Italy) Freidrich Herrmann, University of Karlsruhe (Germany) Gordon Aubrecht II, Ohio State University (USA) Hiroshi Kawakatsu, Kagawa Univer sity (Japan) Jorge Barojas Weber, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (Mxico) Jos Zamarro, University of Murcia (Spain) Laurence Viennot, Universit Paris 7 (France ) Marisa Michelini, University of Udine (Italy) Marco Antonio Moreira, Universid ade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) Minella Alarcn, UNESCO (France) Pratibh a Jolly, University of Delhi (India) Priscilla Laws, Dickinson College (USA) Ton Ellermeijer, AMSTEL Institute University of Amsterdam (Netherlands) Vernica Tric io, University of Burgos (Spain) Vivien Talisayon, University of the Philippines (Philippines) Zdenek Kluiber, Technical University (Czech Republic) EDITORIAL BOARD Amadeo Sosa, Ministerio de Educacin y Cultura Montevideo (Uruguay ) Carola Graziosi, APFA (Argentina) Deise Miranda, Universidade Federal do Rio d e Janeiro (Brasil) Eduardo Molt, Instituto Superior Pedaggico Jos Varona (Cuba) Edu ardo Montero, Escuela Superior Politcnica del Litoral (Ecuador) Josefina Barrera, Universidade do Estado do Amazonas (Brasil) Josip Slisko, Benemrita Universidad Autnoma de Puebla (Mxico) Juan Evertsz, Universidad Pontificia Catlica Maestra y Ma estra, Sociedad Dominicana de Fsica (Rep. Dominicana) Julio Benegas, Universidad Nacional de San Luis (Argentina) Leda Roldn, Universidad de Costa Rica (Costa Ric a) Manuel Reyes, Universidad Pedaggica Experimental Libertador (Venezuela) Mauric io Pietrocola Universidad de Sao Paulo (Brasil) Nelson Arias vila, Universidad Di strital, Bogot (Colombia) Octavio Calzadilla, Universidad de la Habana (Cuba) Ric ardo Buzzo Garrao, Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Valparaso (Chile)

EDITORIAL Presentamos a ustedes el Nmero 1 del Volumen 2 del Latin-American Journal of Phys ics Education (LAJPE), en este ejemplar se incluyen trabajos de Chile, Cuba, Esp aa, Francia, Mxico, Repblica Checa, Siria y USA. Estamos muy complacidos por el apo yo brindado por colegas de pases tan lejanos para conseguir el presente ejemplar de excelente contenido, pues se abordan temas importantes de actualidad sobre Ed ucacin en Fsica, tales como la teora popular de enseanza de la Fsica estudiada en Nor teamrica, as como el uso de la hermenutica para estudiar la relacin entre la solucin de problemas y la escritura, enfoque desarrollado en Mxico. As como los resultados de la escuela francesa sobre las reacciones de los maestros en la interaccin en la enseanza de la Fsica, el anlisis de detalles finos y el estudio de rituales en a lumnos y profesores. Tambin, se presentan reflexiones interesantes para lograr un aprendizaje significativo de la Fsica, y se muestran propuestas de bajo costo pa ra la enseanza de temas como son la Fsica trmica y de fluidos. Por otro lado, se pr esentan varios trabajos sobre aspectos culturales de la Fsica que son relevantes para la enseanza moderna, tales como la mecnica cuntica, la teora especial de la rel atividad y las teoras multidimensionales. Se revisarn falacias histricas y concepto s errneos que es comn escucharlos en cursos regulares y tomarlos como ciertos. Fin almente, se incluye un estudio bibliomtrico de publicaciones sobre el pndulo como un ejemplo de cmo se construye la ciencia. Sin duda, la interaccin y el intercambi o entre profesores de Fsica de nuestra regin y de otros continentes resulta ser un a experiencia enriquecedora que es promovida por la red LAPEN (Latin American Ph ysics Education Network). Esperamos que el esfuerzo realizado para dar a luz est e nmero de LAJPE pueda servir a ms de algn profesor de Fsica interesado en mejorar s u prctica docente. Cesar Mora Editor en Jefe

Physics Classroom Engagement: constructing understanding in real time Dewey I., Dykstra, Jr. Physics Department, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725-1570 E-mail: ddykstr a@boisestate.edu (Received 15 October 2007, accepted 15 December 2007) Abstract The dismal results of standard physics teaching found in the research in physics education are explained and justified by the folk theory of physics teaching. C hallenging this folk theory at its core results in far superior student learning . An example of an alternative practice called student understanding-driven inst ruction is described. Implications for the role of the teacher and for teacher p reparation are drawn, as are challenges to engaging in this alternative physics teaching practice. Keywords: Folk theory of physics teaching, student understand ing-driven instruction, conceptions of real image formation. Resumen Los resultados lamentables de la enseanza de la fsica estndar encontrados en la inv estigacin en fsica educativa son explicados y justificados segn la teora popular de enseanza de la fsica. El desafo de esta teora popular en sus resultados bsicos es muy superior en el aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Se describe un ejemplo de una prc tica alternativa llamada instruccin de entendimiento conducido del estudiante. Ta mbin, son descritas las implicaciones para el papel del profesor y la preparacin d el mismo, ya que son desafos para la contratacin en esta prctica alternativa de ens eanza de la fsica. Palabras claves: Teora popular de enseanza de la fsica, instruccin de entendimiento conducido del estudiante, concepciones de formacin de imagen rea l. PACS: 01.40.-d, 01.40.Fk, 01.40.gb, 01.40.Ha, 01.40.J-, 42.15.-i ISSN 1870-90 95 I. INTRODUCTION Physics learning today It is well documented that most students leave instruction on physics topics wit h no significant change in their understanding of the phenomena studied. Mountin g evidence to this effect has been published for at least 30 years. A bibliograp hy containing this evidence is on-line [1]. The bibliography, just updated in Fe bruary, 2007, now has 7,700 entries. This evidence is apparently unknown to many in spite of the quantity of it published, shocking to some and rejected by othe rs [2]. The prevailing folk theory of physics teaching explains this outcome. Th e folk theory of physics teaching can be defined in the following way: Physics t eaching is the presentation of the established canon by approved methods for the benefit of the deserving. Very few students show evidence of receiving the cano n presented to them as anything other than a kind of rote memorized catechism. T his apparently is the general outcome regardless how skilled we are at the appro ved methods for presentation of our canon. Under the folk theory the elitist ass umption is apparently very few students are deserving; that is, few students hav e the mental capacity and the diligence to get what is presented. This folk theo ry with its elitist view of people explains the Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 results, exonerates teachers and students for poor performance, and boosts the e gos of the deserving. Of course, numbered among the deserving are teachers of phys ics, physicists, and a few students. The folk theory goes unquestioned as if it is the natural order of things. Hence, many very intelligent, hard working and s incere instructors of physics have lived with these results all their careers wi thout challenging them. In fact the results are aggressively defended [2]. Evidence to the contrary If there were no evidence to the contrary, then the folk theory would be accepta ble, because it fits the observations. Yet, there is evidence to the contrary. A n alternative explanation for learning leads to a very different practice of phy sics teaching from which many students leave having made significant changes in understanding in significant numbers. This different practice of physics teachin g rests on a different explanation of the nature and origins of knowledge and a different relationship between knowers and this knowledge. This different view o

f knowing and knowers comes out of the work of the Swiss Genetic Epistemologist Jean Piaget and the Radical Constructivist Ernst von Glasersfeld [3, 4]. The res ult of experience in this physics teaching practice is most students do demonstr ate evidence they have constructed new 1 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Dewey I., Dykstra, Jr. understanding of the phenomena studied in much greater numbers than students tau ght under the folk theory.[5] Hence, we have evidence that generally students le ave physics instruction without having changed their understandings of the pheno mena studied. Out of their experiences in physics classes students also apparent ly generally form opinions (1) that they cannot understand physics, (2) only cer tain special people (the deserving) can really understand physics and (3) it is mostly just mathematics. Yet, we also have evidence that most students can indee d construct new, more powerful understandings of the phenomena for themselves. S uch experiences do not support the ideas that most cannot really understand phys ics or that only a certain few are deserving. Thus, teaching practices consisten t with the folk theory do unnecessary damage to most students and, thereby, to s ociety. This damage is accomplished by teaching most students who experience instr uction on physics topics that they are inadequate when they are not. Corollary t o this damage is the students are taught to be dependent on others for truth. A so ciety is weakened when its members are convinced they are inadequate and depende nt on a few for the truth. working understanding of the students understandings, then the students are likel y to disequilibrate when they are surprised by the contrast between the actual o utcome and their predictions. How can a teacher know what the students conception s of the phenomena are likely to be? There are two major sources. One is the bib liography cited at the beginning of this paper and accumulating publications fro m physics education research [1]. The other is in the classroom working with the students. Most of the class time needs to be spent with students sharing their ideas about the phenomena. Obviously, this is a major departure from a folk theo ry driven classroom. There are many venues and media that can be used to get stu dents to make explicit their ideas both for themselves and teachers. The most co mmonly used modes are speaking and writing. The writing can be informal as in no tes made in class, more public as in on-line discussions, or formal as in writin g assignments. Another mode to encourage collaboration is group-designed posters to illustrate the ideas of the group. Such a poster can be found in Figure 1. III. REAL IMAGE FORMATION II. A DIFFERENT TEACHING PRACTICE At the heart of this different physics teaching practice is Piagets notion of equ ilibration. Human beings tend to adjust their understanding such that prediction s based on this understanding fit experiences with the phenomenon the understand ing explains. When the predictions or expectations do not fit experience with th e phenomenon, a disequilibrated state is the response. People who have disequili brated, either avoid the situation, sweeping it under the carpet, or they draw n ear the situation to develop modifications to existing understanding that would enable expectations that better fit the experience. Hence, in order to have stud ents develop new understandings, they have to disequilibrate. It is the physics teachers central role to establish situations in the classroom in response to whi ch the students are likely to disequilibrate. This role is profoundly different than in the folk theory. Piaget and his colleagues studied young people making s ense of their world, both physical and social. Their interest was in development , not in schooling, so he did not focus on standard school learning. They found they could best explain their observations concerning development using the idea of equilibration of cognitive structures. For the teacher the practical problem is how to induce disequilibration, when a.) only the students can disequilibrat e themselves and b.) only the students can find a new equilibrium by constructin g their own new understanding of the world to fit their experience. One approach is to engage students in eliciting their own conceptions by applying them to ma king predictions about some new experience. Then have them actually experience w hat happens when the prediction is tested. To induce disequilibration, their pre dictions should not match what actually happens. If the teacher has formulated a good Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008

An example of disequilibration Most people, trained in physics or not, seem to o perate with the notion that an image comes as entity from luminous objects to a lens. In terms of rays, one ray comes from each point on the luminous object. Th e image is manipulated by the agency of the lens to appear clear and sharp on a screen. The image has a physical size all the way from the source to the screen where it appears, usually inverted, sharp and clear, as illustrated in Figure 1. FIGURE 1. Image manipulation by a lens. This is a typical poster drawn by a grou p of four students when asked to use the idea of light rays to illustrate using light rays how they think the image comes to be on the screen. This notion of image leads most people to predict that if we have a sharp image from a luminous source present on a screen, when we cover half the lens, we will only see one 2 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Physics Classroom Engagement: constructing understanding in real time half of the image on the screen [6]. The other half will be blocked. Yet, when t his is tried, the whole image remains! One can even use a card with 1.0 cm hole over the lens and move the hole around. The image will remain whole and fixed in location on the screen. How is this example used to induce students to disequil ibrate? The best way is to begin with the students attending to their own concep tions of images from lenses. We show them the luminous object, lens and screen p laced so that a bright, sharp, clear image is apparent on the screen, but the st udents are admonished not to manipulate the apparatus [7]. We ask: what would ha ppen on the screen, if we were to cover half the lens? First, students write and sketch their own ideas on this question with an emphasis on why their answer se ems reasonable at this point in time. Next, the students are invited to share th eir answers to the questions with each other, again with an emphasis on their ju stifications for their answers. The point here is not the prediction, but to eli cit their conceptions concerning this particular situation. The goal is to get s tudents to be explicit about their own ideas, to share them with their peers, an d to find out about the ideas of others. After this discussion, then the student s are invited to try covering half the lens with an opaque card. Because of the level of commitment to their predictions, cultivated by their efforts to justify or explain their prediction, the fact that all of the image is still there and it does not matter which part or how much of the lens remains uncovered results for many, even trained physicists, in disequilibration. The actual experience of disequilibration is far more than merely cognitive. It has an affective impact, too. When it is okay to have ones prediction not match what happens, then it is possible to draw near the experience and participate in discussion about the imp lications of this outcome for the explanations that supported the original predi ctions. Under the folk theory, the focus is on accurate reproduction of the cano n. The teacher immediately corrects any departure from the canon. As such there is a premium on accurate predictions. In folk theory driven instruction students quickly learn not to predict from their own understanding, but to guess what th e teacher wants. When students are freed to make predictions from their own unde rstanding, they are free to revise their understanding when they find their pred ictions do not match the outcomes. In the context of a ray model of light, it is typical that students decide there must be more than one ray coming from each p articular point on the luminous source. The multiple rays from any one point mus t be hitting all the points on the lens. How else could leaving any arbitrary po rtion of the lens uncovered result in the whole image on the screen? The notion that the image leaves the source as an entity is discredited. The notion that th ere is a single ray from any given point on the source is also discredited. At t his point in the students minds there is a viable alternative to the issue of sin gle rays from points on luminous objects, but there is yet to be developed a via ble alternative to the notion of the image leaving the source as an entity. This example is but one glimpse of the process in the classroom. By stringing togeth er a number of such Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 examples, a teacher can engage a class of students in constructing for themselve s multifaceted explanatory theories of a phenomenon that fit experience quite cl osely. Once students have constructed such a theory, they can answer questions a bout possibilities that go far beyond what they have directly experienced. Becau se students developed and tested the theories themselves, they develop skill at constructing theories. Importantly, they do not have to rationalize why they did not get what was presented. Knowledge is no longer handed down from the deservi ng for the deserving neophytes. Students are no longer dependent on the deservin g for the truth. Everyone constructs knowledge and has the responsibility for th eir own constructions. Instead of leaving the instructional experienced damaged and dependent, students leave the experience empowered and with deeper understan dings of the phenomena studied.

IV. DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT INSTRUCTION The teacher faces a completely different set of issues and challenges in this pr actice than the teacher using the folk theory of physics teaching. Because teach ing is not about transmitting the canon to the deserving, the teacher becomes de pendent on students, as students are the only ones who can change their own unde rstandings. In spite of this dependence there are things that the teacher can do which have profound effects on the students. To carry out the kind of examples above, the teacher needs to have constructed personal understanding, not just sa tisfied the normal content course requirements for teacher candidates in the fol k theory of physics teaching. In addition, the teacher must develop a personal u nderstanding of the ways students typically think about the phenomenato see the de velopment of physical theory in students minds [8]. This comes first from consulti ng the research literature on student conceptions, but much more comes from list ening to and observing the students as they talk about their ideas of the phenom ena and make predictions. The very issues attended to in instruction are differe nt. Under the folk theory of physics teaching, the canon is spelled out in textb ooks. The texts determine the sequence, quantity and level of the canon presente d. In lab, the experiments are all designed to show elements of this canon. On t he other hand, using this different practice of physics teaching, the experiment s are chosen for their potential to be experiences over which students are likel y to disequilibrate. Because the canon and its organization are a distilled, str eamlined and hierarchical organization of topics and examples, the canon bears n o relationship to how such knowledge might be developed. The example in geometri c optics illustrates the canon is worse than useless as a guide when real change in understanding is the goal. In the standard, textbook-driven treatment of geo metric optics, the students would be marched through the law of reflection and Sne lls law. Then they would be shown the technique of drawing special rays and given t he thin lens equation and asked to perform special ray constructions and do thin lens calculations. Throughout definitions of terms would be 3 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Dewey I., Dykstra, Jr. given as if the students should be able to understand and know the meanings mere ly because they have been told or shown. Yet, when the students understandings ar e probed after such instruction, as did Goldberg and McDermott [6], we find afte r this instruction the students notions of real images are essentially unchanged. Neither the details of the law of reflection, Snells law, special rays nor the thin lens equation play any role even in the larger more complete unit of student und erstanding-driven instruction of which the example is a part. The canon as descr ibed by the standard table of contents of a physics book is essentially useless when change in student understanding is the goal. Implications for physics teach er preparation The central challenge to the physics teacher, then, is how to est ablish the conditions under which students are likely to disequilibrate. Clearly , this task cannot be accomplished if the teacher does not know how the students think about the phenomenon to be studied. It also cannot be accomplished if the teacher does not know the experiences possible with the phenomenon to be studie d. These two capacities are sadly lacking in most people who teach physics at an y level. This inadequate state of affairs is not due to shortcomings of the teac hers of physics, themselves. Instead it is due to shortcomings in their preparat ion and training to teach physics. Teacher preparation is generally driven by th e folk theory. For example, in the U. S. physics teacher preparation consists of presenting the canon to the teacher candidates, generally via two of the accept ed methods: lecture and scripted laboratory activities. Then the teacher candida tes are shown the accepted methods of presentation and given some supervised pra ctice in a real classroom. This basic description has not changed even under the influence of the No Child Left Behind Act, imposed by the U. S. federal governm ent. In countries where there are formal teacher preparation programs, the train ing is similar. In countries where there is little or no formal training to teac h, the main criterion for teacher selection is evidence of being in possession o f the canon, usually via a degree in the subject. As Niedderer has written: ...a physics major has to be trained to use today s physics whereas a physics teacher has to be trained to see a development of physical theories in his students mind s[8]. Sadly, the folk theory driven standard preparation does not focus the atten tion of the teacher candidates on the development of physical theories in the st udents minds. It does not even focus the teacher candidates on the development of physical theory in their own minds. So, while the standard preparation does exp ose teacher candidates to some of the possible experiences to be had with the ph enomena, the necessary component of focus on the development of understanding is simply not there at all in their training. Thus, it is not a surprise that the result of folk theory driven training is folk theory teaching. The consequence i s damage to students and society, weakening both the students and the society to which they belong. Resistance to change from the folk theory Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 The cognitive and affective processes relied upon in this alternative teaching p ractice are believed to be explanatory of natural human functioning. These natur al human functions are suppressed quite effectively by years of standard instruc tion under the folk theory, which is employed in the teaching of every subject. Just as they come to us with well-established conceptions of physical phenomena, students come to us with well entrenched personal explanatory theories of schoo ling which entail the roles and obligations of both student and teacher. This al ternative practice does not fit these standard notions of schooling well at all. As a result, another issue the teacher using the alternative practice must deal with is engaging students in rethinking learning and the consequences of this d ifferent notion of learning for both the students and teachers. Hence, engaging in disequilibration over physical phenomena must occur against the background of coming to grips with reconceptualization of the learning culture of the classro om. The teacher who desires conceptual change for the students faces resistance from students, colleagues and administrators. The whole educational enterprise i s driven by the folk theory of teaching. The preparation of teachers is determin

ed by the folk theory. The evaluation of teaching for purposes of teacher advanc ement and salary are also dominated by the folk theory. Students are indoctrinat ed into a debilitating worldview through instruction driven by the folk theory. Emilia Ferreiros field is not physics, but early acquisition of reading by young children. Nonetheless, she captures the challenges very well in the following pa ssage: Instead of asking about the method employed, it is more useful to look at the practices used to introduce the child [student] to reading [knowledge], and how this object [knowledge] is presented in the classroom. There are practices t hat lead children [students] to think that knowledge is something that others po ssess and that they must turn therefore to others to obtain it without ever part icipating in the construction of such knowledge [themselves]. There are also pra ctices that make them think that what has to be known is given once and for all, a s if it were a closed, sacred, and immutable set of elements that are to be tran smitted but not modified. Yet other practices place the child [student] outside th e knowledge, making them passive spectators or mechanical receivers who can neve r find the answers to the whys and wherefores that they dont even dare to formula te aloud. There is no neutral pedagogical practice. Every single one is based on a given conception of the learning process and of the object of such a process. Most probably, those practices more than the methods themselves are exerting the greatest effects in the domain of literacy [or science], as in any field of kno wledge. Certain practices may appear normal and others aberrant depending upon how t he relation between subject and the object of knowledge is understood and how bo th terms of this relation are characterized. It is at this point that psychopeda gogical considerations must be supported by epistemological reflections. (Emphasi s in the original) [9]. We see from the evidence in the bibliography that the fo lk theory-driven methods of physics instruction have 4 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Physics Classroom Engagement: constructing understanding in real time little effect on students understandings of the phenomena studied. On the other h and, it is clear from the response of many students that they come to our classr ooms expecting, even demanding, to be mechanical receivers of a closed, sacred, and immutable set of truths. They do not expect that they could ever participate in t he construction of such knowledge themselves. Administrators and many parents ins ist on preserving this status quo by their action. Yet, the wisdom of Ferreiros w ords in our own classroom experience is clear. Resistance and road-blocks to stu dent understanding-driven instructional practices are great, but it is nonethele ss possible to employ such practices with success as demonstrated by the evidenc e cited above [5]. REFERENCES [1] Duit, R., Students and teachers conceptions and science education (Institute f or Science Education (IPN), University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany, 2007). Available online at: <http://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/aktuell/stcse/stcse.html> [2] Ehrlich, R. , How do we know if we are doing a good job in physics teaching?, Am. J. Phys. 7 0, 2428 (2002). [3] Piaget, J., The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Ce ntral Problem of Intellectual Development, (translated by Brown, T. and Thampy, J. K., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985). [4] Glasersfeld, E. von, Kno wing without metaphysics: Aspects of the radical constructivist position. In Ste ier, F. (Ed.) Research and Reflexivity (Inquiries into social construction) (Sag e Publications, London, 1991). Available on-line at:<http://www.kjf.ca/17-TAGLA. htm> [5] Dykstra, D. I., Jr., Against realist instruction: catastrophic failure and an alternative, Constructivist Foundations 1, 49 60 (2005). Available on-lin e at: <http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/retrieve.c gi?paper=1.1.dy kstra> [6] Goldberg, F. & McDermott, L. C., Investigation of student understandi ng of real image formation by a converging lens or concave mirror, Am. J. Phys. 55, 108119 (1987). [7] We use an unfrosted, electric light bulb with a shaped fi lament. When the bulb is turned on, the filament becomes the luminous object. [8 ] Niedderer, H., What research can contribute to the improvement of classroom te aching. In Nachtigall, D. K., Bartsch, H., Scholz, C. (Eds.), International Conf erence on Physics Teachers Education Proceedings. (Dortmund, University of Dortmu nd, 1992) pp. 120155. [9] Ferreiro, E., Literacy Acquisition and the representati on of language. In Kamii, C., Manning, M. and Manning, G. (Eds.) Early Literacy: a constructivist foundation for whole language. (NEA Professional Library Washi ngton, DC, National Education Association, 1991) pp. 4546. VI. CONCLUSIONS Physics teaching based on the folk theory by teachers trained to teach according to the folk theory is a spectacular failure at engaging students in developing new understanding of the phenomena. An alternative, student understanding-driven practice has been demonstrated to result in most students developing new unders tandings of the phenomena. Piagets equilibration plays a central role in this alt ernative instruction. The teachers role in the practice is markedly different tha n under the folk theory. Necessary pedagogical content knowledge for the teacher in this alternative practice is described and an example of the practice in geo metric optics has been illustrated. Resistances to the alternative teaching prac tice are acknowledged. All students can develop new, deep and powerful understan dings of the phenomena, if engaged in doing so properly. We have an obligation t o the students, society and our profession to so engage the students when we tea ch. To accomplish this we have to question the folk theory of teaching and its c onsequences. Then, we need to change both the preparation of teachers and the ev aluation of their work, so that we do not perpetuate the folk theory of teaching . Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 5

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Problem solving and writing II: The point of view of hermeneutics Jorge Barojas1, 2 Department of Physics, School of Sciences. UNAM. Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Unive rsitaria. A.P. 70542. C. P. 04510. Mxico, D. F., Mxico. 2 Member of the Seminar on Hermeneutics, at the Institute of Research in Philology, UNAM. E-mail: jbarojas @posgrado.unam.mx (Received 03 November 2007; accepted 17 December 2007) 1 Abstract In this second paper we continue with the connections between problem solving an d writing taking into accounts the perspective of hermeneutics. The problem solv ing protocol used in the first paper is modified in two cases: first to present the narrative of the solution provided by a writer to a physics system (the buoy ancy of an iceberg) and second to approach the solution of a problem in a human learning system. As an example of the second system the development of a learnin g community in charge of a masters program devoted to training high school teache rs is discussed. Finally, some implications of human interactions occurring in t he contexts of problem solving and communicating and interpreting are considered in Physics Education. Keywords: Problem solving, Problem-based learning. Resumen En este segundo artculo continuamos con la relacin entre resolver problemas y escr ibir, ahora desde el punto de vista de la hermenutica. El protocolo de solucin de problemas considerado en el primer artculo se modifica en dos casos; primero, par a presentar la narrativa que hara un escritor respecto de la solucin del problema de fsica de la flotacin de un iceberg y luego, para abordar la solucin de un proble ma en un sistema de aprendizaje humano. Como ejemplo ilustrativo del segundo sis tema discutimos el desarrollo de una comunidad de aprendizaje que tiene a su car go una maestra dedicada a la formacin de profesores de enseanza media superior. Fin almente, consideramos algunas implicaciones en enseanza de la fsica de las interac ciones humanas que se dan en los contextos de solucin de problemas, comunicacin e interpretacin. Palabras clave: Resolucin de problemas, aprendizaje basado en probl emas. PACS: 01.40.-d, 01.50-i, 01.40.gb ISSN 1870-9095 I. COMMUNICATION AND INTERPRETATION IN PROBLEM SOLVING We write documents by using symbolic representations under certain contexts with the goal of communicating something through reading or listening. The preparati on, communication and interpretation of these intellectual products imply creati ve designs that are highly developed outcomes of thinking. These designs evolve into written texts containing discourses to be interpreted. Written documents do not include details about the reasoning trajectories or patterns accomplished i n the mind of the author; they report only what seems to be the better outcomes. However, the intention of the author must be clear and clean in a final product without ambiguity. In reading a written document two processes are of equivalen t importance: the communication of a product and its interpretation. Problem solving and writing are creative designs that have structural similariti es corresponding to a plan proposed by the author. Such a plan must be grasped b y the readers according to their interpretation approach. It is in this context that it might be useful to use instruments for interpreting written texts. In pa per I the roles of cognitive and metacognitive reasoning skills in presenting an d evaluating the design, and the construction and communication of the solutions to problems have been interpreted in connection with conceptual activities, suc h as formation, treatment and conversion of semiotic representation registers [1 ]. We must remember that a representation register is any device for recording. In order to make clear how these two dimensions (cognitive and metacognitive) ar e related in problem solving and writing we have described a protocol or procedu re called TADIR that was applied to explain the solution of a problem in a physi cal system (the problem of buoyancy). We have considered the approach of a 6 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

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Problem solving and writing II: The point of view of hermeneutics physicist who uses three kinds of languages: the natural language of everyday ta lking, the technical language of Physics, and the formal language of mathematics . In this second paper we deal with the same physics problem but describe what m ight be the narrative of the solution provided by a writer who uses the protocol TADIR with some modifications. Afterwards, we consider an adaptation of the sam e protocol TADIR to discuss the solution of a problem in a human learning system corresponding to a Physics Education program. The interpretation of possible so lutions to both problems is done from the point of view of hermeneutics, the dis cipline concerning the interpretation of texts. II. REMARKS ON HERMENEUTICS The name hermeneutics is associated with Hermes: the Greek god of communication, the borders, the limits. It represents the crossing of paths and the coincidenc e of moments. Initially, hermeneutics was connected only to the comprehension an d interpretation of written texts. In Plato, it was referred to inspiration and communication of messages, and in Aristotle it was conceived as a theory of expr ession [2]. Nowadays, the notion of text also includes dialogues, images and act ions. All interpretation assumes that the author of a text has some intentionali ty to be expressed within a context. It comprises what has been said, exists and is done at the moment of the production of the text. The plurality of possible interpretations is a consequence of the variability of contexts determining the readers approach and the comprehension that comes out from the interpretation of the text. By following Grondin [3] interpretation has had meaning and manifestat ion forms in philology, art, translation, jurisdiction and in our presence in th e world. The goal is to provide scenarios while looking for meanings in contexts where the interpreters act as mediators in a wide spectrum of perspectives. Dif ferent meanings can be interpreted in terms related to cognitive, ideological, h istorical or linguistic issues. We might refer to interpretations concerning hum an works or manifestation of nature in order to understand their structures and functions. The interpretation of a text implies the comprehension of both a refe rence and a meaning. The reference is the concrete link with facts. The meaning is the mental construct that is apprehended when we understand something. The re ference is unique when the meaning is clear and distinct and when there is no pl ace for misunderstandings. The meaning is multiple when many forms of understand ing the reference are valid and convincing. However, a reference without meaning is empty and meaning without reference is useless. We require a mediation proce ss between uniqueness of consensus and diversity of dissension depending on havi ng only one reference and meaning or many of both of them. The main purpose of a ny author, as a writer or as a problem solver, is to generate written documents to be apprehended by the readers. In each case the final product Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008. 7 is a concrete document that provides meaning and generates understanding by deal ing with a set of questions that are presented, framed and answered. Questions a nd answers are interpreted depending on the meanings that the author wishes to a ccomplish among the readers. Scientists and engineers aim to create only one int erpretation or the minimum possible options to avoid dispersion by making compre hensible the literal meaning of the text. Writers and poets in particular are mo re open to produce diverse interpretations of the allegoric meaning of their tex ts. Analogic interpretations look for a balanced situation between the two extre me forms of reading a text: the literal reading which is unique and rigorous and corresponds to only one reference or the allegoric reading which is unbounded a nd multiple and represents many meanings [4]. The aim is to recuperate different possible meanings and to organize them according to a hierarchy of interpretati ons by supporting their corresponding meanings with appropriate references under concrete circumstances. In the case of the problem related to a physical system the literal reading is the most convenient for scientists and engineers because the reference is assumed to be clear and complete. However a writer narrating h

ow the solution has been obtained might take advantage of the allegoric reading because several meanings might be appropriate due to more diverse references. In the case of a problem related to a human learning system like a project on Phys ics Education the interpretation of the text explaining the solution could conta in an appropriate proportion of the allegoric reading of a writers viewpoint and the literal reading of the physicists approach. III. THE SOLUTION OF A PHYSICS PROBLEM NARRATED BY A WRITER Scientific documents reporting the results of problem solving follow macro-struc tures that contain elements such as: title, authors and addresses, abstract, int roduction, methods, results, discussion, acknowledgements, and references. Sharp les [5] defines a macro-structure as a constraint that operates at a global level in order to accomplish three purposes: to frame the style and content of the man uscript, to provide links between parts of the text and internal coherence of th e whole, and also to organize the readers expectations. This author also consider s that the cognitive engine of writing implies cycles of engagement and reflecti on; the final product of the interaction of these cycles is expressed as a writt en discourse in a given language. Usually the structure of written documents rep orting on the solution of problems in physical systems is similar to a written d iscourse: although it works in different domains and for different purposes, it is like a narrative or storytelling. Authors like Hoey [6], referring to Winter [7], mentions five constitution elements or items defining a written communicati on: situation, problem, solution, observation, and evaluation. Now we briefly de scribe the structure of the discourse prepared by a writer that takes into accou nt these same five elements from the perspective of hermeneutics. We refer these elements to the cognitive http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Jorge Barojas and metacognitive dimensions of problem solving used in a modified TADIR protoco l as well as to the cognitive activities of formation, treatment and conversion involved in semiotic representation registers. A. The cognitive dimension of a writers narrative of the solution of a physics pr oblem The TADIR problem solving protocol has two main characteristics [8]: (1) i t makes possible paths explicit showing the reasoning process leading to the sol ution, and (2) it relates and enriches the two dimensions worked out in preparing the written communication: cognition and metacognition. Next, Table I shows an adaptation of this problem solving protocol to communicate a story s erving to unfold the solution of the buoyancy problem previously considered in p aper I. We assume that the five steps of TADIR are followed by a writer understa nding Physics. As a natural language is employed to talk about Physics in here w e have more possibilities for multiple interpretations of the text written by th e author. Furthermore, representations forms, like equations and graphics, are s eldom used in the text containing such a narrative of the solution. TABLE I. Solution of a physics problem from a writers perspective Elements of the narrative Situation Characteristics of each element An initial step in the desc ription is entirely written in a natural language. The question to be answered i s explained in a natural language but some technical terms are introduced. The s olution is presented by describing the chain of reasoning steps required for obt aining an answer and theoretical considerations and references to ancillary know ledge are given by using the technical language of the corresponding discipline. Some remarks are made in a natural language concerning the physical conditions of the system under consideration and conceptual requirements are expressed by i ntroducing specific terms of common use in the technical language of the discipl ine of Physics. The description of the declared procedure to solve the problem i s finally made in a natural language. The aim is to verify that a correct and co mplete answer has been obtained. Narrative of the writer We consider that a piec e of ice called iceberg is floating on water. We want to calculate how much of t he iceberg is over the surface level of water (the floating volume) and how much is submerged in water (the sunk volume). We assume that the iceberg is in equil ibrium due to the balance of two forces: the downward weight of the iceberg and the upward buoyant force (thrust) which is due to the weight of an amount of wat er equal to the volume of ice that sinks (this is known as Archimedes Principle). We take into account that size (volume) and density of the ice characterize the iceberg, that water has a different density than ice, and that the air does not matter. Furthermore, we need to know the relationship between weight and mass, and the definition of density in terms of mass and volume. As we can get the val ues of the densities of ice and water, we calculate the numerical value of the r atio of the part of the iceberg that floats with regard to the part that sinks. Problem Solution Observation Evaluation Now we propose three connections between the steps of the TADIR protocol followe d by the physicist (Table 1 in paper I) and the elements of the narrative propos ed by the writer previously described. In each case we also indicate the corresp onding transitions between the four stages (S1 to S4) of the learning cycle desc ribed in paper I, and those relationships that can be established in connection with the three conceptual activities concerning semiotic registers (formation, t

reatment and conversion). (1) The components of the narrative describing the sit uation and the problem are associated with both the Translation and the Analysis steps in TADIR. In here the conceptual activity of formation of registers refer s to the knowledge of the basic concepts of floating and sinking. To start the p roblem solving procedure the following transition from S1 to S2 is accomplished: first, the statement of the problem is described by using everyday natural language (S1) and the world views of the writer interpreting th e scenario of the physical system are presented in the technical language charac teristic of the discipline (S2). (2) The solution component corresponds to the D esign step in TADIR, mainly by describing the basic idea solving the problem (Ar chimedes Principle). The understanding of this principle implies the conceptual a ctivities of treatment of those registers corresponding to the key concept of eq uilibrium of two forces: the downward weight of the iceberg originating the sink ing which depends on the entire volume of the iceberg, and the upward buoyant fo rce or thrust responsible for the floating which is due to the weight of the wat er displaced by the volume of the iceberg that is submerged. In this step the tr ansition is from S2 to S3: after analyzing a problematic situation in abstract t erms serving to 8 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008.

Problem solving and writing II: The point of view of hermeneutics describe possible scenarios that might lead to the solution of the problem (S2), theoretical model structures are applied through the use of formal languages th at lead to the presentation of a design of the solution (S3). (3) Aside basic co ncepts, the two other kinds of knowledge elements utilized in the Design step ar e conceptual relationships and ancillary calculations. These two elements are re lated to the components of observation and evaluation and are integrated into th e Implementation step of TADIR. The conceptual activity of conversion between th e registers related to floating and sinking implies that each one of these regis ters has been previously developed at the level of treatment and that changes of representations have been accomplished. This step corresponds to a transition f rom S3 where formal languages are used to S4 where changes among different repre sentation registers are performed. This transition requires the use of physical concepts and conceptual relationships such as density, mass, volume, weight and the acceleration of gravity, in order to be able to get the solution of the prob lem. It also refers to the evidence showing that the answers provided by the Solution fully respond to the questions addressed in the statement of the problem. Conce rning the Review of the Design Step (RD). Observe the presence and the functioning of different elements intervening in th e communication of the discourse describing the solution and regard how the conc eptual activity of conversion leads to the solution of the problem. Consider the use of literary resources such as the employment of metaphors, analogies, catal ysts Concerning the Review of the Implementation Step (RI). Evaluate the initial plan for writing, compare with the final results and look f or possibilities of improvement. Work on the interrelationships among the three conceptual activities relating semiotic registers (formation, treatment and conv ersion) and on the impact on the efficiency of the communication process that mi ght involve factors such as patterns, insight, elegance, power, and style [5]. B. The metacognitive dimension of a writers narrative of the solution of a physic s problem In this section we consider what could be presented by a writer review ing (R) the four elements (TADI) of the problem solving protocol: RT, RA, RD, an d RI. We comment on possible recommended actions to be undertaken by a writer wi lling to clarify from the hermeneutic perspective the reasoning process behind t he communication made in a natural language. We assume that the writer reflects again on the two key elements defining the text to be interpreted: the reference (mainly through RT and RA) and the meaning (mainly through RD and RI). The four components of the last step of TADIR might have the following purposes: Concern ing the Review of the Translation Step (RT). IV. PROBLEM SOLVING IN A HUMAN LEARNING SYSTEM Educational projects are planned and developed in a cognitive space associated w ith the intersection of two intellectual domains that characterize human learnin g systems: the building of knowledge and the organization of learning [9]. Human learning systems comprise planning, development and evaluation oriented towards promoting and coordinating learning processes in which the creation of learning communities (LCs) is fundamental. These LCs are interacting groups aiming to ma inly accomplish four goals: to be informed, to organize communications, to obtai n and apply knowledge, and to accomplish transformation tasks for specific purpo ses such as problem solving, decision making or system design. From the working point of view, LCs involve actors and resources in order to provide services, or ganize projects, lead processes and make products available. In order to succeed , LCs need technology and knowledge management. LCs must serve to develop self-l earning skills, to wisely apply information, to promote innovation, and to impro ve competitiveness; briefly, to build and manage relevant knowledge [10]. In wha

t follows we apply the TADIR problem solving protocol adapted to a human learnin g system and describe first and second order approximations to the solution of t his problem: how can we understand and improve the functions of an LC in charge of a masters program focused on the education of high school teachers? The educat ional program in which we are interested is called MADEMS, which stands for the initials of its title in Spanish: MAestra en Docencia para la Educacin Media Super ior (Masters Degree Program for Teacher Education at the High School Level). This is a multidisciplinary twoyear program that started in February 2004 at Univers idad 9 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx Examine the style or form of the written text used in explaining the Situation t hat describes the Problem and relates to the conceptual activity of formation of the required registers. Make sure that the written communication satisfies the 4C criteria that characterize an appropriate use of natural language and avoid w rong interpretations: the written text is clear, complete, correct and concise. Concerning the Review of the Analysis Step (RA) Ponder the arguments in favor or against what has been written while reconsideri ng the assumptions made to solve the problem. This means to work more on the con ceptual activity of treatment of the corresponding semiotic registers associated to the concepts of floating and sinking. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008.

Jorge Barojas Nacional Autnoma de Mxico and comprises learning activities focusing on education as well as on the teaching of different disciplines. Up to now the program inclu des the following disciplines: Biology, Chemistry, History, Mathematics, Philoso phy, Physics, Social Sciences, and Spanish. In the near future Classical Letters , English, French and Psychology will be incorporated. More details can be found in the web page of the program: http://www.posgrado.unam.mx/madems/index.html. In order to solve our problem, which means to explain how our LC is organized, w e now apply the TADIR protocol adapted to a human learning problem by making eac h one of its five steps explicit. TRANSLATION (T): interpret the context of the problem in terms of the elements defining the LCs and the transformational activ ities in which they are involved. The LC that deals with the MADEMS educational program is integrated by five working groups (WG) each one of them outlined as f ollows: WG1 Direction Group: the directors of the schools, centers and institute s that participate in the program; their representatives, as well as representat ives of tutors and of students. WG2 Operation Group: the general coordinator of the program and assistants in charge of planning, follow-up, accounting, and inf ormation. WG3 Education Group: professors who organize courses and tutors who le ad the dissertation projects of the students. WG4 - Administration Group: regist rars in charge of logistics and staff responsible for registration and students f ollow up. WG5 Student Group: people taking courses and working towards graduatio n in two forms: attending lessons or getting instruction in distance education. Our LC is active in five transformational activities (TA) to which specific grou ps indicated in parentheses correspond: TA1 organization (WG1 and WG2), TA2 coor dination (WG2 and WG4), TA3 teaching (WG2, WG3, WG4 and WG5), TA4 control (WG2 a nd WG4) and TA5 production (WG3 and WG5). ANALYSIS (A): provide the explicit cha racterization of the working conditions of the system. This second step is defin ed in terms of the following aspects that define how the LC works: objectives, l imitations, performance criteria, production of materials, decision making proce dures and connectivity arrangements related to the use of information and commun ication technology (ICT). DESIGN (D): propose a first order conceptual model describing the agents and the ir main tasks required to solve the problem. In this third step, the working gro ups previously indicated deal with specific transformation activities (TA). Fig. 1 is a graphical representation of the interactions among agents, tasks, and re sources required to solve the problem. This is a first order conceptual model th at does not provide final solutions; it is just a schematic description of a pos sible path indicating how the LC might approach the problem. IMPLEMENTATION (I): report on results obtained after working on each TA by applying monitoring and control mechanisms. In this fourth step two mechanisms are applied to clarify if there is evidence showing advances or requiring adjustments in the operation of the LC. The first mechanism is monitoring and it is defined by the four element s related to the FODA methodology. FODA or SOWT stands for Fortalezas (Strengths ), Oportunidades (Opportunities), Debilidades (Weaknesses) and Amenazas (Threats ) [11]. Strengths (Weaknesses) refer to activities accomplished with high (low) degree of efficiency, and Opportunities (Threats) concern those events that help (hinder) the attainment of objectives. In principle, as the project makes progr ess, Weakness and Threats must disappear or be transformed, respectively, into S trengths and Opportunities. The second mechanism is control and it is related to the application of rubrics [12] designed to evaluate the performance of the age nts forming the five working groups that belong to the LC. This is made in conne ction with the following four pragmatic pedagogical principles [13] adapted to o ur LC from those defined for science education: Make knowledge management access ible, Make thinking visible, Help LC members to learn from each other, and Promo te lifelong learning among LC members. REVIEW (R): reconsider the previous four TADI steps and go further into higher order conceptual models of the solution. T his last step is of metacognitive nature and implies rethinking procedures and w ork produced by the LC in order to get successively better solutions to the orig

inal problem: how can we understand and improve the functions of an LC in charge of a Masters program focused on the education of high school teachers? In order to get a second order conceptual model, each transformational activity is consid ered as a subsystem by indicating what kind of actions and results can be consid ered as documented evidences in connection with the tasks related to each TA; al so corrective plans and additional support procedures can be incorporated. This review process is shown in Fig. 2 and detailed in Table 2. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008. 10 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Problem solving and writing II: The point of view of hermeneutics TA2 COOPERATIVE WORK COORDINATION KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PLANNING TA1 TA3 INSTRUCTION ORGANIZATION MADEMS LC TEACHING DISTANCE EDUCATION POLICY MAKING DISSERTATION WORK DIDACTIC MATERIALS TA5 TA4 RESOURCES DISSERTATION PRODUCTS PRODUCTION CONTROL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION MEETINGS PRESENTATIONS EVALUATION FIGURE 1. First order conceptual model of the learning community (LC) in charge of MADEMS. LC TRANSFORMATION ACTIVITES WORKING GROUPS TASKS

DOCUMENTED EVIDENCES First Order Model Second Order Model FIGURE 2. First and second order conceptual models of the learning community (LC). Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008. 11 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Jorge Barojas TABLE II. Content of a second order conceptual model TRANSFORMATION ACTIVITIES TASKS ACTIONS PROVIDING EVIDENCES PLANNING TA1 ORGANIZATION POLICY MAKING COOPERATIVE WORK KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN STRUCTION TA3 TEACHING DISTANCE EDUCATION DISSERTATION WORK RESOURCES TA4 CONTRO L SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION EVALUATION DIDACTIC MATERIALS TA5 PRODUCTION DISSERTATIO N PRODUCTS MEETINGS PRESENTATIONS Approve and follow up working plans. Promote connections and obtain grants. Prov ide orientation and make recommendations. Pursue both vision and mission of the program. Define objectives and goals. Promote efficiency in working groups. Use information and improve knowledge in LC. Prepare reports, talks and study cases. Define learning competences and contents. Organize cognitive activities and eva luations. Prepare test and use didactic materials. Train and support teacher ass istants. Define dissertation topics and products. Guide students to finish in fo rm and time. Distribute budget and equipment. Organize admissions and time sched ules. Evaluate and support teaching performance. Detect strengths and weaknesses . Guarantee quality and pertinence. Produce, test, improve and publish materials . Guide and publish the work of students. Document and communicate the participa tion of students reporting on their dissertation projects. TA2 COORDINATION V. INTERPRETING WRITING AND PROBLEM SOLVING IN PHYSICS EDUCATION. The human learning problem previously considered offers plenty of texts to be in terpreted due to the complexity of the interactions among the actors of the prog ram and their transformational activities and products. What follows is a summar y of the applications of the TADIR problem solving protocol both from the points of view of Physics and of hermeneutics: (1) In order to communicate and interpr et texts for learning purposes, two issues are important: what concepts are pres ented and how they are registered and used according to different re-presentatio ns. By following Duval [14], natural languages are the most appropriate represen tation registers to begin and to close learning processes. This author specifica lly refers to mathematics, but we have extended his consideration Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008. 12 to other disciplines, as well as to deal with human learning systems where plans , processes, projects and products are different from those occurring in physica l systems. (2) The same conceptual object or event can be registered in terms of different representations conveying partial descriptions of the total object or event. These representations acquire meaning and are registered according to th e circumstances in which those representations are used by the author and interp reted by the readers of the text. (3) In order to help students or any other rea der to handle different representation registers and to develop expertise in bui lding knowledge that is applied in problem solving, teaching must provide and co ordinate learning activities that facilitate conversions from natural languages into technical and formal languages, which also means to acquire mastery in chan ging or transferring among the corresponding representation registers. http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Problem solving and writing II: The point of view of hermeneutics (4) Texts in natural languages are more exposed to differences in readers interpr etations than texts mostly containing expressions in technical or mathematical l anguages, once readers are familiar with those languages. This means that proble ms related to human learning systems might imply more diverse interpretations th an problems in physical systems. (5) There are limits or normative constraints o n the use of any language, like grammar, style, and the conceptual structures of the discipline(s) involved in each case. Anyhow, we assume that creators of tex ts are capable of handling those constraints and can show in their results a fer tile integration of planning, inspiration and expertise. In Physics Education, t he authors of the texts to be interpreted correspond to teachers and students, a s well as to authors of textbooks, didactic materials, curriculum development pr ograms and educational projects. However, it is an oversimplification of the tea ching process if we assume that corresponding authors (teachers and students) co nsider and follow in a straightforward manner and in a rigid order the steps of the TADIR protocol or the steps of the learning cycle. The discursive practices implied in teaching procedures might involve conceptual activities regarding the semiotic representation registers considered in the learning cycle. This could imply that different possible interpretations given by the students are approxim ations to what teachers say and do by using different languages. Also that the t eachers need to be aware of differences between the interpretation conveyed by i nstruction and the interpretations attained by the learners. Any approach to Phy sics Education from the perspective of hermeneutics does not look for universal interpretations imposed by the authority of the teacher, the text book or the pr ogram schedule. Being able to accept other options is useful in order to underst and the learners and authors in terms of schools of thought, time periods, intel lectual works, human needs, social requirements, Such a fruitful interplay among interpretations will be particularly rewarding as a culmination of the teaching contextualization procedure [15] which consist of three steps related to each on e of the conceptual activities involved in the use of semiotic representation re gisters: (1) start by presenting a problematic situation in connection with the conceptual activity of formation, (2) focus on answering some leading questions implying the conceptual activity of treatment of registers, and finally (3) clos e with learning activities in which the conceptual activity of conversion among registers is explicitly undertaken. Communicating and interpreting the solutions of problems in physical and human learning systems requires understanding diffe rent languages. This intellectual need concerns those typological and topologica l aspects characterized by Lemke as verbal and visual representations integratin g what he calls multimedia Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008. 13 semiotics [16]. According to this author writing concerns a visual graphological-t ypographical semiotics. However there are other modes of meaning-making going beyon d speech and writing like for instance drawings, gestures and motor activities w hich he refers to as graphical-operational-topological semiotics. It is in this se nse that the TADIR problem solving protocol can be understood as an interpretati on instrument working in the domains of typographical and topological semiotics. We are persuaded that connecting the advantages of using ICT with the cognitive and metacognitive demands of problem solving and writing from the perspective o f hermeneutics can improve important issues such as the following: the creativit y and efficiency in teaching and learning, particularly on line [17], promote an d orient research on the didactics of science and technology [18], and make new intellectual tools and products available to problem solvers as designers workin g collaboratively [19]. We close this paper by referring again to Sharples [5] w ho reported the observation made by Pennington [20] concerning the presence of f our stages in the development of children expertise using word processors: (1) a fter initial training children start writing easier, (2) they produce more writt en works, (3) after a while a qualitative change occurs when they write differen tly, and (4) finally they do better by adopting a cycle of composing, reflecting

and revising. We do believe that the same performance chain occurs in problem s olving (easier, more, different and better), through the integrated use of herme neutical perspectives dealing with the cognitive and metacognitive activities in corporated in the learning cycles and interpreted in terms of natural, technical or formal languages connected with typological and topological semiotics. We ar e also convinced that in order to make that happen, educational contexts must pr ovide students and teachers with the appropriate means and tools that improve di scursive practices and their interpretations. The price of going into this compl ex process is time, understanding and patience; however, there is a net reward c oncerning the learning outcomes achieved by students. ACKNOWLEDGENMENTS The information concerning the publication by Hoey was kindly provided by M. L. Gloria Espern. Useful comments provided by Profs. Mauricio Beuchot and Anna Mara P essoa are also very much appreciated. REFERENCES [1] Barojas, J., Problem solving and writing I: The point of view of Physics, La t. Am. J. Phys. Educ. 1, 4-12 (2007). [2] Ferraris, M., Historia de la hermenutic a (Siglo XXI, Mxico, 2005). [3] Grondin, J., Quest-ce que linterpretation?, Skepsis , 127-132 (2004). Also in <http://www.philo.umontreal.ca/prof/documents/Interpre ta tion2004.pdf>, Oct. 2007. http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Jorge Barojas [4] Beuchot, M., Tratado de hermenutica analgica (UNAM Itaca, Mxico, 2001). [5]. Sh arples, M., How we write (Routledge, London, 1992). [6] Hoey, M., Signalling in Discourse. English Language Research (University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK, 1979). [7] Winter, E. O., A clause-relational approach to English texts; a study of some predictive lexical terms in written discourses, Instructional Science 6 , 1-92 (1977). [8] Barojas, J., Teacher training as collaborative problem solvin g, Educational Technology and Society 6, 1-10 (2003) [9] Barojas, J., Comunidade s de Aprendizaje y organizacin del conocimiento. In XVIII Simposio Internacional de Computacin en Educacin, SOMECE (Eds.), Zacatecas, Mxico. In compact disc (2002). [10] Barojas, J., Sierra, J. and Martnez, R., Application of a knowledge managem ent network in distance education. In A. Mndez-Vilas, A. Solano Martn, J. Mesa Gon zlez and J.A. Mesa Gonzlez (Eds.) Current Developments in Technology-Assisted Educ ation. V Conferencia Internacional sobre Multimedia y Nuevas Tecnologas de la Inf ormacin y la Comunicacin en Educacin (mICTE2006), FORMATEX, Badajoz, Spain, Annex, 11-16 (2006). [11] Instituto Politcnico Nacional, Secretara Tcnica, Metodologa para el anlisis FODA (2002), <http://www.uventas.com/ebooks/Analisis_Foda.pdf>, Oct. 2 007. [12] Picket, N. and Dodge, B., Rubrics for Web lessons (2007). Available in : <http://edweb.sdsu.edu/webquest/rubrics/weblessons.htm> Oct. 2007. [13] Linn, M. C. and Hsi, S., Computers, Teacher, Peers: Science learning partne rs (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, USA, 2000). [14] Duval, R., Registres de rpresentation smiotique et functionement cognitif de la pense (Regist ers of semiotic representations and cognitive functioning of thinking), Annales de Didactique et de Sciences Cognitives 5, IREM Strasbourg, France (1993). [15] Barojas, J. and Dehesa, N., Mathematics for Social Scientists: Learning Cycles a nd Teaching Strategies. Industry and Higher Education 15, 269-277 (2001). [16] L emke, J. L., Multiplying Meaning: Visual and Verbal Semiotics in Scientific Text . In Martin, J. R. and Veel, R. (Eds.), Reading Science (Routledge, London, UK, 1998) pp. 87-113. [17] Harasim, L., Hiltz, S., Teles, L. and Turoff, M., Learnin g Networks. A guide to teaching and learning on line (MIT Press, Massachusetts, USA, 1995). [18] Lijnse, P., Didactics of science: the forgotten dimension in sc ience education research? In Millar, R., Leach, J. and Osborne, J. (Eds.), Impro ving Science Education. The contribution of research (Open University Press, Phi ladelphia, USA, 2000) pp. 309326. [19] Jones, P. M., Collaborative Knowledge Mana gement, Social Networks, and Organizational Learning. In Smith, M. J. and Salven dy, G. (Eds.), Systems, Social and Internationalization Design Aspects of HumanComputer Interaction (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, USA, 2001 ) vol. 2, pp. 306-309. [20] Pennington, M. C., Writing the natural way on comput ers, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 9, 125142 (1996). Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008. 14 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Teaching thermal physics by touching E. Marn Centro de Investigacin en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnologa Avanzada del Instituto Poli tcnico Nacional, Legaria 694, Col. Irrigacin, C.P. 11500, Mxico D. F., Mxico. Email: emarin63@yahoo.es (Received 22 October 2007; accepted 7 November 2007) Abstract The study of the physical mechanisms involved in heat transfer phenomena is of g reat pedagogical importance due to their incidence in many aspects of our life. In this work we describe how a daily experience such as the touch of hot and coo l objects with the hands can be used to learn concepts related to stationary and transient heat propagation in thermal physics courses. Keywords: Conduction hea t transfer, thermal conductivity, thermal effusivity. Resumen El estudio de los mecanismos fsicos involucrados en fenmenos de transferencia de c alor tiene gran importancia pedaggica debido a su incidencia en muchos aspectos d e nuestra vida. En este trabajo describimos cmo una experiencia diaria tal como l a manipulacin de objetos calientes y fros con las manos puede ser usada para apren der conceptos relacionados con la propagacin de calor en regmenes estacionario y t ransitorio en cursos de fsica trmica. Palabras claves: Transferencia de conduccin d el calor, conductividad trmica, efusividad trmica. PACS: 44.10.+I, 66.30.Xj, 66.70 .+f ISSN 1870-9095 To check the temperature of an object we frequently touch it with our hands and in a very short time interval we can tell if it is either warmer or cooler than our skin. But our perception of the temperature is often affected by several var iables, such as the kind of material we touch, its absolute temperature and the time period of the experiment, among others. For example, at room temperature wood en objects feels warmer to the rapidly touch with our hands than those made of a metal, but when a sufficient time has elapsed both seem to be at the same tempe rature. This topic is of considerable pedagogical importance since it requires a good understanding of the physical mechanisms involved in heat transfer and can be exploited in introductory and advanced physics courses in different ways. Re cently [1, 2] we have shown how the theory of heat conduction leads to the resul t that the relevant thermophysical parameter for the heat flux in the presence o f transient heating is the thermal effusivity, , a rath r unknown param t r for m any p opl , inst ad of th much v ry w ll known th rmal conductivity, k. W hav shown how th non-stationary h at transf r th ory show that if two s mi-infinit r gions at uniform t mp ratur s T1 and T2 ar plac d sudd nly in p rf ct th rm al contact, th ir int rfac t mp ratur , also call d contact, f ling or s nsati on t mp ratur , Tc, is giv n by Tc = 1T1 + 2T2 . 1 + 2 = c (1) The the m l effusivity is defined s = k c = k (2) 15 whe e is the the m l diffusivity, k the the m l conductivity, the density nd c the specific he t. An extended expl n tion of the physic l elev nce of these p mete s c n be found elsewhe e [2, 3]. If we identify egion 1 with ou h nd t

T1=370C nd the othe with touched object t diffe ent tempe tu e T2, usin g Eq. (1) nd t bul ted v lues of the the m l effusivities we c n dete mine the cont ct tempe tu e th t ou h nd will e ch upon cont ct. In the bove mentione d wo ks we h ve m de c lcul tions fo the cont ct tempe tu e between hum n skin t 370C nd diffe ent bodies t 200C s function of thei the m l effusivitie s, showing th t when touching highly the m l conductivity object such s met l (e.g. Cu), s m tal >> skin, th t mp ratur of th skin drops sudd nly to 20 0 C (as on can s from Eq. (1)), and on s ns th obj ct as b ing cold. On th ot h r hand, wh n touching a body with a low r th rmal conductivity, .g. a woods ob j ct (wood < skin) th skin t mp ratur r mains clos st to 37 0C, and on s ns th obj ct as b ing warm. This is th r ason why a m tal obj ct f ls cold r than a wood n on to th touch, although th y ar both at th sam , ambi nt quilibrium t mp ratur . This is also th caus why human foot skin f ls diff r nt th t m p ratur of floors of diff r nt mat rials which ar at th sam room t mp ratur and th xplanation of why, wh n a p rson nt rs th cold wat r in a swimming p ool, th t mp ratur imm diat ly f lt by th swimm r is n ar its initial, high r , body t mp ratur [4]. Now, consid r th xtr m situation of a man walking bar foot across th v ry hot sand of a b ach, i. ., suppos that th touch d obj ct is v ry hot (Fig.1). Why do s not http://www.journal.lap n.org.mx Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008

E. Marn th man s skin g t burnt? Or this oth r cas : How is it possibl to put a v ry c old obj ct, such as liquid Nitrog n, into a hand without damaging th skin? Insp ir d in th s qu stions and in a pap r by Byalko [5], w will show in what follo ws how th laws of th rmal conduction can also xplain such paradoxical ph nom n a. How v r, th following qu stion aris s at this point: For long contact tim s, fo r which th r is no mor a transi nt situation, th daily xp ri nc show us tha t th s xp rim nts should b dang rous for th skin. How long can b th contac t tim so that th abov d scrib d xp rim nts can b p rform d with saf ty? TABLE I. Th rmal prop rti s of diff r nt mat rials at room t mp ratur tak n fro m r f r nc s [3] and [5]. Mat rial Diamond Cu K Co Ni Pb Glass PVC Hard Wood Wat r Air Human Skin K W m-1 K-1 2300 400 102 100 91 35 1.11 0.20 0.16 0.631 0.026 0.37 106 m2 s-1 1290 116 1 58 24.6 23 23 0.56 0.15 1.77 0.15 0.21 0.109 Jm-2K-1s-1/2 64040 37140 8150 20150 19400 7300 1480 515 380 1589 1.6 1120 c 10-6Jm-3K-1 1.78 3.45 0.65 4.05 3.95 1.5 2 1.98 1.33 0.09 0.004 0.0001 3.39

Fi st, it is wo th to notice th t using Eq. (1) we c n e sy show th t the cont c t tempe tu e t the body su f ce in cont ct with the object tends to be, in bot h c ses, close th n th t of the skin, s c n be seen in Fig. 2, whe e the c lcu l ted cont ct tempe tu e between hum n skin t 370C nd bodies of diffe ent m t e i ls t 10000C (ci cles) nd 00C (squ es) s function of thei the m l effu sivities is ep esented (see T ble 1 fo v lues of the m l p ope ties). This is one of the e sons why ou skin is not bu ning when we m ke suddenly (t nsien t) cont ct to hotte object o f eezing when touching ve y cold one (despite we fill th t the object is hotte o colde , indeed). 44 43 Gl ss 42 PVCwood 41 TC ( C ) 40 39 38 37 0 1 2 4 0 The nswe h s to do with the well known f ct th t ve y thin l ye of g s is p oduced when the skin touch ve y hot o cold objects [5]. In the bove ex mples this g s is ev po ted nit ogen in the c se of liquid Nit ogen (note th t we h v e t ken the s me illust tive ex mple s By lko) nd v pou (m inly of w te , si nce biologic l tissue cont ins mo e th n 90% of this subst nce) exh led when the oute l ye s of the skin e he ted. Let us ssume th t this l ye h s thickn ess L nd suppose th t the oute l ye of skin c n tole te tempe tu es between 00C nd 1000C without f ostbitten o o sting [5]. Inside the g s l ye the tem pe tu e is dist ibuted f om th t co esponding to the touched cold o hot objec t (T1) nd the cont ct tempe tu e Tc. The tempe tu e dist ibution c n be c lcu l ted using Fou ie s l w q = kT , (3) Co Ni K Pb Cu where q is the heat flux density (Heat energy per unit time and unit area). For one dimensional steady state conduction in extended samples of homogeneous and i sotropic material, such as our thin gas layer of thermal conductivity kg, Fourie rs law can be integrated in each direction to its potential form. In rectangular coordinates it reads [2, 5]: Diamond q = k gas

FIGURE 1. An pp ently impossible ct:

m n touching

bu ning i on.

Tc T1 . L (4) 3 4 2 1 1/2 5 ) 6 7 At the same time heat will be removed from the touched surface of a semi infinit e region. A straightforward calculation [2], lead for the heat flux between the surface at TC and the inside of the skin, say at T2, to the well known result [6 ]: q= (x 10 J m K s (T2 Tc ) . t (5) FIGURE 2. Contact tem eratures as a function of thermal effusivity when touching with the hand at 37 0C objects of different materials at 0 0C (blue circles) an d 10000C (yellow squares). Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 1 6 Note that this heat flow, obtained for transient heating, is not ro ortional to the thermal conductivity of the material, as under steady state conditions (see Eq. (3)), but to its thermal effusivity (Care must be taken with the sign htt ://www.journal.la en.org.mx

of the right hand side of the above equations, for exam le, in Eq. (4) it must b e negative for Tc>T1, since the heat flow is always directed from the region at a higher tem erature to the coldest one). It must be the same than the heat flux given by Eq. (4): k gas Tc T1 (T2 Tc ) . = L t (6)

(7) It is re resented in Fig. (3) for different thicknesses of the gas layer. Note t hat we do not know well its exact value, although Byalko [5] has used a value of 0.1 mm for this arameter. In our estimation we have used the value of the air thermal conductivity given in Table I, because all gases have thermal conductivi ties of the same order of magnitude. Air, for exam le, is mainly com osed by Nit rogen. We have taken for the skin tem erature the value T2=370C and the tem erat ure of liquid Nitrogen T1= 1960C (the corres onding limiting contact tem erature will be Tc=00C) for the case of the colder object (solid curve). In the case of the hot object (dotted curve) we have taken T1=6000C (Tc=1000C). From the figure we can observe that for gas layer thicknesses smaller than 10 3 m (a reasonable value) the time required to heat the skin to 1000C by contact wi th an object at 6000C is lower than 3s, enough to ho across the hot sand or to touch a hot iron. On the other hand liquid Nitrogen can be handled safely for a longer eriod of time which, in the figure, is about 25 s for the same layer thi ckness. In order to make these times longer, a gas layer of greater thickness mu st be achieved, as one can see from Fig. 3. I remember my mother dam ening her f ingers to check how hot the iron was so that clothes would not get burnt. In an em irical way she created an artificial gas layer to rotect her hands. This is the situation schematically shown in Fig. 1. The here resented results, of cour se, are in good agreement with our daily ex erience, when we use our hands to to uch cold and hot objects, but the analysis here resented can be used to illustr ate, in a sim le way, conce ts related to heat transfer under stationary and non stationary conditions. Ho efully this a er will aid in broaden this theme to a wider audience. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author greatly acknowledges Prof. D. C. Agrawal for sending him the a er of A. Byalko. He also thanks A. Cisneros Marn for kindly rovide the Fig. 1. This w ork was artially su orted by COFAA and by Project SIP 20070490, both from IPN. 1000 100 REFERENCES (s) 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.0001 0.0010 L (m) 0.0100

FIGURE 3. The ime required for he skin o reach values of he con ac empera ure of 00C and 1000C wi hou fros bi en or burning up respec ively (see ex ), as a func ion of he hypo he ical hickness of he gas layer evapora ed a he s urface. The solid (red) and do ed (blue) curves correspond o he case of ouch ing a cold (-1960C) and a ho (6000C) objec , respec ively.

Then, the time required for he skin o reach he limi ing values of he con ac empera ure given above (0 and 1000C) can be hen ob ained from Eq. (12) as = 2 L2 k 2 gas T2 Tc T T c 1 . 2

Teaching thermal

hysics by touching

[1] Marin, E., Thermal Physics Concep s: The role of hermal effusivi y, The Phy sics Teacher 44, 432 (2006). [2] Marin, E., The role of hermal proper ies in pe riodical ime varying phenomena, Eur. J. Phys. 28, 429 (2007). [3] Salazar, A., Thermal diffusivi y, Eur. J. Phys. 24, 351 (2003). [4] Agrawal, D. C., Work and hea expendi ure during swimming, Phys. Educ. 34, 220 (1999). [5] Byalko, A., Ha nds-on (or-off??) science, Quan um 8, 4 (1997) [6] Carlslaw, H. S. and Jaeger, J . C., Conduc ion of Hea in Solids (Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1959). La . Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 17 h p://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Some Physics eaching whispered fallacies C. H. Wrner Ins i u o de Fsica, Pon ificia Universidad Ca lica de Valparaso, Av. Brasil 2950, V alparaso 02, Chile. E-mail: cworner@ucv.cl (Received 24 Oc ober 2007; accep ed 19 December 2007) Abs rac Some erroneous common fac s ha appear in a curren informal learning con ex a re discussed. In his no e, i is shown several examples ha illus ra e his pr ac ice. Keywords: Curren errors, informal learning. Resumen Se discu en algunos hechos comunes errneos que aparecen en un con ex o ac ual de aprendizaje informal. En es a no a, se mues ran algunos ejemplos que ilus ran es a prc ica. Palabras clave: Errores ac uales, aprendizaje informal. PACS: 01.50.Z v; 01.40.-d ISSN 1870-9095 I. INTRODUCTION Informal learning (some imes called experien ial learning) has been recen ly rec ognized as a useful me hod widely used for learning purposes. Some people asse ha he use of bo anical gardens, science fairs or exhibi ions, museums, e c. m ay be used -and in fac hey had been used- for he enhancemen of science knowl edge. O her learning si ua ions described by his erm refer o he side-by-side knowledge ob ained for fellows in he same environmen al si ua ion, i.e. by hig h school or undergradua e s uden s. A hird si ua ion came oday in mind: i is no really necessary o have a physical neighborhood o access he informa ion. The World Wide Web ne work is a source of an almos infini e quan i y of informa l da a and fac s. Fur hermore, hey are advoca es for he hesis ha , because a ll he informa ion is loca ed in he web, he main purpose of ins ruc ion is o learn o use i and no o discuss he con en of his informa ion. Las bu no leas , I guess ha almos all you (and me) know abou PCs arises from informal learning. Appealing as i is, i is no he purpose of his no e o discuss he u ili y and per inence of hese learning resources. I simply s ress he fac h a we, Physics eachers, are submi ed o his ype of influence since he pre-n e imes. Also, cau ion mus be exer ed as ha his ype of learning mus be se verely es ed before accep a ion. In order o discuss his fac , I will presen some examples of commonly believed fac s, ha , al hough have been shown false i n he li era ure, con inue o be augh by a kind of fellow- o-fellow heri age. I will call hese cases my hs, in a differen sense ha o her well know (proper ) my hs such as he New on's apple fall or he Galileo's free fall experimen in he ower of Pisa. These la er legends are augh as really unfounded or as unr eal fac s (al hough hey can be profi ably used for pedagogical purposes), ins e ad he fac s we will deal wi h, La . Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 18

are false, bu wi h a mode ha is well reflec ed by he I alian proverb, "si no n vero, bene rova o" [1]. A recen nice accoun by Sawiki [2] on my hs abou gr avi y and ides riggered he presen no e. II. EXAMPLES A. The coincidence of New on's bir h wi h Galileo's dea h To be in une wi h he las paragraph le us consider he common s a emen ha he year Galileo dies, New on was born. The my h even consigns he da e: 1642. I is easy o confirm his fac : Galileo dies on January 8, 1642 and New on was born on December 25, 16 42. The fallacy s ems from he fac ha bo h da es belong o differen calendar s. The New on bir h's da e was given in he old Julian sys em; ins ead, he Gali leo' dea h da e is expressed in he ( hen) new Gregorian calendar [3]. This is a ne example of he fac ha equal numbers do no always represen he same phy sical fac . B. The flow of ca hedral window glasses I is a well-known fac ha a oms in gl asses and liquids presen a disordered s a e or shor -range order as opposi e o

crys alline ma erials ha presen long-range order. Therefore, solid glasses ( as he ones belonging o ca hedral windows) mus possess liquid proper ies, ha is, hey mus flow. Surely, solid glass viscosi y mus be grea er han ordinary liquids, bu for long exposure imes, he consequen deforma ion can be no ed. Medieval glass windows seems o be he perfec arge for es ing purposes and i is asser ed ha hey are wider in i s lower han in i s upper edges. In fac , i has been shown [4] ha his effec is no h p://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

F. The Franck and Her z experimen I is usually assumed ha he well known Fra nck and Her z experimen is a consequen confirma ion of he quan um hypo hesis firs proposed by Bohr. As remarked by Franck himself, "I migh in eres you o know ha when we made he experimen s we did no know Bohr's heory. We had ne i her read nor heard abou i " (quo ed by Hol on [12]). In fac , hey pre end o measure he ioniza ion energy of mercury and misin erpre ed i s own resul s [13 ]. C. The differen ro a ion sense of wa er in o a washbasin exhaus in he Nor h a nd Sou h hemispheres Vor ex movemen s are well known phenomena in domes ic ba hr oom environmen s. Claims had been whispered ha due Coriolis non-iner ial force s liquid spins in opposi e senses in differen hemispheres, in due accoun for he ear h ro a ion around i s Nor h-Sou h axis. This argumen has been labeled an "old wives' ale" by Crane [5], showing ha his effec would be unno iceable if he liquid is ini ially quie . Wha he observer visually perceives is he in crease in ro a ion (due o angular momen um conserva ion) of he liquid due o he fac ha i s ini ial angular momen um is differen from zero. If fac , i is possible o whirl he liquid in ei her sense, by simply selec ing he ini ial a ngular momen of he sys em in a "clockwise" or "an i-clockwise" s a e. G. Kine ics a T=0K Dialog from he web [14] be ween eacher (T) and pupil (P). - Ques ion (T): "Well, look wha happens if you se he empera ure of he a oms in he box as low as i can go." - Answer (P): "The a oms are s opped." - Concl usion (T): "So ha is as cold as he a oms can be. We call ha Absolu e Zero." This dialog be ween eacher and s uden shows one expression for he fallacy h a a 0K, here is no movemen a all. The origin of his error perhaps s ems fr om he (spurious) ex rapola ion of he ideal gas laws o low empera ures. On h e con rary, i is a s andard opic in Physics ex s o s udy he Fermi-Dirac dis ribu ion showing ha even a T=0K, a free elec ron gas has a lo of (kine ic) energy. D. Rmer "measuremen " of he veloci y of ligh Galileo -in his book "Two New Scie nces"- proposes an experimen o measure he veloci y of ligh . In he words of Salvia i (Galileo himself) he unsuccessful experimen was no due o he ins an aneous propaga ion of ligh , ins ead "(ligh propaga ion) if no ins an aneous, ...is very swif " [6]. In 1676, Olef Rmer [7] communica es his explana ion on h e apparen anomaly in he measuremen of he period of he Jupi ers moons. This f ac is usually men ioned as he firs measuremen of he veloci y of ligh . In f ac , Rmer does no communica e his measuremen , no ing only ha "le re ardemen de la lumiere" ( ha is, he fini e veloci y of ligh ) is a necessary condi ion o explain he as ronomical phenomenon. Based in Rmer da a, Huygens indeed publi shed he firs known figure for he veloci y of ligh (for fur her commen s, see he papers of Wrobleski [8] and Sai o [9]). is "no always believe wri en argumen s" (by he only A be er would be "no always believe whispered argume he ne ). Informal learning is an inevi able and usefu reme care mus be exer ed on he examina ion of he of o au hori a ive sources (al hough old fashioned) or b

III. FINAL REMARKS A good pedagogical advice meri of being wri en). n s" (al hough wri en on l way of learning, bu ex fering evidence. Recourse

varie y of In ermedia e grada ions". Former versions forgo sen ence.

he las par of he

measurable a room efore he hickness c s. Fur hermore, i o no seem o show

Some Physics

eaching whispered fallacies empera ure during his orical imes (say, 5000 years), and her difference if i exis can be a ribu ed o manufac uring defe is curious ha older glass objec s (ancien glass vases) d his effec and do no appear in his my h.

e er, original papers, mus be considered. Finally, he au hor does no assume o know all hese my hs and herefore he reader would add his/her experiences o n rue/un rue explana ions for known/unknown phenomena. E. The colored rainbow "The radi ional descrip ion of he rainbow is ha i is made up of seven colors - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and viole . Ac ually, he rainbow is a whole con inuum of colors from red o viole and eve n beyond he colors ha he eye can see" [10]. Wri en in his quo e is he cor rec descrip ion of he colors observed in a rainbow as appears in he ci ed web page. The common belief in he quan iza ion of colors is obviously un rue. Perh aps he equivoque follows from a misquo e of New on himself [11]: "The original and primary colours are Red, Yellow, Green, Blew and a Viole purple, oge her wi h Orange, Indico, and an indefini e La . Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 19 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The au hor acknowledges helpful discussions wi h G. Iommi Amun eg ui and A. Romero. REFERENCES [1] Quo a ions are un ransla able, bu in a free version: "if i is n o rue, i seems o be"; or in a more li eral mode, "if i is no rue, i is w or h o be discovered". h p://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

C.H. Wrner [2] Sawiki, M., My hs abou Gravi y and Tides, Phys. Teach. 37, 438-441 (1999). [3] Babb, S. E., When was New on born?, Am. J. Phys. 48, 421-421 (1980). [4] Du ra Zano o, E., Do ca hedral glasses flow?, Am. J. Phys. 66, 392-395 (1998). [5] Crane, H. R., A Tornado in a Soda Bo le and Angular Momen um in he Washbasin, Phys. Teach. 25, 516-517 (1987). [6] Galilei, G., Two New Sciences, ransla ed by S. Drake (Wall & Emerson, Toron o, 1989) pp. 50-51. [7] Al hough no direc ly wri en by Rmer, his communica ion appeared in Journal des Scavan s, 233-236 (1 676) and an English version in Philos. Trans. R. Socie y, 62, 893-894 (1677). [8 ] Wroblewski, A., de Mora Luminis, A Spec acle in Two Ac s wi h a Prologue and a n Epilogue, Am. J. Phys. 53, 620630 (1985). [9] Sai o, Y., A Discussion of Roemer Discovery concerning he Speed of Ligh , A APPS Bull. 15, 9-17 (2005). [10] h p://www.eo.ucar.edu/rainbows/, Oc . 15, 2007 . [11] New on, I., A new heory abou ligh and colours, Philos. Trans. R. Socie y 80, 108-112 (1672), reprin ed in Am. J. Phys. 61,108-112 (1993). [12] Hol on, G., On he Recen Pas of Physics, Am. J. Phys. 29, 805-810 (1961). [13] Frank, J. and Her z, G., Collisions be ween Elec ron and Mercury Vapors Molecules and he Ioniza ion Po en ial of such Molecules (English ransla ion of Verhand. Deu . Physik 16, 457-467 (1914)) in The World of he A om, Vol. 1. (Henry A. Boorse and Lloyd Mo z, Eds., Basic Books, New York, 1966). [14]h p://www.colorado.edu/ physics/2000/bec/ empera ure. h ml, Oc . 15, 2007. La . Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 20 h p://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Teaching physics: research-based sugges ions and eachers reactions, toward a bet ter interaction? Laurence Viennot Laboratoire de Didactique des Sciences Physiques, University Denis Diderot (Pari s 7), Condorcet, F 75205, Paris Cedex 13, France. E mail: laurence.viennot@univ aris diderot.fr (Received 17 October 2007; acce ted 30 November 2007) Abstract How to favour a better interaction between research in hysics education and ra ctice? It is argued that this challenge is widely determined by the extent of at tention given to critical details, that is, some fine as ects of teaching ractice that may seem unim ortant at first sight although they may have im ortant outco mes. After a first exam le in geometrical o tics, I discuss some ossible reason s for the existence of corres onding rituals at the secondary school and college levels. It is shown, with the to ic of hot air balloons, that certain rituals i n our teaching ractices can even make hysical theories seem inconsistent. Usin g these exam les, I discuss how we might better highlight the hysical henomena under study, and I give evidence of students and teachers reactions to the ro os ed changes. I conclude by considering ossible actions relating to teacher train ing and to assessment*. Keywords: Physics teaching, critical details, rituals of teaching ractice Resumen Cmo favorecer una mejor interaccin entre investigacin en Fsica Educativa y la rctica? Es argumentado que este desafo es am liamente determinado or el grado de atencin dada "a detalles crticos", es decir, algunos as ectos finos de rctica de la ensea nza que ueden arecer sin im ortancia a rimera vista aunque uedan tener resul tados im ortantes. Des us de un rimer ejem lo de tica geomtrica, comento algunos osibles motivos ara la existencia de rituales corres ondientes en los niveles de escuela secundaria y el colegio. Se muestra, con el tema de globos de aire ca liente, que ciertos rituales en nuestras rcticas de enseanza an ueden hacer que l as teoras fsicas arezcan inconsistentes. Usando estos ejem los, comento cmo odramo s destacar mejor los fenmenos fsicos en estudio, y doy evidencia de las reacciones de los estudiantes y rofesores a los cambios ro uestos. Concluyo considerando osibles acciones que se relacionan con la re aracin de rofesores y con la eva luacin. Palabras clave: Enseanza de la Fsica, detalles crticos, rituales de enseanza rctica. PACS: 01.40.Fk, 01.40.gb, 01.40.JISSN 1870 9095 I. INTRODUCTION A general concern to attract more students towards learning science now adds u to a less recent effort towards im roving students understanding in hysics. Many investigations, since thirty years, bore on learners widely s read ideas and way s of reasoning, some of them being not com atible with acce ted hysics and very resistant to change. In the same line, students views of science have been inves tigated, showing a very large trend towards what is often called nave realism or su osedly equivalent ex ressions. Some research based teaching sequences have bee n ex erimented and to a lesser or larger extent evaluated. What are the kinds of research findings that trainee teachers will really ut in ractice? What do we observe in this res ect? Can we suggest some lines of analysis to understand th e reasons for the often observed relative failures in this res ect [1]. How to f avour a fruitful * interaction between research and ractice of hysics teaching? Faced with such b ig questions, I have chosen, in this a er, a restricted angle of attack: that o f the im ortance of critical details, i.e. some fine as ects of teaching ractice that may seem unim ortant at first sight although they may have im ortant outcom es [2, 3]. A few years ago, Gunstone and Whites wrote [4] . 302: The way research influences ractice in education is not through discovery of a detailed and s e cific mode of teaching but through substantiation of rinci les which ervade th inking about teaching and learning. My goal is to stress that, for such a substant iation to occur, great ideas are not sufficient: A thorough attention to fine as

ects of teaching ractice is necessary. This to ic will be illustrated by an int roductory exam le (in o tics), and discussed from the stand oint of evaluation. I will then rovide other exam les of critical details that are ritual in our te aching ractices and I will discuss a few factors that ________________________________________________________________________________ _____ This a er is based on a keynote address given at the ICPE International Confere nce on Physics Education: World View on Physics Education in 2005, University of New Delhi. Also, this a er served as the basis for a worksho given in the Int ernational Worksho New Trends in Physics Education, Puebla, Mexico (May 2006). Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 21 htt ://www.journal.la en.org.mx

Laurence Viennot robably contribute to ex lain why they are so common. I will also resent some results of investigations in students and teachers that give good reasons to bre ak with such ractices. Teacher training strategies will be then briefly discuss ed, with a articular stress on the question of the teachers estimation of their students desires and abilities in terms of intellectual satisfaction. II. CRITICAL DETAILS: A PRIORI CHARACTERISATION AND EFFECTS AN INTRODUCTORY EXAMP LE IN OPTICS It may ha en that, after some investigations centered on learners common ideas i n such and such domains, some a arently small as ects of teaching ractice a e ar as likely to have im ortant effects. In such cases, negative effects are es e cially in ointed. Such is the case concerning elementary geometrical imaging. A . The travelling image syndrome Some difficulties, now very well known (see for instance Fawaz & Viennot [5], Goldberg & McDermott [6], Galili & Hazan [7]), can be inter reted assuming a model of travelling image and its variants. Thus, many students think that a mask ut on the centre of the lens would result in a hole in the image, as if this image had travelled (horizontally) in s ace as a whole. B. Evaluating a suggestion to im rove students com rehension of o tical imaging It is common to stress, when teaching o tical imaging, the kind of classic diagram shown in Table 1b showing two construction rays only , without taking time to ex lain and illustrate the very rinci le of o tical corres ondence between a o int A and its image A: any ray originating in the oint source and meeting the le ns is in line after this lens with the image A. This classic diagram, although co rrect (in Gauss conditions), is very com atible with the common and undesired st udents views just recalled [8]. It may suggest a global horizontal trans ort and/ or encourage a misinter retation of the rays drawn on the diagram: There is a ri sk of seeing them as constitutive of the image whereas they are mere re resentat ive of a whole set of rays originating in a oint object and hitting the lens. I n this res ect, a recent investigation was centered on the evaluation of a ossi bly favorable critical detail of ractice, i.e. using an introductory diagram to i llustrate the role of a thin lens in o tical imagery. This basic diagram (Table Ia ) has two key features: Many rays and beams are re resented, as well as some ray s which do not im inge on the lens. These undeviated rays are shown to highlight the fact that even the whole lens concerns only a art of the flux, thus favori ng su osedly the idea that a art of the lens can form the image as well. The students with whom it was tried 20 degree students and 60 trainee teachers ha d been taught o tics in the revious years in an uncontrolled and robably very classic way, and they were consulted without any new information on this to ic. They were divided in two grou s. Two classic questions that commonly give rise t o the travelling image syndrome were osed in two different versions, one for each half grou . The two questions were introduced in each subgrou res ectively wit h the classical diagram and with a diagram which was designed to be more ex lici t about the role of the lens. Table I dis lays the regrou ed results obtained fo r one of the questions (see more details in Viennot & Kaminski [9]).

TABLE I. Answers of trainee teachers and degree students to the basic (a) and cl assic (b) versions of a classical question. Question: Amaskis utonthecentre ofthele nwesee nowonthescreen? Exclusives categories Trainees Degree Together N=31 Trainees ree Together N=29 The same thing or AB, +sometimes: less shar , Gauss a rox, less luminous Travelling image syndrome:A black s ot at the centre of the screen or va riants N=10 N=39 N=10 N=41 (a) Situation introduced with basic diagram (b) Situa tion introduced with classic diagram 26 8

34 17 2 19 3 2 5 14 8 22 Regrou ed results: =17.6, p=0.001. 2 Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 22 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Tea hing physi s: resear h-based suggestions and tea hers rea tions toward a bett er intera tion? The results are similar for both of populations and more than ompatible with th e hypothesis that the basi diagram favours a proper understanding of the imagin g role of the lens. The high value of the hosen indi ator (2 =17.6, p=0.001) is a surprising fa t, given the very tenuous differen e between the onditions in w hi h the two samples were pla ed. The point in the present dis ussion is to stre ss the often unsuspe ted importan e of re onsidering our tea hing rituals, even in seemingly very tenuous details. This said, it is worth noting that evaluating a riti al detail in isolation may require very spe ifi ir umstan es: for insta n e, the same investigation at grade twelve turned out to show hardly any effe t , in quantitative terms, a fa t dis ussed in [9]. C. Some rituals of tea hing pr a ti e with potentially negative effe ts, their possible origins The pre eding e xample illustrates the potentially negative effe ts of a pre ise aspe t of tea h ing pra ti e as well as the probably positive effe ts of another one. A question is posed as to why some ways of doing in tea hing that are to the least problem ati are a tually not questioned and extremely ommon, thus deserving the label of ritual [10]. This single example suggests many possible fa tors to explain this fa t. To put it briefly, on tea hers behalf: a disregard of learners ommon ideas , or a sharing of these ideas, this going with a trend to reify on epts (the tr avelling image pun hed when passing the mask), a la k of vigilan e on erning ov er-sele tivity in images (only two rays of onstru tion), as well as a onsensus to present over-simplified phenomena (no onsideration of energy in elementary ourses in opti s). It is tempting to resort to these strategies be ause they ar e suffi ient to find the position and size of the image. Only if other tea hing goals are adopted an tea hers feel a need to re onsider these questionable aspe ts of pra ti e. This int rodu tory example illustrates in fa t a good part of the results of the European program S ien e Tea her Training in the Information So iety (STTIS, oord. Pinto, 1997-2001), results re alled in Appendix). The goal of this investigation was t o identify the main tenden ies in the ways tea hers ommonly transform resear hbased innovation that they are suggested to use. Thus a tenden y to onsider tha t seeing is understanding is resonant with that of reifying on epts. Or else a wi sh to work with lean fa ts is oherent with the ommon pra ti e of presenting ove r-simplified phenomena, et . To give an idea of the generality of su h ways of d oing, a few additional examples an be dis ussed, in terms of the tenden ies jus t re alled. This will be done with the situations outlined in figures 1, 2 and 3 . As mentioned in the orresponding aptions, these examples illustrate respe ti vely (in ase of an easygoing treatment of these situations), Fig. 1: the trend to reify on epts see the so- alled materialized rays and to disregard the fa t th at showing is not suffi ient to understand [11]; Fig. 2: the risks atta hed to an over-simplified diagram (see also Colin et al. [12]); Fig. 3: the diffi ulties o f understanding an oversimplified situation of fri tion, (des ribed only at the ma ros opi level, whereas a mesos opi sawteeth model of the on erned surfa es m ay help students to understand propulsion via fri tion: see Viennot [13]). a) A ommon small experiment often presented as showing b) A way to show that interp reting what is seen in a) is not re tilinear propagation of light so simply link ed to re tilinear propagation of light FIGURE 1. An example of a ritual experime nt (a) and of a way (b) to avoid oversimplifi ation in this respe t. In both as es what is seen is a set of shadows, NOT rays of light [14]. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 23 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Lauren e Viennot a) A lassi over-sele tive - drawing b) A drawing more expli it FIGURE 2. A ritual drawing to illustrate wave interferen es with Youngs holes (a) and a more expli it diagram (b) whi h shows diffra tion that o urs at the hole s position, the different status of a path of light after a hole as ompared to t he ray of light arriving at this hole, and the ba kward sele tion used to al ul ate an amplitude at a point on the s reen [12]. So a b

FIGURE 3. Analysing for es in play: In order to avoid a lassi error (a), it is useful to provide a more expli it diagram (b), but this may turn out to be insu ffi ient. Indeed when it omes to explain the intera tion of fri tion, represent ing the ground as a smooth horizontal surfa e is not effi ient, ontrary to the saw-teeth mesos opi model outlined in ( ) [2]. In all these examples, as said above, there is a large extent of similarity in t he possible sour es of orresponding rituals. Con erning the possible out omes, it may happen that a ritual be ineffi ient in promoting students understanding, a s is the ase of a stri tly horizontal and smooth line used to represent the gro und. In other ases, an aspe t of tea hing pra ti e an be likely to reinfor e s tudents ommon ideas (the lassi diagram and the travelling image syndrome), thi s without any patent violation of a epted physi s. It may also happen that, if not autiously explained, a situation suggest an in onsistent argument. Thus, pr esenting the small experiment in figure 1a and letting the students think that i t shows some re tilinear rays is frankly in oherent with the fa t that the sour e is not in line with the so- alled ray. Some rituals deserve a thorough attention, in order to avoid similar risks, an idea espe ially illustrated in the following se tion. III. THE HOT AIR-BALLOON: SOME GOOD REASONS TO OVERCOME OUR RITUALS It is ommon pra ti e to suggest that in a hot air balloon, the air pressure is the same inside and outside. Again, it will appear that what is taught is sheer in onsisten y, an in onsisten y whi h has no spe ial relation, this time, to learn ers previous ideas. A lassi exer ise, indeed, onsists in asking students to de termine, for a hot air Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 24

balloon of volume V, at what temperature T the internal air must be to a hieve l ift-off, given the total mass of the envelope and of the arried mass. Ar himede s prin iple is the target of su h exer ises. In order to determine the relationsh ip between the density of the internal air and its temperature, it is ne essary to know the pressure inside the envelope. The text lassi ally reads something l ike this: Whatever the temperature of the air in the balloon, its pressure is the same as that of the air outside it. This statement, unless it is a ompanied by further spe ifi ation, is very problemati . Indeed, the same pressure inside and outside near ea h small part of the envelope means that no net for e is exerted by all of the gas. So the envelope would be drawn downwards due to the weight o f the obje ts arried and its own weight, and ould not but fall straight down [ 2, 15]. In this example, there is a lash between a global approa h of Ar himede

s prin iple on the one hand, and a lo al me hanisti analysis, on the other. As w ill be seen below, tea hers do not spontaneously dete t the least problem. Tradi tionally, lo al and global points of view are not onfronted, and the global app roa h is onsidered suffi ient. But su h an approa h may entail a shift from usi ng a mean value for the air pressure to onsidering impli itly this pressure as uniform. This risk is very ommonly ignored, and it might be said, in this respe t, that most tea hers un ons iously ontribute to presenting physi s as dislo a ted theory. Su h potential diffi ulties deserve attention. Thus, the hot air bal loon an be presented with a spe ifi treatment, http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Tea hing physi s: resear h-based suggestions and tea hers rea tions toward a bett er intera tion? with the goal of avoiding the in onsisten y denoun ed above and, more positively , to show that physi s works. What the global perspe tive permits us to ignore i s the small differen e between the gradients of pressure inside and outside the envelope. Admitting that the pressure is the same inside and outside at the aper ture level (bottom), it is not onsistent to say that the same balan e holds at the top of the balloon. The smaller diminution of the inside pressure with altit ude a ounts for the fa t that this pressure is larger than the external pressur e at the top of the envelope, whi h enables the balloon to stay up in the air (F ig. 4). Of ourse the ost of su h an approa h is not negligible, in terms of tea hing time, but n either is it disproportionate. It is worth noting that, presented with the usual text (outlined above) of an exer ise on erning hot air balloons, and with the question: would you add or hange something in this text to make it more lear, th is before any dis ussion, none of the onsulted persons (15 first year universit y students, 32 degree students, 61 trainee tea hers) alluded in the least to the problem pinpointed here. But, as outlined below, their had strong rea tions aft er dis ussion [15]. pin > pout h pin = pout in< out Glob l viewpoint: A chimedes p inciple pin= -ingh pout= -outgh p pin>pout Top h F Lo al viewpoint explaining the upward for e on the balloon FIGURE 4. Some elements to understand how a hot air balloon holds in the air [2, 15]. F: weight of the system (basket+load+balloon). IV. STUDENTS REACTIONS AND TEACHERS The just mentioned first year university students individually went through this dis ussion in a tea hinginterview (interviewer: author). At the end, they were asked if this analysis seemed a essible to them. All answered yes, but sometimes (7/15) said they were not sure they ould explain the topi themselves. Also, as ked if the dis ussion was worthwhile, they all answered positively, with omment s su h as: Its always interesting to have exer ises like that, sure, explanations , you dont have to give them thoughtlessly, you made me think, me, even if its dif fi ult, its fine to thinkWe learn mu h moreI have learnt a lot. Some students (7/15 ) expressed a feeling of frustration on erning the kind of tea hing they had ex perien ed before: Why is it the first time someone tells me this? A students rema

rk appears as espe ially relevant to the question of our tea hing obje tives: (I s su h a dis ussion more interesting than doing the lassi exer ise?) absolutel y... provided we are taught how to do it. Finally, students last omments were of ten very gratifying for the interviewer: Have you got anything else like that? Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 25 In addition, 21 degree students were olle tively asked their rea tions after a similar session. The great majority [10] de lared, on expli it questioning, that they had got pleasure in understanding the point addressed and that the session was worth the ost in time. The same onsultation was organized for a group of 15 upper se ondary s hool - math and s ien e - in-servi e trainee tea hers. Thes e tea hers attended a session about modeling and relationships between mathemati s and physi s. Only four of them were physi ists. They were presented with the topi of hot air balloons (half an hour), many of them being unfamiliar with thi s topi . The usual version of the exer ise was first proposed, with no rea tion on their part, then the more omplete dis ussion outlined in figure 4 was propos ed. Finally they were asked to express their rea tions with a short paper and pe n il questionnaire. The results show that they all onsidered the dis ussion wor th it for themselves (rated 3 or 4 on a s ale 1 to 4), but were less onfident t hat it would be the ase for students in their last year at s hool. Answering th e questionnaire after dis ussion, they suggested to make a distin tion, on erni ng these students, between two possible tea hing goals: on the one hand, having a proper idea of what physi s is, on the other, understanding how a hot air ball oon works. They showed more ready to take the time needed with the first of thes e goals in mind than with the se ond (6/15 against 2/15 ratings 3 or 4 on a s al e 1 to 4). Globally, most of them thought that what had been good for them was n ot really a essible or profitable to http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Lauren e Viennot students at grade 12 whereas most of these tea hers were not themselves spe iali zed in physi s. This is not the first time we have found that tea hers (or older students) will agree on the value for themselves of an approa h whi h they deny is possible or useful for younger students, this even in ases where there is e viden e that the young students are quite omfortable with the suggested approa h ([13] pp. 62, 11, 176; [16]). V. CONCLUSIONS The main target of this paper is to illustrate how urgent it is to re onsider, i n the light of resear h results, some very ommon tea hing pra ti es, this more parti ularly if onsisten y is an important goal of our tea hing. Despite the pr esent development of resear h in s ien e edu ation, there are still many rituals of ommon tea hing pra ti e that are either not dis ussed, or are very resistan t to hange, or both. Su h rituals an be misleading as regards students ommon i deas, or even a tively generate a view of physi s as in onsistent. In some ases , a ommon tea hing pra ti e limits the adopted approa h in a way whi h s reens the power of physi s as a unifying des ription. To dete t su h rituals and deta h oneself from them, general pres riptions su h as taking students ideas into on sideration are not suffi ient. In addition, these few refle tions and results pr ovide the in entive to renoun e simplified omments su h as they (the students) l a k riti al sense. It is true that no onsulted student dete ted the potential d iffi ulty linked to a uniform pressure in a hot air balloon, for instan e. But n o tea her did. Similarly, it is very unlikely that students will spontaneously riti ise an over-simplified interpretation of materialized rays, but tea hers in t heir great majority do not show either a real vigilan e in this respe t. Rituals installed for a long time seem very effe tively to blo k students and tea hers sp ontaneous riti al refle tion on some topi s. The reasons why su h rituals are s o resistant to hange are multiple. They have something to do with the general t enden ies of ommon reasoning in physi s, su h as thinking on epts as if they w ere ordinary obje ts (e.g.: the rays, an image; see also for the shadows [13]). They might be also be seen as refle ting what are alled ommon transforming tren ds in the STTIS proje t ( oord. R. Pinto). For instan e, onsidering the findings of this proje t an item su h as observation is valued at the expense of explanat ion is more than ompatible with the kind of reasoning just mentioned - if a on ept is like an ordinary obje t, why not to show it? Another item a one-to-one lin kage between a given devi e and a given dida ti approa h is observed perfe tly a pplies to the ase of the opti al ben h and the ritual fo using on onstru tion rays, both favourable to indu ing the travelling image syndrome. As for the quasi general la k of onsideration of links mentioned in STTIS findings (see also Hir n and Viennot [11]), it is easy to see that this trend does not help one riti i ze over-ex lusive approa hes (for instan e: only global, as is the ase for the hot air balloon). Thus, the main question is not so mu h one of Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 26 finding the origin of the observed rituals but rather of finding a way out of so many opposing fa tors. Of ourse, it is natural to suggest some good pra ti es, i n orresponden e with the limiting rituals analyzed here: Instead of reifying an d showing on epts (a materialized ray), we should fo us on phenomena (shadows); i nstead of over-simplifying images (two rays in the ase of Youngs holes and their s eemingly individual fate), we should make more expli it the phenomena (diffra ti on) as well as the subtleties of the theoreti al analysis (ba kward sele tion); instead of adopting a single angle of atta k (global as for the hot air balloon) , we should stress the links between different approa hes (lo al and global). Ot her major lines of refle tion and of a tion have not been dealt with here for th e sake of brevity. The importan e of a fun tional approa h [2], for example, and the distin tion and linkage between quasi-stati and non quasi-stati transform ations [17, 18] also deserve great attention. But as far as lassroom pra ti e i s on erned, the de isive a tors are tea hers, this whatever the value of resear

h-based suggestions they are presented with. What ould help tea hers to hoose more ons iously what they do in tea hing? Several fa tors might ontribute to this goal. One is - lassi ally - tea her training. Although it is far from bein g the only thing to onsider, sound training is obviously needed. But, tea hers, if mainly presented with general views on S ien e Edu ation and on S ien e, mig ht not learly understand the orresponding stakes. The worst thing would be a p urely verbal adaptation to a ademi training. In this regard, a onsiderable res ear h effort remains to be made, in order to go beyond the high rate of observed failures and the s ar ity of resear h-based and validated training materials pr esently available. An important ondition, in this perspe tive, seems to keep a sharp eye on those small aspe ts of pra ti e illustrated in this paper, and whi h seem diffi ult for tea hers to onsider. Another fa tor to be onsidered is th e ommuni ation pro ess. Trainee tea hers are in a position whi h is analogous t o that of learners at s hool: they annot be seen as passive re eivers. Keeping to a parallel with the ase of younger learners, a problem posing approa h seems a priori appropriate to orientate the design of training episodes and materials . The problem in question, I suggest, is pre isely how to substantiate great pri n iples (see Gunstone and Whites statement in introdu tion [4]) in detailed a tio ns. More spe ifi ally, it may take the form of a question: given this global rat ionale for su h and su h sequen e, is this parti ular aspe t of pra ti e ompati ble with this rationale? Or, more abruptly: are we oherent if we think this and do that? A sensible appre iation of oheren e between global views and small a tions is not straightforward, and it requires edu ation [2]. But training is not suffi ient either. As for any potential learners, tea hers are strongly determine d by their own feelings towards the goal of the training in whi h they parti ipa te. In this respe t, tea hers betray a strong pessimism about their students abil ities. As we have sometimes http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Tea hing physi s: resear h-based suggestions and tea hers rea tions toward a bett er intera tion? heard them say, a new spotlighting of a given topi would be good for us (tea her s) but not for them (their students), a fa t sometimes in opposition with experim ental results. If tea hers do not believe it possible, it is easy to predi t tha t, ex ellently trained as they may be, they will not even try to raise intelle t ual satisfa tion in their students by the means dis ussed here. How to enhan e t ea hers optimism? It is plausible that providing them with the kind of repli able evaluation outlined above, on erning lenses, might be of interest. Trainees wh o parti ipated in this omparative test were very impressed by the result. But s u h a demonstration is rarely a essible [9]. For the rest, there is little hope for them to be onvin ed without trying, whi h means that they have found a spa e of time for this a tivity and have forgotten for a moment the usual stresses on them. In a more oer ive register, a third omponent is the type of assessmen t to whi h students must be prepared. Thus, a re ent investigation [19] on erni ng the Fren h ba alaurat (at the end of se ondary s hool) shows that no question i n two years (1999 and 2000) asked for a result to be riti ized: this throws a v ery spe ial light on re urrent in antations about la k of riti al sense. Probably , there might be more effe tive in entives for assessment to do a better job, if good examples of pre ise wording for this type of question were more abundantly provided by resear h. Students on their part, when offered an opportunity to th ink more deeply about the familiar situations mentioned above, appeared to rea t very positively. Most probably, their satisfa tion has not mu h to do with the topi in itself. It seems to originate in the feeling that they an master a poi nt, seen from different angles. So it is not so unrealisti to undertake to rais e intelle tual satisfa tion through this type of (exigent) approa h, keeping in mind the students remark: provided we are taught how to do it. This very pertinent omment is a good sour e of inspiration to arry out, or rather to more expli it ly orientate, further resear h based on the ideas developed here, and to favour tea hers information in this respe t. REFERENCES [1] Gil-Perez, D. & Pessoa de Carvalho, A., M., Physi s Tea her Training: Analys is and Proposals. In Tiberghien, A., Jossem, E.L. & Barojas, J. (Eds), (1998). Co nne ting Resear h in Physi s Edu ation with Tea her Edu ation. International Uni on of Pure and Applied Physi s, ICPE Publi ations, Ohio. http://www.physi s.ohio state.edu/~jossem/ICPE/BOOKS.html. [2] Viennot, L., Relating resear h in dida ti s and a tual tea hing pra ti e: impa t and virtues of riti al details (S i. Ed u . Resear h in the Knowledge Based So iety, 383-393, Kluwer, Dordre ht, 2003). See also materials for tea her training: materials on web site: http://www.ldsp. univ-paris7.fr/sttis_p5/index_uk.htm. [3] Viennot, L., Chauvet, F., Colin, P. & Rebmann, G., Designing Strategies and Tools for Tea her Training, the Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 27 Role of Criti al Details. Examples in Opti s, S ien e Edu ation 89, 13-27 (2005) . [4] Gunstone, R. & White, R., Goals, Methods and A hievements of Resear h in S ien e Edu ation. In Millar, R., Lea h, J. & Osborne, J. (Eds), Improving S ien e Edu ation (Open University Press, Bu kingham, 2000) pp. 293-307. [5] Fawaz, A. & Viennot, L., Image optique et vision, Bulletin de l Union des Physi iens 686, 1125-1146 (1986). [6] Goldberg, F. M. & M Dermott, L., An investigation of stud ents understanding of the real image formed by a onverging lens or on ave mir ror, Ameri an Journal of Physi s 55, 108-119 (1987). [7] Galili, Y. & Hazan, A., Learners Knowledge in Opti s, International Journal of S ien e Edu ation 22, 578 8 (2000). [8] Beaty, W., The origin of mis on eptions in opti s?, Ameri an Journ al of Physi s 55, 872-13 (1987). [9] Viennot, L. & Kaminski, W., Can we evaluate a riti al detail of tea hing pra ti e? The ase of a type of diagram in unders tanding opti al imaging, International Journal of S ien e Edu ation 28, 1867-189 5 (2006). [10] Viennot, L., Physi s in sequen e, physi s in pie es?, Internation al Physi s Edu ation Conferen e What Physi s should we tea h?, International Commi

ssion on Physi s Edu ation and South Afri an Physi al So iety, Univ. of Natal, ( University of South Afri a Press, D. Grayson (Ed.), Durban, 2005) pp. 77-91. [11 ] Hirn, C. & Viennot, L., Transformation of Dida ti Intentions by Tea hers: the Case of Geometri al Opti s in Grade 8 in Fran e, International Journal of S ien e Edu ation 22, 357-384 (2000). [12] Colin, P., Chauvet, F. & Viennot, L., Read ing Images in Opti s: Students Diffi ulties, and Tea hers Views, International Jou rnal of S ien e Edu ation 24, 313-332 (2002). [13] Viennot, L., Tea hing physi s (Kluwer, Dordre ht, 2003). [14] Viennot, L., The design of tea hing sequen es i n physi s-Can resear h inform pra ti e? Lines of attention. Opti s and solid fri tion. In Resear h on Physi s Edu ation, Pro eedings of the International S hool of Physi s Enri o Fermi (Italian So iety of Physi s), Course CLVI, So ieta Ital iana di Fisi a, Bologna, (2004) pp. 505520. [15] Viennot, L., Rituals in tea hin g Physi s and students intelle tual satisfa tion: what an we do? World view on ph ysi s Edu ation in 2005. Fo ussing on hange. Sele ted papers of ICPE Internation al Conferen e on Physi s Edu ation, University of New Delhi (Miranda House, onv ener Prathiba Joly), in press, London World S ientifi Publishing Co., (2005). [ 16] Viennot, L. & Leroy, J. L., Doppler and Rmer: what do they have in ommon?, P hysi s Edu ation 39, 273280 (2004). [17] Rozier, S. & Viennot, L., Students reas oning in thermodynami s, International Journal of S ien e Edu ation 13, 159-170 (1991). [18] Viennot, L., Reasoning in physi s. (Kluwer, Dordre ht, 2001). http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Lauren e Viennot [19] Rigaut, M., Lpreuve rite de Physique au ba alaurat: analyse du point de vue d u ontrat dida tique, Unpub. thesis, LDPES, Univ. Paris 7 (2005). [20] Viennot, L., Chauvet, F., Gomez, R., Hirn, C., Monroy, G., Ogborn, J., Pinto, R., Sassi, E., Stylianidou, F., Testa, I. (1999). Investigation on tea her transformations when implementing tea hing strategies, STTIS Transversal Report (RW3), www.uab.e s/sttis.htm Viennot, L. Tea hing physi s (Kluwer, Dordre ht, 2003). within the framework of the TSER program ( oord. R. Pinto, UAB, Bar elona), http ://antalya.uab.es/ re im/websttis/index.html APPENDIX. MAIN RESULTS OF STTIS REPORT: Investigation on tea her transformations when implementing tea hing strategies (Viennot et al. 1999: [20]) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS STTIS (S ien e Tea her Training in an Information So iety) is a resear h proje t f ounded by EU, DG XII, -Motivation Even if jugged motivating by a tea her, be it for the pupils or for the tea her he r/himself, an innovation may be transformed to a large extent by this tea her. T his may appear at a de larative level, when the debate is about pre ise tea hing a tions, or, still more learly, when su h a tions are observed in the lassroo m. -Topi s dealt with versus what is re ommended Some nontraditional topi s are negle ted, totally (fri tion) or partly (geometri al ondition for vision). More often, there is a trend to onflate the new with the old. This may result in hypert rophy (phenomena being taught per se) and/or in oheren e. This may stem from a vie w of tea hing as ne essarily following a unique, traditional, pattern, a wish to negotiate with the diffi ulties, an in omprehension of the (revisited) ontent. -Links - between different approa hes or languages, between on epts and a tivi ties, on eptual paths - are not put in eviden e. There is a quasi general la k of onsideration of links. The re ommended order (for instan e from real to ideal) , an be ompletely reversed in tea her pra ti e. Often, on epts are taught, an d a tivities are organized, in isolation; the fine-grained spe ifi ation of a h aining between on epts is not taken-up, at the expense of the global rationale, and of on eptual oheren e. -Learners previous ideas, language and learning dif fi ulties These are a knowledged but not a tually and onsistently addressed. Pr oblems with tea hing materials (texts, images, a tivities) likely to reinfor e t hese previous on eptions and learning diffi ulties are not attended to. -Studen ts a tivity: the intelle tual stru ture of the a tivity is not planned in the sam e detail as the pra ti al aspe ts. This point appears, in our investigations, as a major la k. Quasi unanimously, only global des riptions of a tivity are state d by tea hers, no fine grained spe ifi ations of haining, links, types of quest ioning, orientations of debate are spe ified. -Predi tion, experiment and ompar ison: an under-exploited y le The idea of reasoned predi tion before experiment is either totally absent or envisaged in a limited register: the y le is not i terated, predi tion is not dire tly followed by any experiment, or else is pra t i ed in the register of motivating dis overy; an interesting ex eption is observ ed on erning Color, after training. -Observation is valued at the expense of ex planation. Seeing is understanding seems to be a widely spread slogan. It might go with the see what I want you to see syndrome, and be related to the following poi nt, among other possible auses. -A wish to start from leaned fa ts is observed. This feature is espe ially striking regarding Motion and For e: the suggested on eptual path from real to ideal is reversed, the starting point hosen by tea hers ex luding, in parti ular, fri tion. -A one to one linkage between a given devi e and a given dida ti approa h is observed The maintained use of a lassi al dev i e drags along with it traditional strategies. The adoption of a new devi e an foster the - at least partial - take-up of new strategies. Designers might usef ully take su h linkages into a ount, to avoid rigidity and to favour the implem

entation of new strategies by ba king them up with new devi es. -The riti al det ails of a dida ti strategy that may deeply affe t the impa t of a dida ti seque n e are also those that are the most diffi ult to ommuni ate to tea hers. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 28 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Qu podemos ha er para lograr un aprendizaje signifi ativo de la fsi a? Mi hel Pi quart Universidad Autnoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Apdo. postal 55-534, Col. Vi entina , 09340 Mxi o DF, Mxi o. E-mail: mp@xanum.uam.mx (Re ibido el 9 de O tubre de 2007 ; a eptado el 22 de Di iembre de 2007) Resumen Con base en mo llegan los estudiantes a la Divisin de Cien ias Bsi as e Ingeniera ( CBI) de la Universidad Autnoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa (Mxi o, D. F.) y la ne esi dad que tenemos de formar buenos profesionales, proponemos un ambio en los urs os de fsi a del Tron o General (TG). Este ambio in orpora la dete in de las idea s previas de los alumnos y la puesta en mar ha de estrategias did ti as espe fi as para lograr el ambio on eptual ade uado. Se sugiere, en parti ular, la resolu in de problemas abiertos propuestos omo pequeos proye tos de investiga in para qu e los resuelvan en equipos. Se enfatiza tambin sobre la ne esidad de una forma in pedaggi a del profesorado. Palabras lave: Ideas previas, problemas omo investig a in y trabajo en equipo, forma in do ente. Abstra t On basis to how ome the students to the CBI division of the UAM-I and the ne es sity to form good professionals, we propose a hange in the introdu tory ourses of physi s. This hange takes into a ount the students mis on eptions dete tion and new dida ti strategies. It is suggested the resolution of problems as inve stigation and ollaborative work. We also insist on the ne essity of a pedagogi al formation of the professors. Keywords: Previous ideas, problems as investigat ion and work team, training tea hers. PACS: 01.40.Fk, 01.40.gb, 01.40.J-. ISSN 1 870-9095 I. INTRODUCCIN Len M. Lederman, premio Nbel de fsi a en 1988 por sus experimentos sobre los neutri nos, Georges Charpak, premio Nbel de fsi a en 1992 por sus trabajos sobre dete tor es para la fsi a de part ulas, en espe ial por la onstru in de la primera mara pr opor ional de hilos y Carl E. Wieman, premio Nbel de fsi a en 2002 por la sntesis d el primer ondensado de Bose-Einstein en gases enrare idos de tomos al alinos, a parte del premio Nbel, tienen en omn una ara tersti a ms. Despus de haber re ibido este premio se dedi aron a atender problemas de enseanza aprendizaje. Len Lederman empez en 1990 un programa llamado Hands on en las es uelas de los suburbios pobres de Chi ago. Planteaba que en un mundo dominado por la ien ia y la te nologa po a gente era apaz de entender la ien ia. Adems, dijo que se poda ensear ien ia a nios de seis aos siempre y uando se utilizaran los medios ade uados y empez un pla n de forma in de maestros, la elabora in del material did ti o y de un programa.

George Charpak, que ono i a Lederman en el CERN 1 aos atrs, visit estas es uelas y se onven i de la ne esidad de ha er algo pare ido en Fran ia. Fue el prin ipio d el programa La main la pte en 1996 on la ayuda del Ministerio de Edu a in y la gene raliza in de la enseanza de las ien ias en las es uelas primarias fran esas desde el ao 2000 [1, 2]. Aadir que este programa se ha interna ionalizado ya que varios pases en el mundo lo han adaptado a su respe tiva situa in. Este programa fue la t rasla in en el mbito es olar de una peti in de la so iedad: Cul edu a in ientfi a y p ra ul so iedad? [3,4]. Para el ini iador de este programa, George Charpak, uno d e los objetivos de la enseanza de las ien ias, es tambin formar la personalidad d el nio y que sea un iudadano. En uno de sus libros [5] es ribi: [. . .] Para algun as elites, la ien ia ampla el ampo de los ono imientos y sus ita una admira in siempre renovada, pero estn sorprendidos y apurados uando des ubren que na e en la so iedad un profundo desen anto por la ien ia. Este desen anto se ha a ompaad o por otra parte de un re imiento en nmero y 1 Centro Europeo de Investiga in Nu lear. http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

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Mi hel Pi quart

en influen ia de se tas que difunden do trinas que pare en, a ve es, salidas de los siglos ms negros de nuestra historia [. . .]. En la enseanza primaria, el apre ndizaje de la le tura y de la es ritura se apoya generalmente sobre el relato. E n la se undaria, los alumnos son ms bien juzgados sobre su apa idad de argumenta r sobre textos que ofre en alternativas y op iones ontradi torias. Es en esta o asin que a menudo se opera la sele in so ial [. . .]. El razonamiento ientfi o o fre e un medio potente de aumentar las apa idades de reflexin, de argumenta in y de jui io de los nios. Una forma in ientfi a desde la edad ms temprana ser enton es un potente antdoto a esta llaga que ha e que en lugar de es oger nuestras elites dirigentes dentro de los 58 millones de fran eses, se es ogen dentro de un pas re du ido a 10 millones de habitantes." G. Charpak hablaba para Fran ia pero desafo rtunadamente esta frase se puede adaptar a mu hos pases. Carl Wieman est ms preo up ado por la enseanza de la fsi a universitaria y en este art ulo me dedi ar prin ipal mente a este aspe to ya que en trabajos anteriores habamos hablado de lo otro [1, 2]. Wiemann form un grupo de investiga in en enseanza de la fsi a en la Universidad de Colorado en Boulder [6] y a prin ipio 2007 fue ontratado por la Universidad de Columbia Britni a en Canad para desarrollar un proye to destinado a remplazar el urso tradi ional en el ual los estudiantes son llenados de informa in fre ue ntemente sin entenderla y sustituirlo por una forma ms intera tiva de enseanza que permita una onstru in slida de los on eptos. Para Wieman, la lnea de fondo es q ue la enseanza debe de ser ms ientfi a en el sentido que las teoras sobre los pro eso de aprendizaje, y lo mejor que pueden aportar debe de basarse en medi iones ua ntitativas. Di e que mu hos profesores adoptan la a titud opuesta, justifi ando su estilo de enseanza en base a uno o dos omentarios positivos que re iben de estu diantes. Estos olegas deberan de pensarlo bien ya que todos los resultados de la investiga in en ien ia de la edu a in van en la misma dire in: los estudiantes a prenden muy po o en ursos tradi ionales [6]. Se puede aadir que los trabajos de i nvestiga in did ti a de los ltimos veinti in o aos [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14] mue stran que la enseanza tradi ional, por lo esen ial la lase magistral, que onsid era que los alumnos son vasos va os que el profesor tienen que llenar, ha fallado en todos los pases del mundo en parti ular en los primeros aos de la universidad. Uno de los problemas que dete ta Wieman es que los alumnos, aun los que no sigu en una arrera ientfi a, ne esitan y pueden pensar ms omo expertos. Los expertos, es de ir los ientfi os profesionales, ven la fsi a omo un grupo oherente de on eptos generales validados por el experimento a la diferen ia de los novatos quien es ven la fsi a omo una ole in de pedazos aislados de informa in entregada por u na autoridad y totalmente ortada del mundo real. Wieman aade que entrevistando mi les de alumnos, muestran que piensan ms omo novatos aun despus de haber tomado un urso introdu torio de fsi a. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 30 Anteriormente a estos tres fsi os, otros premios Nbel omo Piotr Kapitza y Ri hard Feynman mostraron tambin, en otras ondi iones y otra po a, un fuerte inters por l a do en ia. No es objeto de este trabajo analizar los ambios que se produjeron en el estudiantado. Pero en la universidad, hemos pasado de una enseanza destinad a a una ierta elite a una masifi a in del a eso a la universidad. En los pases d esarrollados, me pare e que el ambio tuvo lugar inmediatamente despus del sesent a y o ho. Por razones diversas, en parti ular polti as, estos mismos ambios o ur rieron ms tarde, en algunos pases europeos, y en los pases latinoameri anos. Este ambio de la pobla in universitaria, ms numerosa, ms diversa por sus orgenes ultural es y so io-e onmi as no ha sido seguido de ambios en el profesorado que muy fre uentemente ha ontinuado on los mtodos que ellos mismos ono ieron omo alumnos en el periodo anterior. Estos mtodos, destinados anteriormente a una elite, siguen vlidos para esta nueva situa in? Por lo menos, pienso que la pregunta mere e de s er planteada. Los ambios en la forma in del profesorado que o urrieron en varios pases de Europa en los ltimos veinte aos no mere en de ser tomados en uenta? Las ex perien ias que estos olegas vivieron no nos pueden ser tiles? Es muy fre uente or a nuestros olegas quejarse de la falta de madurez, falta de mtodos de estudio,

de la pobrsima prepara in anterior de los alumnos, que no tienen el nivel, et . To do esto puede ser ierto, pero ulpar impl itamente a los olegas de los niveles anteriores de edu a in no resuelve nada, y a lo mejor sirve de justifi a in de alg unos olegas para no ha er nada y sobre todo no uestionarse sobre su propia a t ua in en lase: Hago lo que puedo on lo que me dan, que se salve quin pueda. Las grav es defi ien ias de la edu a in se undaria y preparatoria en Mxi o on una enseanza demasiada enfo ada ha ia la memoriza in en detrimento del razonamiento, uestiona n nuestro propio desempeo, y el modelo de enseanza entrada en la lase magistral del profesor, y ms aun la a titud de quien se opone al ambio. Este art ulo on ie rne a los que estn dire tamente impli ados en la rela in edu ativa y que uestiona n la idea segn la ual los aprendizajes provienen dire tamente de la onfronta in de un sistema ognitivo aislado (l del alumno) y de un saber experto (l del profes or). En lo que sigue, tratar de presentar algunos problemas que los alumnos enfre ntan y propuestas de ambios, en parti ular did ti os. Uno de los problemas impor tantes es el de las ideas previas de los alumnos. En una primera parte regresar s obre este tema. En una segunda parte, se abordaran los ambios ne esarios que se podran emprender para lograr un aprendizaje signifi ativo de los alumnos. Finalm ente, se abordar el problema preo upante de la falta de forma in profesional de lo s profesores universitarios. http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Qu podemos ha er para lograr un aprendizaje signifi ativo de la fsi a? TABLA I. Resultados a dos de las preguntas de la en uesta realizada en el 2006 a los alumnos de primer, segundo y ter er trimestre, respe tivamente del Tron o G eneral de la divisin CBI de la UAM-I. Pregunta Se lanza una piedra verti almente ha ia arriba al anzando una altura de 6 m sobre el suelo. Considerando nulo el r ozamiento on el aire qu altura al anzar otra piedra lanzada on la misma velo idad pero uya masa es la mitad que la de la primera? a) b) ) d) 3 m, 6 m, 12 m, No s. Trimestre 3 Respuestas Trimestre 1 Pregunta Se lanza un objeto verti almente desde el suelo ha ia arriba. 3m 6m 12 m No se Respuestas Trimestre 1 Considerando nulo el rozamiento on el aire, seale ul de los esquemas representa orre tamente las fuerzas que a tan sobre el objeto que sube, po o antes de que st e al an e su mxima altura. Trimestre 2

Trimestre 2 3m 6m 12 m No se a b Trimestre 3 3m 6m 12 m No se

Respuesta orre ta: b) Respuesta orre ta: ) II. IDEAS PREVIAS DE LOS ALUMNOS No se trata aqu de entrar en un debate estril sobre el nombre. Son llamadas tambin pre on eptos, ien ia de los nios, errores on eptuales, representa iones alterna tivas, razonamiento espontneo, et . Puede haber algunos mati es entre estos nombr es ya que ada uno lleva onsigo algunas impli a iones teri as, pero se refieren al mismo planteamiento. Varios investigadores [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23] h an estudiado las ideas previas o los pre on eptos de los alumnos en diferentes r amas de la fsi a o de otras dis iplinas. Mu hos trabajos en did ti a de las ien i as [24], en parti ular de la fsi a, y en parti ular el primero en el tiempo, la t esis de Lauren e Viennot [16], han mostrado que estas ideas previas, adems de tra du ir una in omprensin de on eptos bsi os de fsi a enseados de manera repetitiva du rante mu ho tiempo, persisten durante mu hos aos y, por lo tanto, no permiten que el alumno adquiera un aprendizaje signifi ativo. En un trabajo re iente [25], h emos presentado los resultados de una en uesta realizada durante los tres trimes tres del ao 2006 sobre ideas previas de me ni a en los alumnos del Tron o General (TG), es de ir del primer ao de la Divisin de Cien ias Bsi as e Ingeniera (DCBI) de la Universidad Autnoma Metropolitana Izatapalapa (UAM-I). Nuestra universidad fun iona por trimestre y tiene dos ingresos por

a b

a b

Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 31 ao: uno en el trimestre de primavera (mayo) y otro en el trimestre de otoo (septie mbre). Para el TG, todas las Unidades de Enseanza Aprendizaje (UEA) se abren en ada trimestre. Adems, desde 2004 uenta on un trimestre propeduti o para los alum nos que lo desean o que tuvieron bajo puntaje en el examen de ingreso. Las en ue stas analizadas en los tres trimestres representaban 50, 21 y 31% de los alumnos , respe tivamente. En la tabla I, se presentan las respuestas a dos preguntas a ra tersti as de esta en uesta reflejando ideas previas aristotli as en los alumnos . Lo notable es que la propor in de respuestas in orre tas es ms o menos la misma de un trimestre a otro mostrando el ar ter duradero de estas ideas si no se a ta para ombatirlas y que los alumnos adquieran los on eptos orre tos. No basta l a insisten ia del profesor al respe to. Aun, el alumno puede adaptarse a la volu ntad del profesor pero al po o tiempo re upera sus ideas errneas. Y qu pensar de lo siguiente? La misma en uesta fue realizada a ator e andidatos a plazas de pro fesor ayudante de fsi a. Estos andidatos tienen un mnimo de 75% de rditos de la l i en iatura de fsi a: solamente nueve ontestaron bien. Estos, omo los que onte staron mal, venan de la UAM o de la UNAM, es de ir que no es un problema de tal o tal universidad, es de todas. Har una ita in larga del trabajo ya men ionado de L. Viennot [15] por ser el primero que puso en eviden ia este http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Mi hel Pi quart tipo de problemas por medio de preguntas de papel y lpiz: La idea de partida es qu e la manera de razonar de ada uno, en parti ular en fsi a, no es solamente un ef e to de la enseanza previa. Hay una forma espontnea de razonar que no es ualquiera y que no tradu e solamente una ausen ia o una deforma in de ono imientos es olar es. Hemos trabajado esen ialmente en dos temas de me ni a: los ambios de referen iales y las rela iones entre fuerza, energa y movimiento. Este ampo de investig a in es muy ade uado ya que: - Las rela iones entre fuerza, energa y movimiento se en uentran en la base de la fsi a y determinan sin duda una gran parte del ompo rtamiento posterior de los alumnos. - Son objeto de un modelo sen illo (del punt o de vista formal): la dinmi a newtoniana estable e una rela in lineal F = ma , en tre el ve tor fuerza ejer ida sobre una masa puntual y una ara tersti a del movi miento, el ve tor a elera in, que es la tasa temporal de varia in de la velo idad. - Finalmente, es evidente que este modelo formal oin ide muy par ialmente on el enfoque intuitivo general, segn el ual un movimiento supone una fuerza a tuan do en el mismo sentido y la inmovilidad, aun pasajera, supone la ausen ia de fue rza. Es entre fuerza y velo idad, ms que entre fuerza y a elera in, que espontneame nte se estable era una rela in lineal. [...] Por ejemplo, el razonamiento espontneo ha e intervenir no iones que pueden en ontrarse en un estudiante bajo el mismo vo ablo: fuerza, energa y que tienen propiedades diferentes. [...] Este tipo de t enden ia espontnea sobrevive a la enseanza. No nos ompete observar lo que pasa re almente en la abeza de un alumno, ni tampo o saber de qu se habla di iendo esto. Pero, podemos ha er apare er onjuntos de preguntas-respuestas que se en uentra n fre uentemente y que son dif ilmente ausados por la sola enseanza. El problema que viene despus es superar el mero atlogo y por lo tanto ha er una hiptesis sobre la manera de razonar de los estudiantes uando van de la pregunta a la respuest a del tipo todo pasa omo si. Cada pregunta-respuesta puede dar lugar a una gran antidad de hiptesis: el texto es irrealista, los alumnos no han entendido la pregunt a, tal error est indu ida por la enseanza..., por el lenguaje orriente..., la difi ul tad es de orden matemti o, han onfundido esto y esto, et . Qu permite es oger y de id ir que tal interpreta in vale ms que otra? [...] Estos razonamientos espontneos se manifiestan tambin en el desarrollo histri o de las ideas, en los nios y en mu has partes del entorno ultural a tual 2 , y a final de uentas todo el mundo razona o ha razonado ms o menos de esta forma. Los profesores mismos, uando ontestan rpidamente ha en errores del mismo tipo. [...] Una tal tena idad proviene sin dud a, en gran parte, de la relativa oheren ia de este sistema expli ativo. [...] P ara superar estos razonamientos espontneos se ne esita una interven in de la ensean za. Pero no basta 2

llegar a yuxtaponer ono imientos es olares al sistema intuitivo sin ningn uesti onamiento. Hay que meter los alumnos en situa in de expli itar estos razonamiento s y situarlos on respe to a lo que se ensea. Esta toma de on ien ia y esta onf ronta in son dos aminos personales en donde el alumno toma un papel a tivo en el pro eso de abstra in. El profesor puede solamente estimular a sus alumnos en es te amino si: - l mismo tiene un ono imiento seguro del razonamiento espontneo in i iado por tal o tal situa in fsi a, - dispone de instrumentos sen illos para adve rtir a los estudiantes. Aqu termina la ita in. Ha e treinta aos que sabemos de esto s problemas undo vamos a onsiderar la experien ia pasada para tomarla en uenta en nuestro propio desempeo? Antes de empezar una lase, ualquier profesor debe d e preguntarse qu saben mis alumnos? Pare e indispensable ha er un examen diagnsti o para saber si llegan on errores on eptuales o no, y a tuar para que estas vay an desapare iendo. Cmo? Es lo que veremos a ontinua in. III. PROBLEMAS COMO INVESTIGACIN Los ono imientos se onstruyen en el aula y fuera del aula pero uando un maest ro prepara su lase de ien ias tiene que tomar de isiones de orden pedaggi o o d id ti o. Siempre lo ha e on respe to a ideas a priori: ideas sobre la manera de aprender del alumno, sobre la onstru in del ono imiento. Estas ideas se pueden

resumir en un esquema tradi ional del fun ionamiento de la ien ia y que fue tr asladado a la enseanza desde sus orgenes. En un ex elente art ulo [26], D. Gil Prez de la Universidad de Valen ia, ha e un balan e de la situa in y un estudio rti o de las innova iones que existieron en el pasado er ano y de las nuevas ideas qu e se vinieron desarrollando. Lo itar: Queremos llamar la aten in, en primer lugar, ontra ualquier tenta in de ver en los planteamientos onstru tivistas hoy en a uge, la solu in a los problemas de enseanza / aprendizaje de las ien ias. Se orre, efe tivamente, el peligro de que se onviertan en un nuevo eslogan superfi ial e inefi az, por tanto, para la mejora del aprendizaje. Si algo omienza a estar laro hoy, pre isamente, es la ne esidad de romper on la idea ingenua pero extr aordinariamente extendida de que ensear es f il: uestin de personalidad, de sentid o omn o... de en ontrar la re eta ade uada para a abar on la enseanza tradi ional. Ms an, resulta ne esario omprender que tras la idea vaga de enseanza tradi ional existe un modelo oherente de enseanza / aprendizaje por transmisin / re ep in de ono imientos ya elaborados [27, 28] y que la renova in de la enseanza no puede ser uestin de simples retoques, sino que presenta las ara tersti as y difi ultades de un ambio de paradigma. Una idea que se ha desarrollado en los ltimos aos, es la de un paralelo entre el aprendizaje y la investiga in, la importan ia de las on ep iones alternativas de los alumnos y la ne esidad de orientar el aprendizaje omo un ambio on eptual y no omo una adquisi in ex nihilo 32 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx El art ulo es de 1978. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008

Qu podemos ha er para lograr un aprendizaje signifi ativo de la fsi a?

puede basarse en la existen ia de un ierto isomorfismo entre el aprendizaje (es de ir, la onstru in de ono imientos por los alumno a partir y en o asin en on tra de sus pre on ep iones) y la investiga in (es de ir, la onstru in de ono im ientos por la omunidad ientfi a a partir y en o asiones en ontra del paradigma vigente) di e D. Gil. Esto signifi a que no basta tomar en uenta las ideas prev ias de los alumnos sino que es ne esario tambin un ambio de metodologa omo el qu e o urri entre la fsi a pre- lsi a y la fsi a a tual. Propone enton es, in luir expl i tamente a tividades que aso ien el ambio on eptual on la pr ti a de aspe tos laves de la metodologa ientfi a, tal omo o urri histri amente. De ah, la idea del ap rendizaje omo investiga in. Es de ir, el tratamiento de situa iones problemti as de inters. Pero ul es la defini in de problemas? En la pr ti a omn los problemas no son realmente en el sentido que son expli ados omo algo que se sabe resolver, en donde no hay dudas y que el profesor resuelve laramente de manera lineal, tr ansformando la solu in en un ejemplo que hay que aprender y saber repetir en situ a iones idnti as. Segn la defini in de Krulik y Rudni k [29]: Un problema es una sit ua in, uantitativa o no, que pide una solu in para la ual los individuos impli a dos no ono en medios o aminos evidentes para obtenerla. Y qu ha e un ientfi o ua ndo se en uentra on un verdadero problema? Se omporta omo un investigador. Un a de las mayores rti as a la resolu in de problemas tradi ionales es el he ho de in luir desde un prin ipio datos numri os de algunas magnitudes. Esta in lusin ha e que el alumno tratar de en ontrar las formulas ade uadas en donde puedan apare er estas magnitudes y as resolver el problema sin ha er ninguna hiptesis ni tampo o ni nguna reflexin previa. Una solu in f il es no in luir datos numri os, pero se ne esi ta enton es orientar a los alumnos para abordar estas situa iones. Estas orienta iones se pueden resumir en las propuestas siguientes, oherentes on un modelo de resolu in de problemas omo investiga in [26, 30]: - Considerar ul puede ser el inters de la situa in problemti a abordada. - Comenzar por un estudio ualitativo de la situa in, intentando a otar y definir de manera pre isa el problema, expli itando las ondi iones que se onsideran reinantes, et . - Emitir hiptesis fundad as sobre los fa tores de los que puede depender la magnitud bus ada y sobre la f orma de esta dependen ia, imaginando, en parti ular, asos lmite de f il interpret a in fsi a. - Elaborar y expli itar posibles estrategias de resolu in antes de pro eder a sta, evitando el puro ensayo y error. Bus ar distintas vas de resolu in para posibilitar la ontrasta in de los resultados obtenidos y mostrar la oheren ia del uerpo de ono imientos del que se dispone. - Realizar la resolu in verbaliza ndo al mximo, fundamentando lo que se ha e y evitando, una vez ms, operativismos arentes de signifi a in fsi a. - Analizar uidadosamente los resultados a la luz d e las hiptesis elaboradas y, en parti ular, de los asos lmite onsiderados. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 33 Este ltimo punto es equivalente a lo que Reif [31] denomina verifi a in de la onsi sten ia interna. Es interesante ha er notar que las indi a iones anteriores estn ms rela ionadas on las a tividades experimentales habituales y que ahora se puede n generalizar a todas las a tividades de aprendizaje de las ien ias.

IV. TRABAJO COOPERATIVO La experien ia prueba [32] que para salir del modelo por transmisin estndar, para tratar de diferen iar la pedagoga y que los alumnos sean a tores de sus aprendiza jes, es ne esario entrar a la problemti a del trabajo en equipo. Hay que intentar modifi ar el ordenamiento mismo de la lase y onstruir un espa io a geometra va riable. No para pasar del todo magistral al todo equipo, ya que no se diferen ia la enseanza pasando de un modelo ni o a otro modelo ni o, de un integrismo metodolg i o a otro. Desde ha e ms de treinta aos, mu hos trabajos en si ologa so ial han mo strado que el trabajo en equipo puede onstituir un entorno so io- ognitivo sus eptible de generar progresos individuales. El prin ipio fundador est onstituido por los trabajos que se re laman de las tesis de Vygotski [33] y se en uentra ta mbin en trabajos de Piaget [34, 35, 36] y Freinet [37, 38]. Para expli ar esto ex isten dos tesis (no ex lusivas): la teora del onfli to so io- ognitivo interindi

vidual, y la de la transforma in de la fun in omuni ativa (interindividual) en fu n in ognitiva (intra-individual). La primera se ono e desde mu ho tiempo: uand o los inter ambios intera tivos son o asin de onfli tos (en el sentido de onfro nta iones ontradi torias) por el he ho de puntos de vista diferentes de los suj etos para resolver un problema, se instala onjuntamente entre ellos un doble o nfli to ognitivo, el primero intra-individual ya que ada sujeto toma on ien i a de respuestas diferentes de las suyas; y interindividual ya que las respuestas son diferentes; y un onfli to so ial ya que los sujetos ne esitan oordinar lo s puntos de vista para llegar a un a uerdo y dar una respuesta omn. La filosofa d e fondo es que el aula es un lugar que a oge a todo el mundo y onsidera que tod o el mundo es un miembro valioso de la omunidad y que por ello es digno de ser ayudado si lo ne esita. Detrs de ello est la no in de que las diferen ias individua les son valiosas, y de que a travs del dilogo, la oopera in, la onviven ia, el re spe to por las diferen ias y la solidaridad, se aprende mejor. Los equipos de ap rendizaje ooperativo tienen una doble finalidad: aprender los ontenidos y apre nder a trabajar juntos, omo un ontenido es olar ms. Finalmente, se trata de fav ore er en el aula un trabajo ole tivo de investiga in dirigida [26] en algo pare i do al trabajo ientfi o de los expertos, en donde la onfronta in de ideas entre e quipos (aqu los alumnos) y on los espe ialistas o la omunidad ientfi a (el prof esor) es la base para la a epta in de nuevas ideas. http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Mi hel Pi quart V. FORMACIN DOCENTE A eptar nuevas ideas debera ser tambin el pan otidiano de los profesores en uant o a la do en ia omo lo es generalmente en uanto a la investiga in. Tal vez es s obre este aspe to parti ular que la falta de forma in profesional y la falta de a pertura se ha en sentir ms. La universidad tiene que enfrentar ambios. Hay, por ejemplo, una ne esidad de forma in a lo largo de la vida, esta demanda so ial es muy fuerte en Europa desde algunos aos y, ya lo es, y lo ser ne esariamente ms y ms en Mxi o; hay nuevos pbli os que van a entrar y que entran ya a la universidad y q ue no siempre tienen las mismas expe tativas ni las mismas ne esidades de forma in que los alumnos de forma in ini ial; se puede pensar tambin en nuevos dispositiv os que permiten diversifi ar la oferta de forma in, et . Los ambios que afe tan a la universidad on iernen de la misma manera las misiones de los do entes-inve stigadores que son ms y ms numerosas y diversifi adas. Estas nuevas misiones lleva n a menudo a nuevas pr ti as, a las uales los profesores no son siempre preparad os y no pueden prepararse a ellas por el he ho, en parti ular, de una forma in o ntinua institu ionalizada asi inexistente. Es ne esario plantear la ne esidad i mperativa de una forma in pedaggi a ini ial y ontina. En los prximos diez aos se pue de pensar que alrededor de 50% de los do entes-investigadores se jubilaran. Los que van remplazarlos ejer ern fun iones que han evolu ionado en algunos de enios y que van a evolu ionar ms. En Fran ia, por ejemplo, estas fun iones son la ensean za, la investiga in y la administra in, ada una on una valor diferente, en parti ular en el re ono imiento institu ional, interno o no a la universidad. Estas t res fun iones pueden ser lasifi adas de la manera siguiente: la ms valorizada es la investiga in, despus la do en ia y la administra in. En la UAM es muy pare ido nada ms que la administra in se sustituye por la difusin de la ultura. El do ente-in vestigador aprende a tualmente su profesin esen ialmente por la auto-forma in o la pr ti a en situa in, on todos los riesgos (para los alumnos) que esto puede repr esentar. Podemos listar las fun iones que ejer e en el desorden y de manera no e xhaustiva: ensear a diferentes pbli os, en lases de laboratorio, en talleres de r esolu in de problemas, en lases magistrales, evaluar a los alumnos, oordinar gr upos de profesores a diferentes niveles, oordinar a tividades de investiga in, e t . La mayora de estas ompeten ias ligadas a estas a tividades estn desarrolladas por la pr ti a, el inter ambio on otros do entes, por le turas, onferen ias, e t . Rara vez, en parti ular, en el aspe to pedaggi o, el profesorinvestigador ben efi ia de un a ompaamiento o de forma iones espe fi as respondiendo a sus ne esida des. En una en uesta realizada en nuestra divisin en 2004 [39] a estudiantes (751 es de ir 27% del total de alumnos) y profesores (99 es de ir 34% de la planta a admi a titular) apare en algunos indi adores. En general, los alumnos alifi an de buena a ex elente (84.4%) la prepara in de los profesores y onsideran que tie nen las habilidades pedaggi as para ensear (71.7%). Al mismo tiempo, men ionan que la exposi in de lase por el profesor es el Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 34 medio ms utilizado (92.4%), y en segundo la resolu in de problemas (36.4%) son las t ni as de enseanza de los profesores. Segn los alumnos, 39% ensayan nuevas y dife rentes formas de enseanza. Dentro de las ausas importantes o muy importantes de reproba in, onsideran que tienen una forma in previa defi iente (79.4%) y que les falta una prepara in de la materia (77.8%), pero 77.9% onsideran tambin que hay una falta de laridad en la exposi in del profesor y 75.4% que hay una falta de orresponden ia entre lo que se ensea y lo que se evala. Ahora bien, solamente 21% de los profesores en uestados onsideran que sus estrategias edu ativas relativa s al ontenido de sus ursos son ade uadas y ms de 77% onsideran que no siempre esto es as. De la misma manera 76% opinan que no siempre sus estrategias edu ativ as estimulan el inters por los ontenidos de sus ursos y menos de la mitad (39.4 %) de los profesores est onven ido que sus t ni as did ti as oin iden on sus est rategias edu ativas. Los profesores estiman que las prin ipales ausas de los pr oblemas de desempeo de los alumnos son, en este orden, la falta de motiva in e int ers; la insufi ien ia de la forma in previa; la insufi ien ia del tiempo que dedi

an al estudio y los hbitos de estudio. Para terminar, en trminos generales, la may ora de los profesores (69.7%) tiene po a omuni a in on sus olegas para analizar los problemas edu ativos de los alumnos y proponer mejoras. Como lo podemos ver , estudiantes y profesores no tienen siempre la misma opinin sobre los diferentes problemas ilustrados en esta en uesta. Si bien todos men ionan la forma in previ a defi iente es preo upante que asi 78% de los alumnos onsideran que hay una f alta de laridad del profesor y que ms de tres alumnos de uatro sealan que no se evala lo que se ensea. Tal vez esta ifra se puede rela ionar on los ms de 75% de profesores que onsideran que sus estrategias edu ativas relativas al ontenido del urso no siempre son las ade uadas y que no estimulan el inters por los onte nidos de sus ursos. Por qu? Probablemente, que no ono en otras y que realmente ha en lo que pueden. Se podra pensar que enton es estos mismos profesores bus aran mo difi ar estas mismas, por lo menos hablando on sus olegas, pero ellos mismos r e ono en que asi 70% tiene po a omuni a in on sus olegas para analizar los pr oblemas edu ativos. Desde los aos o henta, existe en Fran ia una forma in mnima par a los futuros do entes. En un trabajo presentado en 2004 [40], se mostr que mu ho s profesores que siguieron una forma in ontinua bus aban tru os, t ni as, re etas ped ggi as, omo si pudieran pres indir de una reflexin teri a sobre la pedagoga universi taria y la did ti a de su dis iplina. En la Conferen ia Mundial sobre la Edu in d e la UNESCO [41], se aprobaron do umentos que insisten en la ne esidad de la for ma in pedaggi a bsi a y permanente del profesorado universitario. El art ulo 10 de l a De lara in mundial sobre la edu a in superior en el siglo XXI: visin y a in di e: U elemento esen ial para las institu iones de enseanza superior es una enrgi a polti a de forma in del personal. Se deberan estable er dire tri es laras sobre los do entes de la http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Qu podemos ha er para lograr un aprendizaje signifi ativo de la fsi a? edu a in superior, que deberan o uparse sobre todo, hoy en da, de ensear a sus alumn os a aprender y a tomar ini iativas, y no a ser, ni amente, pozos de ien ia. Deb eran tomarse medidas ade uadas en materia de investiga in, as omo de a tualiza in y mejora de sus ompeten ias pedaggi as mediante programas ade uados de forma in de l personal, que estimulen la innova in permanente de los planes de estudio y los mtodos de enseanza aprendizaje. Ha e in o aos, nuestra universidad ha aprobado las Polti as opera ionales de do en ia [42] uya orienta in prin ipal es una do en ia entrada en el aprendizaje on desarrollo de nuevos mtodos did ti os y trabajo ol e tivo. Aunque se insiste tambin en a tualiza in del personal a admi o, po o ha sido realizado hasta la fe ha en uanto a la institu ionaliza in por lo menos de una f orma in permanente. Ensear en la universidad es una profesin que se aprende y para la ual existe una ne esidad de forma in, ms o menos expresada, pero que queda por evaluar e implementar. AGRADECIMIENTOS El autor quiere agrade er al Dr. Luis Montao Hirose por la rele tura de este art u lo y por las dis usiones fru tferas que hemos tenido. REFERENCIAS [1] Pi quart, M. y Carras o Morales, I., La enseanza ientfi a en las es uelas pri meras fran esas, Conta tos 48, 18 (2003) [2] Pi quart, M. y Carras o Morales, I. , Ha er ien ias para saber leer y es ribir, Trabajos de la VIII CIAEF, So iedad Cubana de Fsi a, La Habana, Cuba, ISBN 9597136-19-8 (2003). [3] Astolfi, J. P., Guide du Matre (Coll. Gulliver, Nathan, Paris, 1978). [4] Astolfi, J. P., Peterfa lvi, B. et Verin, A., Comment les Enfants apprennent les S ien es (Retz, Paris, 1998). [5] Charpak, G., La Main la pte. Les s ien es l ole primaire (Flammarion, Paris, 1998) p. 6. [6] New formula for s ien e edu ation, Physi s World, January , pp. 10-11 (2007). [7] Giordan, A., La enseanza de las ien ias (Siglo XXI, Madr id, 1982). [8] Resni k, L. B., Mathemati s and s ien e learning: a new on eptio n, S ien e 220, 477 (1983). [9] Novak J. D., Overview of the international semin ar on mis on eptions in s ien e and mathemati s. In Helm, H. and Novak, J. D. (E ds.), Pro eedings of the International Seminar on Mis on eptions in S ien e and Mathemati s (Cornell University, Department of Edu ation, Itha a, NY, 1983) pp. 1-4. [10] Engel Clough, E. and Driver, R., A study of onsisten y in the use of students on eptual frameworks a ross different task ontexts, S ien e Edu ation 70, 473 (1986). [11] Driver R., Students on eptions and the learning of s ien e, Int. J. S i., Edu . 11, 481 (1989). [12] Cubero, R., Con ep iones alternativas, pre on ep iones, errores on eptuales... Distinta terminologa y un mismo signifi ado?, Investiga in en la es uela 23, 33 (1994). [13] Palmer, D. H., Exploring the link between students s ientifi and nons ientifi on eptions, Issues in Edu at ional Resear h 8, 65 (1998). [14] Helm, H., Mis on eptions in physi s amongst So uth Afri an students, Phys. Edu . 15, 92 (1980). [15] Viennot, L., Le raisonneme nt spontan en dynamique lmentaire, Rev. Fr. Pdagogie 45, 16 (1978). [16] Viennot, L. , Le raisonnement Spontan en Dynamique Elmentaire (Hermann, Paris, 1979). [17] Sal tiel, E. and Malgrange, J. L., Spontaneous ways of reasoning in elementary kinem ati s, Eur. J. Phys. 1, 73 (1980). [18] Fredette, N. and Lo hhead, J., Student on eptions of simple ir uits, Phys. Tea her 18, 194 (1981). VI. CONCLUSIONES En respuesta a la puesta en eviden ia de difi ultades espe fi as de los alumnos e n los ursos introdu torios [43] varios fsi os han tratado de proponer planes de estudio enfo ados a una do en ia ms efi iente, y omo el aprendizaje es ms efi ien te uando hay una parti ipa in a tiva y una intera in entre los alumnos [26, 44, 45], nuestra propuesta es ha erles trabajar en pequeos equipos de tres o uatro a lumnos para resolver problemas de inters on ar ter de pequeas investiga iones. Un a de las ventajas de este planteamiento es que tratando de resolver este tipo de problemas, los alumnos deben formular hiptesis on base a sus ideas previas y la s tienen que dis utir en el equipo, de modo que juntos, puedan des ubrir las on

tradi iones y, mediante un pro eso de retroalimenta in llegar a un planteamiento ms real y objetivo de la situa in problema. El poder presentar sus ideas y oment arlas entre los equipos bajo la dire in del profesor que a te omo un gua y defend erlas para onven er a los dems, en la bsqueda de una solu in ade uada al problema, ampla la posibilidad de re ono er los pre on eptos y orregir los inade uados. S e tiene que, por lo menos, mez lar la lase magistral on el trabajo en equipo. Lo que importa es sobre todo fa ilitar la interven in de los alumnos, no esperar que hagan preguntas sino fomentar y en ontrar las formas de fun ionamiento en el aula para que su parti ipa in sea ms efe tiva. Finalmente, es esta estrategia que estamos probando a tualmente en algunos grupos del primer trimestre del TG de n uestra divisin. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 35 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Mi hel Pi quart [19] M Dermott, L. C., Resear h on on eptual understanding in me hani s, Physi s Today, July, 24 (1984). [20] Halloun, I. A. and Hestenes, D., The initial know ledge state of ollege physi s students, Am. J. S i. Edu . 7, 231 (1985). [21] C lement, J., Students pre on eptions in introdu tory me hani s, Am. J. Phys. 50, 6 6 (1982). [22] Carras osa, J., El problema de las on ep iones alternativas en l a a tualidad (parte 1). Anlisis sobre las ausas que la originan y/o mantienen, R evista Eureka sobre Enseanza y Divulga in de las Cien ias 2, 183 (2005). [23] Camp anario, J. M. y Otero, J. C., Ms all de las ideas previas omo difi ultades de apr endizaje: las pautas de pensamiento, las on ep iones espistemolgi as y las estra tegias meta ognitivas de los alumnos de ien ias, Enseanza de las Cien ias 18, 15 5 (2000). [24] Campanario, J. M. y Moya A., Cmo ensear ien ias? Prin ipales tenden ias y propuestas, Enseanza de las Cien ias 17, 179 (1999). [25] Pi quart, M. y A yala, D., Lograr el ambio on eptual en fsi a: un desafo mayor, Memorias del 4 Tal ler Iberoameri ano de Enseanza de la Fsi a Universitaria, La Habana, Cuba (2007). [26] Gil, D., Cien ias in Enseanza de las ien ias y la matemti a : tenden ias e inn ova iones (OEI, Ed. Popular Madrid, 1993). [27] Gil, D., Tres paradigmas bsi os e n la enseanza de las ien ias, Enseanza de las Cien ias 1, 26 (1983). [28] Millar, R. and Driver, R., Beyond pro esses, Studies in S ien e Edu ation 14, 33 (1987) . [29] Krulik, S. and Rudni k, J., Problem solving in s hool mathemati s (Nation al Coun il of Tea hers of Mathemati s, Reston, Virginia, 1980). [30] Gil, D., Ca rras osa, J. y Martnez-Torregrosa, J., La enseanza de las ien ias en la edu a in s e undaria (Horsori, Bar elona, 1991). [31] Reif, F., Understanding and tea hing problem-solving in physi s. In Dela ote, G., Tiberghien, A. and S hwartz, J. (Ed s.), Resear h on Physi s Edu ation: Pro eedings of the First International Workshop (ditions du CNRS, Paris, 1983) pp. 15-53. [32] Le Tr avail en groupe, Cahiers Pdagogiques, 424, Paris (2004). [33] Vygotski, L. S., Pe nse et langage, La Dispute, Paris (1997). [34] Piaget, J., Dis ours du dire teur du Bureau international d du ation, in Dix-septime Confren e internationale de l in stru tion publique : pro s-verbaux et re ommandations (Bureau international d du a tion, Genve, 1954) pp. 27-28. [35] Piaget, J., Psy hologie et Pdagogie (Denol, Pari s, 1969). [36] Piaget, J., De la pdagogie (Odile Ja ob, Paris, 1988). [37] Freine t, C., Travail individualis et programmation Bibliothque de lE ole Moderne, 42-45 ( 1966). [38] Freinet, C., Cooperative learning and so ial hange: Sele ted writin gs of Celestin Freinet (D. Clandfield and J. Sivell Eds., Toronto, Canada, 1990) . [39] Montao Hirose, L., Barba Alvarez A y Ramrez Mrtinez G., Anlisis de la do en i a y de la ofi ina de aten in a alumnos de la divisin CBI (Ed. UAM-I, Mxi o, 2005). [40] Beney, M. et Pente outeau, H., La formation des enseignants du suprieur : un e rponse un hangement des pratiques? (Congrs AECSE, Paris, 2004). [41] De lara in mundial sobre la edu a in superior en el siglo XXI: visin y a in, UNESCO, Paris (1 998),<www.unes o.org/edu ation/edu prog/w he/de lara tion_spa.htm>, Sept. 2007. [42] Polti as opera ionales de do en ia, A tas del Colegio A admi o, Marzo 2001. [ 43] Braga, L., Una alternativa para resolver el problema de los bajos rendimient os en los primeros ursos universitarios de fsi a del rea de las ien ias fsi as y matemti as, Rev. Mex. Fis. 30, 347 (1984). [44] Redish, E. F., Impli ations of o gnitive studies for tea hing physi s, Am. J. Phys. 62, 796 (1994). [45] Carras o sa, J., El problema de las on ep iones alternativas en la a tualidad (parte 2). El ambio de on ep iones alternativas, Revista Eureka sobre Enseanza y Divulga in de las Cien ias 2, 388 (2005). 1 Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 36 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Visualizing the Doppler Effe t Mar os H. Gimnez, Ana Vidaurre, Jaime Riera and Juan A. Monsoriu Departamento de Fsi a Apli ada, Universidad Polit ni a de Valen ia, 46022 Valen ia , Spain. E-mail: mhgimene@fis.upv.es (Re eived 26 O tober 2007; a epted 22 De e mber 2007) Abstra t The development of Information and Communi ation Te hnologies suggests some spe ta ular hanges in the methods used for tea hing s ientifi subje ts. Nowadays, the development of software and hardware makes it possible to simulate pro esses as lose to reality as we want. However, when we are trying to explain some om plex physi al pro esses, it is better to simplify the problem under study using simplified pi tures of the total pro ess by eliminating some elements that make it diffi ult to understand this pro ess. In this work we fo us our attention on the Doppler effe t whi h requires the spa e-time visualization that is very diff i ult to obtain using the traditional tea hing resour es. We have designed digit al simulations as a omplement of the theoreti al explanation in order to help s tudents understand this phenomenon. Keywords: Digital simulation, Doppler effe t . Resumen El desarrollo de las Te nologas de Informa in y Comuni a in sugiere algunos ambios espe ta ulares en los mtodos usados para ensear temas ientfi os. Hoy en da, el des arrollo de software y hardware ha e posible simular pro esos tan er anos a la r ealidad omo queramos. Sin embargo, uando tratamos de expli ar algunos pro esos fsi os omplejos, es mejor simplifi ar el problema en estudio usando imgenes simp lifi adas del pro eso total eliminando algunos elementos que lo ha en dif il de e ntender. En este trabajo enfo amos nuestra aten in en el efe to Doppler que requi ere la visualiza in espa io temporal que es muy dif il de obtener usando los re ur sos tradi ionales de enseanza. Hemos diseado simula iones digitales omo un omple mento de la expli a in teri a para ayudar a los alumnos a entender este fenmeno. Pa labras lave: Simula in digital, efe to Doppler. PACS: 01.50.H-, 01.40.Fk ISSN 18 70-9095 I. INTRODUCTION In re ent years, Information and Communi ation te hnologies (hereafter ICTs) are being used in many ways in tea hing s ien e. They permit intera tivity, in agre ement with the onstru tivism pedagogi al prin iples. The students have to onst ru t their own body of knowledge so the tea her guides the pro ess providing the student with the ne essary tools to get it [1]. Different works have shown the advantages of digital simulation in the learning pro ess [2, 3]. A tually a lot of online multimedia material for tea hing physi s is available [4]. However, on e should know that the pedagogi al effe tiveness is not dire tly related with th e use of simulation but with its orre t integration in the global instru tion p lan [5, 6]. As the ICTs are now in a developing pro ess, resear h about the new possibilities they offer in the edu ation field is required. Re ently, our worki ng group has developed several simulation programs designed in su h a way that t hey underline the visualization of the physi al problem [7]. In this way, the te a her is able to obtain the major benefits of the omputer-based instru tion. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No .1, January 2008 37 Learning based on models is more likely to aid omprehension than superfi ial me morization. Mental models play a very important role in a tivities related to th e learning pro ess. ICTs offer a good opportunity to develop these ideas through 3D animations immersed in virtual environments. Wave motion, in general, and Do ppler effe t, in parti ular, require the simultaneous understanding of the spati al and time dependen e. Thus, the traditional tea hing resour esbla kboard, slide s, transparen ies are not enough. If we want to show motion we need the real pro ess or the videotape, previously re orded. Both te hniques are very useful in th e learning pro ess be ause they allow to establish onne tions between theory an

d reality. However, in some ases, it is not possible to eliminate some elements that make it diffi ult to understand the essential aspe ts of the problem under study. This an be solved using digital animations, now possible in the ICTs o ntext. This te hnique presents the following advantages: Similarly to the inema or television, simulations produ e the effe t of a ontinuous representation in time. This is not possible with slides or transparen ies. http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Mar os H. Gimnez, Ana Vidaurre, Jaime Riera and, Juan A. Monsoriu They appear free of noise and allow us to identify the different aspe ts we want to emphasize. In this sense simulations an be more effi ient than the real pro ess itself. We have been working in this field designing nonintera tive virtual animations that illustrate physi al on epts as a omplement of the theoreti al explanation. In the present work we present the pro ess we have followed in ord er to design digital simulations to help students in the understanding of the Do ppler effe t. These animations have been developed in a virtual environment usin g the program 3D Studio Max and formatted in digital video files.

II. DIGITAL ANIMATIONS The goal of the simulations here presented is to visualize the Doppler effe t. W e onsider a sour e of sinusoidal wave motion, S, and the observer O. One of the m, or both, is in motion so that the frequen y measured by the observer, v, diffe rs from that generated by the sour e, . The relatio betwee them is give by the well-k ow equatio : v vO (1) , = v vS with a lower s eed than that of the ro agation motion and the observers stay at rest. The left side observer measures a lower frequency than that generated in the source. The right side observer, on the contrary, measures a higher frequenc y than the source does. In addition to the Do ler effect, we can use this exam le to demonstrate the relationshi between eriod and wavelength. The ro osed s cheme can also be a lied to other rocesses related to source motion. In Fig. 2 the source moves with the same s eed as the generated waves. The wave fronts ar e all su erim osed just in front of the source generating the wave barrier. Ty i cal exam les of this henomenon are sound waves generated by air lanes (sound ba rrier) and water su erficial waves generated by shi s. In Fig.3, the source move s with higher s eed than the generated waves. A shock wave is generated as the e nvelo e of the wave front. where v, vS, and vO are the ro agation s eed, the source s eed and the observer s eed, res ectively. As shown in Fig. 1, the design of the simulations is based on the following characteristics: Each animation includes the to view where th e wave source (dark color s here) and one or more observers (light color s heres ) in motion are shown. In many cases, the front view is also added. The wave fro nts are re resented as circumferences centered at the oint where the wave was g enerated and the radius increases ro ortionally to the ro agation s eed. The d ark ones re resent the crests and the light ones the valleys. The front view sho ws the wave being generated by the vertically oscillating source, and affecting the observers. In this way the animation allows an easy com arison between the o scillation frequency of the source and the observers. This scheme offers student s different oints of view that cover different conce ts related with the Do le r effect. The simultaneous re resentation of the time and s ace de endence im ro ves the understanding of the magnitudes involved: eriod, frequency, wavelength, and relative motion of the observer res ect to the source. The different as ect s can be analyzed one by one or globally. The qualitative re resentation can be com ared with the mathematical ex ression given by equation (1). Following the a bove scheme, we have develo ed animations in order to study s ecific roblems re lated with the motion of the source, the observer, or both of them. These animat ions are available by e mail request. As an exam le of these animations, in the articular situation shown in Fig. 1, the source moves to the right Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 38

FIGURE 1. Frame of a digital animation of the Do ler effect where the source mo ves to the right with a lower s eed than that of the ro agation and the observe rs stay at rest. FIGURE 2. Frame of a digital animation related with source motion (wave barrier)

where the source moves with the same s eed as the generated waves. htt ://www.journal.la en.org.mx

Visualizing the Do ler Effect want to em hasize in order to get a better understanding of it. In the resent w ork, we have resented the design of digital animations for the ex lanation of t he Do ler effect. The scheme consists basically of showing the to and front vi ews of the wave fronts generated by the source. The wave front travels in a homo geneous medium and generates oscillations in the observers. This scheme makes it easier the understanding of the Do ler effect and other related roblems like sound barrier or shock waves. REFERENCES [1] Duffy, T, and Jonassen, D., Constructivism and the technology of instruction (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey, 1992). [2] Grayson, D. J. and McDermo tt, L. C., Use of the com uter for research on student thinking in hysics, Am. J. Phys. 64, 557 565 (1996). [3] Esquembre, F., Com uters in hysics education, Com ut. Phys. Commun. 147, 13 18 (2002). [4] Altherr, S., Wagner, A., Eckert, B. , and Jodl, H. J., Multimedia material for teaching hysics (search, evaluation and exam les), Eur. J. Phys. 25, 7 14 (2004). [5] Hestenes, D., Who needs hysic s education research?, Am. J. Phys. 66, 465 467 (1998). [6] Steinberg, R. N., Co m uters in teaching science: To simulate or not to simulate?, Am. J. Phys. 68, S 37 S41 (2000). [7] Vidaurre, A., Riera, J., Gimnez, M. H, and Monsoriu, J. A., Co ntribution of digital simulation in visualizing hysics rocesses, Com ut. A l. Eng. Educ. 10, 45 49 (2002). FIGURE 3. Frame of a digital animation related with source motion (shock wave) w here the source moves with higher s eed than the generated waves. III. CONCLUSIONS The understanding of wave motion requires s ace time visualization, which is ver y difficult to obtain using the traditional teaching resources bla kboard, slides ,... be ause these te hniques only allow to show stati images. Some other te hni ques su h as experiments (real or in video) mix different aspe ts involved in th e pro ess and it is diffi ult to show the essential aspe ts that the tea her wan ts to transmit. This problem an be solved with digital animations that provide a ontinuous time representation of the physi al phenomenon and, on the other ha nd allow us to lean the pro ess showing only the aspe ts we Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 39 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

La balanza ele trni a: la op in ms rentable para realizar distintas pr ti as de labo ratorio de fsi a de fluidos Jess Delegido, Manuel Dolz, Mara Jess Hernndez y Alejandro Casanovas Departamento de Fsi a de la Terra i Termodinmi a , Universitat de Valn ia, Av. Vi e nt Andrs Estells, 46100 Burjassot (Valen ia). Espaa E-mail: delegido@uv.es (Re ibid o el 18 de Di iembre de 2007; a eptado el 9 de Enero de 2008) Resumen Las pr ti as de laboratorio son una importante herramienta pedaggi a para los estu diantes de fsi a de ualquier li en iatura de ien ias o ingeniera. Las pr ti as de fsi a de fluidos son espe ialmente ostosas y a ve es no muestran la fsi a del pr o eso. Puesto que la balanza ele trni a mide masas y fuerzas on pre isin, puede s er utilizada de distintas maneras para estudiar los fluidos. Basndose en el prin ipio de Arqumedes y midiendo el empuje sobre un slido, nos permite medir las densi dades de slidos y lquidos. Midiendo la fuerza sobre una esfera metli a en un fluido en movimiento, la balanza nos permitir al ular la fuerza de Stokes y la vis osi dad de un fluido, y adems podremos distinguir entre fluidos Newtonianos y no Newt onianos. Y midiendo la fuerza de arranque de un anillo metli o de la superfi ie d e un lquido, nos va a permitir medir su tensin superfi ial. En este trabajo se mue stran distintos experimentos sen illos y did ti os, de bajo oste e onmi o, que no s permiten estudiar todas las ara tersti as fundamentales de los fluidos. Palabr as lave: Pr ti as de laboratorio, fsi a de fluidos, densidad, vis osidad, tensin s uperfi ial. Abstra t Students laboratory work is a signifi ant pedagogi al tool for the physi s tea hi ng in natural s ien es or engineering. Experiments on fluids physi s are often o bs ure to show the physi s of the pro ess and expensive. Masses and for es are a urately measured by ele troni balan es and an be adapted to the study of flu ids; e.g., to measure the densities of solids and liquids measuring the push on a solid and applying the prin iple of Ar himedes or to measure the Stokes for e o n a sphere in a fluid in movement and the vis osity of the fluid, and even to di stinguish between Newtonian and non Newtonian fluids. The tear-off for e of a me talli ring pla ed on the surfa e of a liquid allows us to determine the surfa e tension. In this paper several inexpensive and simple dida ti experiments are proposed to study the fundamental properties of fluids. Keywords: Laboratory exp eriments, fluid physi s, fluid me hani s, density, vis osity, surfa e tension. P ACS: 01.50.My, 01.50.Pa, 47.15.Rq, 47.50.Ef. ISSN 1870-9095

I. INTRODUCCIN La fsi a de fluidos forma parte de los programas de fsi a de la mayora de los estud ios de ingeniera y de li en iaturas de ien ias puras y de ien ias de la salud. Sin embargo, a ve es se introdu en on eptos abstra tos dif iles de entender por los estudiantes. Para ayudar a resolver este problema son muy tiles las pr ti as d e laboratorio pues permiten a los estudiantes manipular y observar el omportami ento de los fluidos, por lo que las pr ti as tienen un alto ontenido pedaggi o [1 , 2]. Sin embargo, las pr ti as de fsi a de fluidos son a ve es de alto oste e onm i o pues utilizan instrumentos muy aros omo puedan ser remetros o tensimetros, q ue adems tienen el in onveniente de que el estudiante no ve mo el aparato transform a un fenmeno fsi o, omo el rozamiento de un fluido en un ilindro o el arranque d e un slido de la superfi ie de un lquido, en una Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 40 medida que apare e en la pantalla ele trni a del instrumento. El objetivo del pre sente art ulo es ha er una revisin de distintas pr ti as de laboratorio diseadas por la Unidad de Investiga in de Reologa Apli ada de la Universitat de Valn ia, que, u tilizando omo prin ipal instrumento de medida la balanza ele trni a, permita obt ener las propiedades ms importantes de los fluidos, tanto en reposo omo en movim iento. Di has pr ti as estn he has de forma que su montaje sea e onmi o y sobre tod o que sean did ti as y permitan a los estudiantes ver la influen ia de ada varia

ble en el fenmeno fsi o onsiderado, y vienen realizndose varios aos, siendo muy bie n valoradas por nuestros estudiantes. Dividiremos las pr ti as en uatro grandes grupos: por un lado el estudio de la densidad de slidos y lquidos a partir del pri n ipio de Arqumedes, en otro grupo el estudio de la tensin superfi ial de un lquido y las variables que influyen en ello, en un ter er grupo, el http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

La balanza ele trni a: la op in ms rentable para realizar distintas pr ti as de labo ratorio de fsi a de fluidos estudio de la vis osidad de un fluido y de la fuerza de rozamiento vis osa en un slido que se mueve en el seno de un fluido, y por ltimo el estudio de la vis osid ad basado en la ley de Poiseuille. En estos dos ltimos asos, los experimentos di seados nos va a permitir adems distinguir entre fluidos newtonianos y no newtonian os, e in luso obtener modelos matemti os para la ara teriza in reolgi a, on lo qu e los estudiantes ven todos los pasos del mtodo ientfi o [3, 4]. La pr ti a se ompleta midiendo tres trozos distintos de hueso y tres trozos dist intos de aluminio y realizando el l ulo de errores para obtener la densidad del hueso y del aluminio on su error. B. Pr ti a n 2: densidades de lquidos Tradi iona lmente, la medida de la densidad de un lquido se realiza on la balanza de Mohr, instrumento diseado ni amente para este propsito. Nuestra propuesta no in luye ningn gasto extra, pues se trata de medir la densidad de un lquido utilizando el mismo montaje anterior, pero ahora sumergiendo un objeto de volumen ono ido. En el m er ado se pueden en ontrar inmersores pero tambin pueden ser fabri ados de forma sen illa on ualquier material de alta densidad que se pueda ortar y lijar f il mente. Nosotros hemos onstruido unos on un volumen de 10 m3 de forma que al i ntrodu irlos en el lquido que se en uentra en una probeta sobre una balanza tarad a, miden dire tamente la densidad del lquido en g/ m3 sin ms que dividir lo que ma r a la balanza por 10. Para que la pr ti a sea ms ompleta, se apli a el anterior mtodo de medida al problema de bus ar la rela in entre on entra in de agua on sal y su densidad, y la determina in de la on entra in en sal de una disolu in proble ma. Para ello se preparan varias disolu iones de sal en agua de on entra iones ono idas, se mide su densidad y se representa grfi amente la densidad en fun in d e la on entra in, ajustndolos a una re ta por mnimos uadrados. A partir de la e u a in de la re ta, midiendo la densidad de una disolu in problema de sal en agua, s e al ula su on entra in. En la Figura 2 se muestra la re ta obtenida por un gru po de estudiantes de Farma ia del urso 2007-2008. II. DENSIDAD DE SLIDOS Y LQUIDOS Aunque existen distintos mtodos de medida de la densidad tanto de slidos omo de lq uidos, las dos pr ti as mostradas a ontinua in se basan en el prin ipio de Arqumed es de manera que sirvan tambin para entender di ho prin ipio. Estas pr ti as se ll evan realizando durante mu hos aos, on ligeras modifi a iones, en la asignatura de fsi a de 1 de la Li en iatura en Farma ia y de Ingeniera Qumi a de la Universidad de Valen ia. A. Pr ti a n 1: densidades de slidos Se trata de medir la densidad de uerpos irreg ulares (distintos trozos de hueso o de aluminio). Para ello se pesa ada uerpo, M , y despus se introdu e en un fras o lleno de agua destilada situado sobre la balanza previamente tarada (Figura 1). (kg/m ) 3 1140 y = 999,8 + 7,925x R= 0,99753 1120 1100 FIGURA 1. Mont je expe iment l P ctic s 1 y 2. 1080

Po el P incipio de A qumedes, el gu eje ce un empuje h o del lquido des loj do y po el p incipio de ccin y e eje ce un fue z igu l y h ci b jo sob e el gu , po t l nz es l m s de lquido des loj do, M, de fo m que l

ci ib igu l l pes ccin de Newton, el cue po nto lo que mide l b densid d, , se c lcul

1060 1040 1020 = Mc Vc =

= Mc M , 1000 (1) 0 5 10 15 C (%) 20

http://www.jou n l.l pen.o g.mx

FIGURA 2. Densid d en funcin de l .

concent cin de distint s mezcl s de

gu y s l

en donde es l densid d del gu , que se puede supone 1 g/cm3 o se puede inte pol p ti de un t bl de densid d del gu en funcin de su tempe tu . L t. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, J nu y 2008 41

Mc M /

III. TENSIN SUPERFICIAL DE LQUIDOS L medid de l tensin supe fici l se e liz con equipos especi liz dos muy cost osos, que no siemp e se pueden dqui i p un l bo to io de estudi ntes. Se h p opuesto [5] un mont je expe iment l que pe mite medi l tensin supe fici l d e un lquido con buen p ecisin y que se puede mont en cu lquie l bo to io con b jo coste econmico. Adems yud los estudi ntes entende el concepto de tensin supe fici l pues ellos ven l supe ficie que se ompe y miden l fue z neces i con yud de l b l nz elect nic . El mont je expe iment l se muest en l Fig u 3. L b l nz elect nic (B) tiene un g ncho del que se cuelg un nillo de luminio sujet do con t es hilos. El lquido se int oduce en un ecipiente con fo m de embudo (E) que tiene un ll ve de p so (P) en su p te infe io . El embudo con el lquido se sujet medi nte un sopo te (T). El lquido se ecoge en un ecipie nte (R). F = 4 R , (2) en donde e la ten in uperficial del lquido. Sin embargo, e ob erva experimentalmente que la fuerza no igue exactamente e ta le y y que, debido a factore de curvatura de la uperficie, que el e tudiante pued e llegar a vi ualizar, la longitud a tener en cuenta no e la longitud del anill o, ino una longitud efectiva, Lef, que e puede calcular experimentalmente midien do la fuerza nece aria en el ca o de un lquido de ten in uperficial conocida, a p artir de la frmula = F . Lef (3) De manera que una vez calculada la longitud efectiva, e puede medir la ten in u perficial de cualquier lquido in m que aplicar (3). Como lquido de referencia par a calcular la Lef, utilizamo la acetona, pue el agua tiene el inconveniente de que cualquier impureza (el mi mo polvo del ambiente) hace variar en iblemente u ten in uperficial. De e ta manera, midiendo la fuerza nece aria para arrancar el anillo de la acetona, y calculando la ten in uperficial de la acetona por in terpolacin de la tabla (I), e calcula Lef. TABLA I. Ten in uperficial de la acetona en funcin de la temperatura. Temperatura ( C) 0 20 40 acetona/aire (N/m) 0,0262 0,0237 0,0212 FIGURA 3. Montaje experimental para medir la ten in uperficial de un lquido. La prctica e completa midiendo la ten in uperficial de vario lquido y e tudiand o cmo intervienen di tinto factore en la ten in uperficial, por ejemplo la temp eratura o la pre encia de u tancia ten ioactiva . El proce o de medida e el iguiente: con el anillo horizontal colgado de la bal anza y fuera del lquido, e tara ta. Con la llave de pa o P cerrada, e llena el embudo E con el lquido problema ha ta una altura media. Se ujeta en la pinza del oporte T y e ube ha ta que la uperficie del lquido queda tocando al anillo, umergido uno 2 mm y centrado de forma que e t alejado de la parede . Cuando el lquido e t en repo o e abre la llave de pa o P dejando alir el lquido lentamente

 

                             

  

 

 

  

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. Mientra un e tudiante ob erva el lquido, otro ob erva la pantalla en donde la balanza marca la fuerza que el lquido va ejerciendo obre el anillo: dicho valor ir aumentando progre ivamente ya que cada vez er menor el empuje obre el anillo. De pu e ob ervar un ligero de cen o y bru camente marcar de nuevo cero. El e tud iante tiene que anotar la ltima medida ante de caer a cero, que corre ponde a la fuerza nece aria (multiplicando por 9,8 la ma a marcada expre ada en kg) para v encer la fuerza que acta obre el anillo debido a la ten in uperficial del lquido. Si el anillo tiene de radio R, la fuerza nece aria para eparar el anillo de e ta uperficie era, tericamente Lat. Am. J. Phy . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 42 IV. VISCOSIDAD DE LQUIDOS A PARTIR DE LA FUERZA DE ARRASTRE DE STOKES La vi co idad e una propiedad que indica la re i tencia de lo fluido a fluir y que e t relacionada con el rozamiento entre capa del fluido. Se define por la ley de Newton de la vi co idad: Fx dv = x Axy dz = , (4) en donde e el e fuerzo de cizalla F/A, la vi co idad y la velocidad de cizalla. E comn en lo laboratorio de primer cur o univer itario la medida de vi co ida de de lquido newtoniano , cuya vi co idad no depende de , como alco ol, a ua, a cetona, etc., con vi co metro de vidrio de tipo O twald. Exi ten, in embar o, o tro fluido cuya vi co idad cambia al variar . E to reciben el nombre de fluid o no newtoniano . Muc o de e to fluido ttp://www.journal.lapen.or .mx

    

 

 

 

  

  

 

  

 

 

     

   

  

 

  

  

 

 

re ponden a una ley potencial, o modelo de O twald-de Waele en vez de = K n . n =1 newtoniano n 1 no newtoniano (5) La repre entacione = f( ), llamada reo rama , on lineale en lo newtoniano y curva en lo no newtoniano . El e tudio de e to ltimo requiere vi co metro que permitan variar la velocidad de cizalla, como lo rotatorio , cuyo co te lo ace ca i inacce ible en un laboratorio de primer cur o. En e te trabajo e pr e enta una alternativa muc o meno co to a ba ada en la medida, con una balanza electrnica, de la fuerza ejercida por un fluido obre una e fera metlica. La fuerz a F ejercida obre una e fera que e mueve en el eno de un fluido e proporcion al a la vi co idad del fluido, , al radio de la e fera, R, y a la velocidad relat iva con la que e mueve, v. Dic a fuerza e de cribe mediante la ley de Stoke F =KRv. (6) rupo ar el experimento con un lquido de vi co idad conocida y e fera de di tint o radio . Midiendo la fuerza de arra tre para di tinta velocidade e obtendrn recta de di tinta pendiente . Otro rupo puede medir la fuerza de arra tre par a una e fera fija, con fluido de di tinta vi co idad para di tinta velocidade . I ualmente e obtendrn recta de di tinta pendiente (Fi ura 5). Adem , repre e ntando rficamente dic a pendiente en funcin de la vi co idad, e obtiene una re cta cuya ecuacin irve para determinar el valor de K. La con tante de proporcionalidad K para el ca o de un medio fluido infinito y un a e fera lida, e 6, seg se obtie e de la ecuaci de Navier-Stokes ara meros de R ey olds Re << 1. E el sistema ex erime tal diseado or osotros [6] que se muest ra e la Figura 4, la bala za electr ica ermite medir co recisi la fuerza que acta sobre u a esfera colgada de su ga cho i ferior, como co secue cia del arrast re del fluido que se des laza a su alrededor. Para ello, se hace fluir el lquido a travs del tubo T abrie do la llave A, y se mide la velocidad de desce so v de l a su erficie libre del fluido e el reci ie te CF. Para medir esta velocidad, ut ilizamos u a escala graduada e mm, S, dis uesta sobre el frasco CF y co u cro metro medimos el tiem o e tre dos marcas cua do el rgime se ha estabilizado. Est e mo taje ermite variar la velocidad del fluido abrie do ms o me os la llave A. El sistema ex erime tal diseado, os ermite realizar dos rcticas disti tas dirig idas a estudia tes de Cie cias o I ge iera. Por u a arte, la rctica mero 1 sirve ara deducir de forma ex erime tal la ley de Stokes, mie tras que la mero 2 est ara orie tada hacia la disti ci e tre fluidos ewto ia os y o ewto ia os, la el aboraci de reogramas y la caracterizaci reolgica de fluidos.

A. Prctica 1: deducci ex erime tal de la ley de Stokes El mo taje de la Figura 4 ermite variar todas las mag itudes que i tervie e e la ley de Stokes (frmula 6). Se uede disear u a rctica sim leme te ara com robar esta ley, o ara deduci rla de u modo co structivista. Para ello se ro o e a los estudia tes elaborar hi tesis sobre cuales so las mag itudes de las que de e de la fuerza de arrastre de u fluido sobre u a esfera. Distribuidos e gru os, cada gru o uede estudia r la i flue cia de u a mag itud deja do fijas las otras: u Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, Ja uary 2008 43 FIGURA 5. Fuerza de arrastre sobre u a esfera e fu ci de la velocidad v de f

FIGURA 4. Mo taje ex erime tal ara el estudio de la viscosidad de u

lquido.

 

   

    

La balanza electrnica: la opcin m rentable para realizar di tinta ratorio de f ica de fluido

prctica de labo

  

  

    

     

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

luidos de disti ta viscosidad. Para la realizaci de la rctica se uede utilizar varias disolucio es de gliceri a e agua que ermite obte er disti tos lquidos ewto ia os de difere te viscos idad. Se comie za co u a disoluci , y des us de medir, se aade agua obte ie do mez clas ms diluidas y me os viscosas. Los valores de viscosidad de las disti tas dis olucio es utilizadas se muestra e la Figura 5. Se ha htt ://www.jour al.la e .org.mx

J. Delegido et al. utilizado 3 esferas de acero de 5, 7, 5 y 10 mm de radio. Co estos datos se ue de demostrar que el valor de K es muy rximo a 6 [6]. ewto ia os = 1, el valor obte ido ara la glucosa ermite afirmar que se trat a de u lquido ewto ia o [7]. B. Prctica 2: elaboraci de reogramas y disti ci e tre fluidos Newto ia os y o N ewto ia os El mo taje ex erime tal de la Figura 4 ermite variar la velocidad re lativa del fluido res ecto a la esfera. Utiliza do u a esfera fija, y midie do l a fuerza sobre dicha esfera e u determi ado fluido ara disti tas velocidades, odemos observar disti tos com ortamie tos te ie do e cue ta la ecuaci (5), co sidera do que el esfuerzo de cizalla e proporcional a la fuerza de arra tre me dida en la balanza electrnica, mientra que la velocidad de cizalla e proporcion al a la velocidad relativa v [7]. El experimento e puede realizar con luco a lq uida y con una di per in acuo a de oma xantana al 0,25%, que e un polmero vi co izante [8]. Se mide cada fluido a di tinta velocidade de cizalla, y e calcula u vi co idad utilizando la ecuacin (6). En la Fi ura 6 e aprecia la con tancia de la vi co idad de la luco a (lquido newtoniano) con el aumento de la velocida d del fluido, mientra que para la xantana, polmero que forma di per ione no new toniana , el comportamiento e muy diferente, p eudopl tico, ya que = f(v) e una curva que va di minuyendo al aumentar la velocidad. / Pa 4 V. VISCOSIDAD DE LQUIDOS OBTENIDA A PARTIR DE LA LEY DE POISEUILLE El e tudio del flujo de fluido reale a trav de tubera revi te un con iderable inter tanto en Ciencia B ica como en Ciencia Biomdica o diferente rea de In e niera. La ley que re ula el flujo laminar a trav de un tubera cilndrica para nmero de Reynold pequeo e debe a Poi euille y e expre a en la forma G= R4 P , 8 L (7) 3 2 1 en donde G e el a to cbico o volumen fluido por unidad de tiempo, R y L el radi o y la lon itud de la tubera re pectivamente, la vi co idad del fluido y P la dife ren ia de presiones estable ida entre los extremos del tubo. Para estudiar di ho flujo, proponemos el montaje de la Figura 7 que permite la varia in de esas uat ro magnitudes [9]. Consiste en un fras o ontenedor CF donde se sita el lquido a m edir y un fras o re eptor RF donde se re oge el lquido que pasa por el tubo T, en un tiempo t. En este ltimo fras o se puede modifi ar la presin, que se mide en un manmetro M, mediante un sistema regulador de va o. El tubo T se puede ambiar f il mente, mediante las tuer as R de ambos fras os, permitiendo emplear longitudes o dimetros diversos. El fras o RF se debe poder separar del resto del montaje on gran fa ilidad. Para one tar RF al sistema de va o o a la atmsfera se usa la llav e B. Se disponen de varios tubos de longitudes y radios distintos. Para medir, s e sita un lquido de vis osidad y densidad ono ida en el fras o CF y se tara el fr as o RF. Se one ta el sistema de va o y se lee en el manmetro M la diferen ia de presin P. Se abre la llave A y el lquido se derrama en RF despus de pasar por T. Al abo de un tiempo t, se ierra la llave A y se pesa RF. Con estos datos, y ono

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

   

  

ida la densidad del lquido, se al ula el gasto G. 0 0 1 2 3 v / 10 m s 3 -1 4 FIGURA 6. Vis osidad aparente en fun in de la velo idad de la superfi ie libre de l fluido en CF. () Glu osa lquida, () 0.25 % Xantana. La grfi a nos permite distinguir perfe tamente el diferente omportamiento de los fluidos newtonianos y no newtonianos. Adems, los ajustes de las urvas mediante una fun in poten ial omo la e ua in (5), permite obtener el valor de n, resultand o n = (0,96 0,05) para el aso de la glu osa y n = (0,40 0,01) para la dispersin de xantana. Teniendo en uenta que para fluidos FIGURA 7. Montaje experimental para dedu ir la ley de Poiseuille. Este montaje permite realizar dos pr ti as distintas: tanto para dedu ir la ley d e Poiseuille de forma pare ida a omo lo hizo el propio Poiseuille, omo para ob tener reogramas 44 Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu . Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

La balanza ele trni a: la op in ms rentable para realizar distintas pr ti as de labo ratorio de fsi a de fluidos newtonianos. A. Pr ti a n 1: dedu in experimental de la ley de Poiseuille Para el desarrollo de la pr ti a, en primer lugar, el profesor ha de plantear el problema : debido a sus mltiples apli a iones, es interesante ono er una ley para al ula r el gasto en una tubera. Proponemos a los estudiantes elaborar hiptesis sobre la uestin: de qu depende ese gasto? Al abo de un tiempo de reflexin y dis usin es f il llegar a la on lusin de que bus amos una fun in G = f(P, R, L, ). G /10-8m3 -1

25 20 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 -4 12 R /10 m (8) Pue to que el montaje experimental no permite la variacin de la cuatro variable , la prctica con i te en medir el a to manteniendo fija tre variable de ella cada vez y variando la cuarta, de forma que podamo e tudiar u dependencia en (8). Por ejemplo, para analizar la dependencia del a to con la vi co idad e an medido 6 concentracione di tinta de licerol en a ua con un mi mo tubo y un a mi ma P. En la Figura 8 se observa, al ajustar los datos mediante una fun in y = k/x, que el gasto ser inversamente propor ional a la vis osidad. G /10 m s -1

FIGURA 9. Representa in grfi a del gasto (G) en fun in del radio R para tubos de ig ual longitud y una misma disolu in de gli erol. Con todo lo anterior se puede on luir que la e ua in (8) ha de ser de la forma G=K R 4 P . L (9) 30 Introduciendo toda la medida en (9) e puede calcular K. El valor obtenido co n nue tro dato a ido K = 0,41 0,04 que e , dentro del mar en de error, i ual al valor /8 = 0,393 ro uesto or Poiseuille [9]. B. Prctica 2: elaboraci de reo

  

 

   

= f( ) y poder di tin uir entre fluido newtoniano

y no

  

 

 

   

 

gramas de fluidos Newto ia os y o Newto ia os El mo taje ex erime tal a terior os ermite calcular la viscosidad de u fluido ara disti tas velocidades de ci zalla. Si embargo, ara re rese tar u reograma, debemos co ocer el esfuerzo de cizalla y la velocidad de cizalla. Para ello, usaremos la frmula de la distribuc i de velocidades e el i terior de u tubo cil drico. E u a tubera cil drica de ra dio R, la velocidad, v, de u fluido de viscosidad a una di tancia r del centro de la tubera, viene dada por la i uiente expre in [10] que puede er deducida en cla e, inclu o para e tudiante univer itario de primer cur o: v (r ) = P (R2 - r 2 ) , 4L -8 3 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8

1 FIGURA 8. Repre entacin rfica del a to (G) en funcin de la vi co idad () en un tub o de 30 cm de lon itud y 0,91 mm de radio. (10) De i ual manera, variando la lon itud de la varilla y manteniendo con tante la otra variable , e demue tra la relacin inver a del a to con dic a lon itud. P ara e tudiar la dependencia con el radio del tubo, e a medido una determinada mue tra con la mi ma P y utilizando tubos de igual longitud y diferente radio. Lo s resultados se muestran en la Figura 9. En ella se observa que los datos experi mentales se pueden ajustar a una fun in del tipo G = k R4. Por ltimo, manteniendo fijo el lquido y un tubo ualquiera y variando P, se puede demostrar que la depend en ia del gasto on la diferen ia de presiones es lineal. de forma que se puede al ular la velo idad de izalla junto a la pared de la tu bera, derivando la expresin anterior para r = R 2 r P dv =4L dr R R = R P , 2L (11) y teniendo en cuenta la ecuacin (4), el e fuerzo de cizalla e puede calcular com o =

 

 

 

 

 

 

/ Pa

 

  

R P . 2L (12) Las anteriores e ua iones nos permiten al ular y de cualquier fluido, y por con i uiente la obtencin del Lat. Am. J. P y . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 45 ttp://www.journal.lapen.or .mx

 

  

J. Dele ido et al. reo rama que proporciona u caracterizacin reol ica [11]. Se an preparado do di per ione acuo a de concentracione 0,25 y 1 % pe o/pe o de oma xantana, que c omo emo concluido anteriormente, tiene comportamiento no newtoniano, y do di olucione de licerina en a ua al 90 y 80 % de concentracin pe o/pe o, que pre en tan un comportamiento newtoniano. Se le pide a lo e tudiante que, en rupo , elaboren un protocolo para poder medir la variable reol ica nece aria para a cer lo reo rama de e ta cuatro preparacione que no permitan conocer u comp ortamiento reol ico, a la temperatura e tudiada. La forma m encilla era la de e co er un tubo de eometra bien definida (R y L) y mediante el montaje de la Fi ur a 7, variar la diferencia de pre in P entre sus extremos y medir al gasto orrespo ndiente en ada aso. Se pueden obtener unos 8 o 10 puntos experimentales unifor memente separados. El siguiente paso sera la onfe in de una tabla en ualquier h oja de l ulo, omo Ex el o Kaleidagraph, que de forma automti a, introdu iendo lo s valores de P y de G nos al ule la vis osidad on la e ua in (7), la velo idad d e izalla, , con la ecuacin (11) y el e fuerzo de cizalla (aunque e te no e impr e cindible) con la ecuacin (12). A continuacin e con truyen lo reo rama repre e ntando la vi co idad en funcin de . Con un tubo de lon itud L = 40 cm y radio int erno R = 1 mm, y P entre 6000 y 50000 Pa los resultados obtenidos se presentan en la Figura 10, mientras que para las dos disolu iones de gli erina se obtienen d os re tas horizontales. 0,05 (Pa ) de la principale caracter tica de lo fluido : la den idad, la ten in uperfici al y la vi co idad. Se an pre entado di tinto montaje experimentale utilizan do una balanza electrnica, con un alto contenido peda ico y fcile de implementar en un laboratorio de e tudiante con poco a to econmico. Lo montaje del e tudi o de la den idad, permiten medir den idade de lido y lquido y ob ervar la ley de accin-reaccin de Newton y el principio de Arqumede . En el montaje para el e tud io de la ten in uperficial, el e tudiante puede ver y medir la fuerza de arranqu e de un anillo con un encillo montaje que u tituye a lo caro ten imetro . Otr o montaje no permite medir la fuerza de arra tre de un fluido obre un lido, de ducir la ley de Stoke , medir la vi co idad y elaborar reo rama , co a que e u ele realizar con lo vi co metro rotatorio en cur o e pecializado . Y por ltimo , otro montaje no permite e tudiar el flujo en tubera , deducir la ley de Poi eu ille y tambin la caracterizacin de lo fluido a partir de reo rama . REFERENCIAS [1] Hof tein, A and Lunetta, V. N., T e laboratory in cience education: Foundat ion for t e twenty-fir t century, Science Education 88, 28-54 (2004). [2] Jimen ez, L., Font, J. and Farriol, X., Unit Operation Laboratory U in I11-Po ed Pro blem , Int. J. En n . 19, 717-720 (2003). [3] Auf c naiter, C. and Auf c naiter, S., Univer ity tudent activitie , t inkin and learnin durin laboratory work, Eur. J. P y . 28, S51-S60 (2007). [4] Planin ic, G., Project laboratory for fir t-year tudent , Eur. J. P y . 28, S71-S82 (2007). [5] Dolz, M., Dele ido, J., Hernndez, M. J. and Pellicer, J., An inexpen ive and accurate ten iometer u in a n electronic balance. An experiment on urface ten ion and critical concentratio n, Journal of C emical Education 78, 12571259 (2001). [6] Dolz, M., Ca anova , A, Delegido, J. and Hernndez, M. J., An experimental etup to verify Stoke law u ing an electronic balance, Revi ta Mexicana de F ica 50, 29-32 (2004). [7] Dolz, M., Delegido, J. Ca anova , A. and Hernndez, M. J., A low co t experiment on Newtoni an and nonnewtonian fluid , Journal of Chemical Education 82, 445447 (2005). [8] Fergu on, J. and Kemblow ki, Z., Applied Fluid Rheology (El evier Applied Scien ce, London, 1991). [9] Dolz, M., Hernndez, M. J., Delegido, J. and Ca anova , A., A laboratory experiment on infering Poi euille law for undergraduate tudent , Eur. J. Phy . 27, 1083-1089 (2006). [10] Sear , F. W. and Zeman ky, M. W., F ica (Ed. Aguilar, Madrid, 1981). [11] Steffe, J. F., Rheological method in food pro ce engineering (Freeman Pre , US, 1996).

    

 

   

  

 

    

     

 

 

   

  

 

   

  

  

  

 

  

 

 



 

 

  

 

 

  

     

 

 

  

   

    



0,04 0,25 % 0,90 % 0,03 0,02 0,01 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 (1/ ) . 7000

Lat. Am. J. P y . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 46 ttp://www.journal.lapen.or .mx

VI. CONCLUSIONES La balanza electrnica e un in trumento muy preci o, di ponible en cualquier labo ratorio de e tudiante , que permite la realizacin de di tinta prctica para el e tudio

FIGURA 10. Vi co idad, , de la do di per ione de oma xantana para di tinta elocidade de cizalla, .

 

 

 

Aprendiendo cmo e con truye la ciencia: el ca o del pndulo Joan Jo ep Solaz-Portol 1, Ma dalena Moreno-Cabo2,Vicent Sanjo Lpez3 1 2 IES Bena ua il/ C.A. F. Tom y Valiente de la UNED. Valencia. E paa. B.P.M. de LElian a. Valencia. 3 Departament Didctica Cincie Experimental . ERI-Polibiene tar, Univ er itat de Valncia. E-mail: jj olpor@ya oo.e (Recibido el 12 de Diciembre de 2007; aceptado el 9 de Enero de 2008) Re umen En e te trabajo e lleva a cabo un anli i bibliomtrico de una biblio rafa de traba jo relacionado con el pndulo. Se determinan indicadore de la actividad cientfic a, en concreto, nmero de publicacione , productividad de lo autore y de colabor acin en la publicacione . Adem , e evala el porcentaje de trabajo en la len ua mayoritaria (Franc , Latn, Italiano, In l y Alemn). De lo re ultado obtenido e concluye que: a) El crecimiento del nmero de trabajo en el perodo con iderado e exponencial; b) La productividad de lo autore no i ue la ley de Lotka; c) E l ndice de firma por trabajo e muy bajo (1,1); d) El Franc e la nica len ua que e mantiene e emnica prcticamente durante todo el perodo 1629-1885; e) El Latn, mu y potente a ta finale del XVIII, de aparece en el i lo XIX coincidiendo con e l e pectacular crecimiento del In l y el Alemn. La evolucin de la len ua de lo trabajo e analiza en funcin del contexto i trico en lo corre pondiente pa e . Palabra clave: Con truccin de la ciencia, pndulo, bibliometra, nmero de publicacion e , productividad de autore , colaboracin en la publicacione , len ua de lo tr abajo .

Ab tract In t i paper i carried out a bibliometric analy i on a biblio rap y of work related to t e pendulum. We ave determined indicator of cientific activity, p articularly, number of publication , aut or productivity, and collaboration in t e publication . Moreover, we ave evaluated t e percenta e of work in t e maj ority lan ua e (Frenc , Latin, Italian, En li , and German). From t e re ult t at we ave obtained we conclude t at: a) T e rowt of t e number of work i exponential in t e analy ed period; b) T e productivity of aut or doe not foll ow Lotka law; c) T e i nature /work index i very low (1,1); c) Frenc i t e o nly lan ua e t at i kept e emonic durin practically t e w ole period 1629-188 5; d) Latin, very powerful until t e end of t e 18t century, di appear in t e 19t century in a reement wit pectacular rowt of En li and German. Evoluti on of t e lan ua e of t e work i analy ed dependin on t e i torical context in t e corre pondin countrie . Keyword : Science con truction, pendulum, bibli ometry, number of publication , aut or productivity, collaboration in t e public ation , lan ua e of t e work . PACS: 01.65.+ , 45.20.D-, 01.30.-y ISSN 1870-909 5 I. INTRODUCCIN Se a pue to de relieve la notable influencia que lo e tudio con el pndulo ejer cieron en el de arrollo conceptual de la mecnica, y que dic o e tudio re ultan er de ran inter didctico y epi temol ico [1]. Para acerno una idea de la impor tancia in trumental que tuvo el pndulo, ba te con ealar que el nmero de referencia biblio rfica obre u teora y aplicacione citada en Biblio rap ie du pendule por Wolf [2], a ciende aproximadamente a una mil tre cienta en el perodo compre ndido entre el ao de publicacin en Florencia de la obra de Galileo Dialo o intorno ai due ma imi i temi del mondo, Tolemaico e Copernicano y 1885. Indicaremo , en Lat. Am. J. P y . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January, 2008 47

relacin con e to trabajo publicado , que en ello aparecen cientfico tan obre aliente como: Galileo, Huy en , Newton, Hooke, Halley, Mariotte, Bernouilli, Ce l iu , DAlambert, Poi on, Foucault, Stoke , etc. Como deja entrever K un [3], Ga

   

  

    

  

  

 

 

 

 

      

      

  

 

 

 

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

        

 

 

 

    

   



     

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

    

  

  

  

  

 

 

   

   

  

lileo fue el de cubridor del pndulo. Aunque muc o ante del nacimiento de Galileo muc a per ona aban vi to o cilar un objeto del extremo de una cuerda a ta qu e finalmente quedaba en repo o, Galileo rompi con el paradi ma ari totlico y vio e l pndulo como un cuerpo que e ua un movimiento peridico. A partir de e e momento, el pndulo tuvo un innmero de aplicacione en la ciencia y en la tcnica [4]. Adem , el pndulo, uno de lo in trumento m umilde de nue tro laboratorio , no ofrec e la ttp://www.journal.lapen.or .mx

  

 

 

  

  

 

Joan Jo ep Solaz-Portol , Ma dalena Moreno-Cabo y Vicent Sanjo Lpez po ibilidad de llevar trabajo prctico como pequea inve ti acione . E to e , tra bajo prctico concebido para efectuar una inve ti acin diri ida, co erente con l a metodolo a cientfica, y que e timule el pen amiento diver ente de lo alumno y la libre manife tacin de opinione a trav de la emi in de ipte i o el di eo de exp erimento [5]. Por otro lado, emo de tener pre ente que la tran mi in de la cie ncia centrada en la leye y lo concepto , de contextualizada y urfana de u ti empo i trico, produce el mito de la neutralidad, e decir, la creencia impli ta de que el conocimiento cientfico e con truye e con truye al mar en de cualquie r influencia e puria [6]. A imi mo, e bien abido que lo e tudiante que apren den ciencia impre nada de i toria de la ciencia mejoran la a imilacin de concept o cientfico y eneran actitude po itiva acia la ciencia [7]. E por todo ell o que en el pre ente trabajo llevaremo a cabo un anli i bibliomtrico de la publ icacione relacionada con el pndulo en el perodo comprendido entre 1629 y 1885, q ue puede tener implicacione didctica : comprender el modo en que e con truye la ciencia, conocer cierto a pecto de la forma en que lo cientfico trabajaban ( productividad de lo autore , colaboracin en lo trabajo y len ua que utilizaba n); y acar a la luz la interaccione de ciencia, tecnolo a y ociedad. Tomo IV de la Collection de Mmoire relatif a la P y ique, publicada por La Soc iet Franai e de P y ique. E te tomo IV, Mmoire ur le pendule, contiene una introd uccin i trica y una biblio rafa de trabajo obre el pndulo. La biblio rafa reco e a rtculo , libro , informe de in titucione cientfica y di ertacione ; y proporcio na el nombre de lo autore , el ttulo del trabajo y un breve re umen del mi mo. S e determinaron indicadore de la actividade cientfica, en concreto, nmero de publ icacione , productividad de lo autore y de colaboracin en la publicacione [8] . Adem , e realiz una b queda de la len ua mayoritaria en lo trabajo . Para el lo, e llev a cabo el cmputo de publicacione por perodo de diez ao , e contabiliz lo di tinto trabajo que public cada autor, y e calcul el porcentaje de trabajo en la len ua mayoritaria en perodo de veinte ao .

III. RESULTADOS La Fi ura 1 reco e la repre entacin rfica de la uma de trabajo publicado en re lacin con el pndulo en perodo de tiempo de diez ao (el primer perodo lo incluye ie te ao , de de 1629 a ta 1635). Como puede ob ervar e en la Fi ura 1, el crecimie nto de la publicacione parece aju tar e a una funcin exponencial. De ec o, el anli i de re re in lineal entre el lo aritmo del nmero de publicacione y el perodo de tiempo, no proporciona un coeficiente de correlacin lineal r = 0.93, valor q ue viene a confirmar el carcter exponencial de la relacin entre el nmero de publica cione y el tiempo entre lo ao 1629 y 1885. II. METODOLOGA Di pu imo para nue tro trabajo de una fuente ecundaria con ultada en la Biblio teca de la Facultade de Ciencia de la Univer itat de Valncia. E ta fuente ecu ndaria e el N de Publicacione 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 45 16 17

La Fi ura 2 repre enta la di tribucin del nmero de autore e n el nmero de publicac ione relacionada con el pndulo para todo el perodo de tiempo con iderado. La

Lat. Am. J. P y . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008

curva e tablece el nmero de y autore que

an publicado x trabajo .

  

Periodo de diez ao FIGURA 1. Repre entacin rfica del nmero de publicacione contada en perodo de diez ao .

relacionada con el pndulo

 

  

  

  

  

 

      

 

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

        

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

 

  

    

   

 

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

  

  

   

 

 

 

  

 

48 18 45 45 ttp://www.journal.lapen.or .mx

Joan Jo ep Solaz-Portol , Ma dalena Moreno-Cabo y Vicent Sanjo Lpez

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Se con tata, a partir de la Fi ura 2, que lo un peque imo nmero de autore public en el perodo de tiempo con iderado m de cinco trabajo relacionado con el pndulo, m ientra que m de ei ciento no publicaron m que un nico trabajo. Por otra parte, el anli i de re re in lineal entre el lo aritmo del nmero de autore y el lo arit mo del nmero de publicacione , no proporciona un coeficiente de correlacin lineal r = 0.998 y una pendiente de la recta de 11,43. Por tanto, la curva e aju ta de manera aproximada a la ecuacin y = k / x11,43. Porcentaje de Publicacione Efectuado el cociente entre el nmero total de publicacione entre 1629 y 1885 (13 24 trabajo ) y el nmero total de autore (1388), no permite obtener el ndice de f irma por trabajo, que re ulta er de 1,1. Finalmente, la Figura 3 no proporcio na el porcentaje de publicacione en cada una de la cinco lengua m utilizada (Franc , Italiano, Latn. Ingl y Alemn) en perodo de veinte ao (el primer perodo ncluye dieci iete ao , de de 1629 ha ta 1645).

18 45 49 5 5 16 4 FIGURA 3. Repre entacin grfica del porcentaje de trabajo en la cinco lengua may oritaria en perodo de veinte ao . Varia circun tancia on de tacable de e ta ltima repre entacin grfica. En primer lugar, el Latn, que fue una lengua de comunicacin cientfica de primer orden como e l Franc - comienza u declive hacia 1785, ha ta prcticamente de aparecer en la eg unda mitad del iglo XIX. El Ingl , minoritario ha ta finale del iglo XVIII, e convierte en una de la tre lengua de la ciencia en el iglo XIX. El Alemn, no utilizado ha ta la primera mitad del iglo XVIII, e tran forma en la lengua de la F ica en el final del iglo XIX. El Franc , e la nica lengua que e mantiene c omo mayoritaria durante todo el perodo de tiempo con iderado. El Italiano, de er lengua mayoritaria en lo primero ao de publicacione obre el pndulo, evolucio na po teriormente a minoritaria. Por ltimo, ealaremo que el E paol, que no figura en e ta repre entacin grfica por er lengua muy minoritaria Lat. Am. J. Phy . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 17 4

como lo e tambin el Portugu -, aparece en la primera mitad del iglo XVIII (un tr abajo) y, a lo largo de lo ao computado del iglo XIX, contabilizamo un total de cinco trabajo .

Perodo de veinte ao

 

 

  

 

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Franc

Italiano Latn Ingl Alemn

 

  

N de publicacione FIGURA 2. Repre entacin rfica del nmero de autore ue publican.

  

   

 


en funcin del nmero de trabajo q

N de autore

 

  

 

IV.CONCLUSIONES Y DISCUSIN El crecimiento exponencial de la publicacione a lo largo del perodo de tiempo q ue e ha tenido en cuenta en el pre ente trabajo, revela el dinami mo de la rea de conocimiento relacionada con el pndulo. En con ecuencia, parece cumplir e en e te perodo la ley normal del crecimiento de la ciencia propue ta por Solla Pric e [9]. Sin embargo, no podemo dejar de apuntar que http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Joan Jo ep Solaz-Portol , Magdalena Moreno-Cabo y Vicent Sanjo Lpez e te modo de crecimiento de la ciencia no puede ervir de apoyo a una concepcin a cumulativa de la ciencia [10]. Como denuncia T. S. Khun [3] exi te una tendencia per i tente a hacer que la hi toria de la ciencia parezca lineal o acumulativa, obvindo e la ruptura o cambio profundo que e producen en toda ciencia. Re u lta de tacable comentar que el nmero de trabajo comienza a crecer de manera impo rtante a finale del iglo XVIII, poca de gran difu in de la ciencia y de ingre o de creciente ma a de jvene en centro de in truccin uperior. E to tuvo como co n ecuencia la divi in de trabajo entre lo cientfico y la e pecializacin en la di tinta rama del aber, lo que favoreci el aumento de nuevo de cubrimiento en cada campo de inve tigacione [11]. En cuanto a la productividad de lo autore , de lo re ultado del pre ente trabajo puede concluir e que no e cumple en e t e ca o la ley cuadrtica inver a (y = k / x2 ) o ley de Lotka [12]. La curva obten ida para el decrecimiento del nmero de autore en funcin del nmero de trabajo que publica e aju ta mejor a la ecuacin y = k / x11,43. E to e , tiene un decrecimie nto mucho m rpido ( uperior a cinco vece m rpido) que el previ to por Lotka en u ley. E ta de viacin puede ju tificar e atendiendo, obre todo, al elevad imo nmero de autore que lo publica un trabajo. E te hecho, tambin viene reflejado en el b aj imo ndice de firma por trabajo (1,1), que contra ta con la media de firma por trabajo que e regi tra en la actualidad para la ciencia : entre 2,5 y 3,5 [8] . El crecimiento del nmero de trabajo relacionado con el pndulo en lengua france a coincide con lo comienzo de la ilu tracin y el progre o cientfico que e prod uce en lo albore del iglo XVIII [13], y que po teriormente conduce a la prima ca de Francia en el campo de la inve tigacin cientfica en el perodo que igue a la R evolucin France a (entre lo iglo XVIII y XIX). Como apunta Bernal [14]: la Revo lucin france a y la guerra napolenica no provocaron un de cen o de la actividad cientfica, ino m bien un impul o con iderable de la mi ma. Por otro lado, el de cen o del porcentaje de publicacione en Latn en el inicio del iglo XIX, e coin cidente con el auge de publicacione en Ingl y Alemn. Sobre e te punto, cabe eala r que en la primera mitad del iglo XIX e produce la rpida difu in a Inglaterra y Alemania del e pritu tcnico-cientfico, que haba ingularizado en exclu iva a Franci a, y que iba indi olublemente ligado al proce o de indu trializacin de e to pa e [11]. Por tanto, no debe re ultarno nada extrao que ambo pa e llegaran a ocupa r pue to de primer orden en el rea de conocimiento de la F ica en la

REFERENCIAS [1] Solaz-Portol , J. J. & Sanjo , V., El papel del pndulo en la con truccin del par adigma newtoniano, En eanza de la Ciencia 10, 95-100 (1992). [2] Wolf, C., Bibl iographie du pendule (En Wolf, C. (Ed.) Collection de mmoire relatif la Phy iqu e, publi par la Socit Franai e de Phy ique. Tome IV Mmoire ur le pendule, Gauthier -Villar et Fil , Pari , 1889) pp. 1-42. [3] Kuhn, T. S., La e tructura de la revolucione cientfica (11 Reimpre in, Edicione FCE, Madrid, 1987) pp.187 y 216. [4] Wolf, C., Introduction hi torique (En Wolf, C. (Ed.) Collection de mmoire re latif la Phy ique, publi par la Socit Franai e de Phy ique. Tome IV Mmoire ur le pendule, Gauthier -Villar et Fil , Pari , 1889) pp. 43298. [5] Solaz-Portol , J. J., Una prctica con el pndulo tran formada en una inve tigacin, Revi ta E paola de F ica 4, 87-94 (1990). [6] Vzquez, A. & Mana ero, M. A., Caracter tica del conoci miento cientfico: Creencia de lo e tudiante , En eanza de la Ciencia 17, 377-3 95 (1999). [7] Solaz-Portol , J. J. & Moreno-Cabo, M., En eanza/aprendizaje de la ciencia ver u hi toria de la ciencia, Educacin Qumica 9, 80-85 (1998). [8] Sancho , R., Indicadore bibliomtrico utilizado en la evaluacin de la ciencia y la tecn ologa, Revi ta E paola de Documentacin Cientfica 13, 842-865 (1990). [9] Solla Price , D. J., Hacia una ciencia de la ciencia (Ariel, Barcelona, 1973) p.55. [10] Kra gh, H., Introduccin a la hi toria de la ciencia (Ariel, Barcelona, 1989) p. 243 [ 11] Geymonat, L., Hi toria de la filo ofa y de la ciencia. T. 3 El pen amiento co ntemporneo (Ariel, Barcelona, 1985) pp.110 y 178. [12] Callon, M., Courtial, J. P

 

 

  

 

egunda mitad de dicho iglo, dado que ho jvene .

e atrajo a la inve tigacin cientfica a muc

 

  

  

 

  

  

 

 

 

 

  

  

  

 

 

         

     

 

 

 

 

 

      

    

., & Penan, H., Cienciometra. La medicin de la actividad cientfica: de la bibliomet ra a la vigilancia tecnolgica (Edicione Trea, Gijn, 1995) p. 44. [13] Geymonat, L. , Hi toria de la filo ofa y de la ciencia. T. 2 Del renacimiento a la Ilu tracin ( Ariel, Barcelona, 1985) p. 261. [14] Bernal, J. D., Hi toria ocial de la cienci a, I. La ciencia en la hi toria (5 Edicin, Edicione Penn ula, Barcelona, 1979) p.3 89. 1 Lat. Am. J. Phy . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 50 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

Qu e la luz? Arnaldo Gonzlez Aria Depto. F ica Aplicada, Univer idad de La Habana, San Lzaro y L, La Habana, Cuba. E -mail: arnaldo@fi ica.uh.cu (Recibido el 24 de Octubre de 2007; aceptado el 18 d e Diciembre de 2007) Re umen A vece e po ible encontrar en la F ica definicione que, a fuerza de tratar de implificar, confunden en vez de ilu trar. Tal co a ucede con la luz, donde no e raro encontrar definicione errnea . La luz e comporta en uno ca o como ond a y en otro como partcula, con la rara particularidad de que, cuando e comporta como partcula, u energa depende de la frecuencia definida egn el incompatible mo delo ondulatorio. Po ee la caracter tica de la onda y de la partcula conjunt amente, pero no como una imple uma de ambo ente ; e algo m que e o. No ob ta nte, la falta de una definicin preci a no ha impedido que la tecnologa moderna hay a creado un innmero de di po itivo ptico como el l er, la fibra ptica, la microcm ara de video o la reciente pantalla plana de pla ma para TV. Se han intenta do otro mucho modelo , alguno de ello muy complicado , pero ha ta el momento ninguno ha funcionado ati factoriamente. Palabra clave: Modelo ondulatorio y corpu cular naturaleza de la luz. Ab tract Sometime in Phy ic i po ible to find definition that, trying to implify th e mo t, mi lead in tead of clarify. That happen when defining light, where you can ea ily find wrong definition . Light behave ometime like a wave, and ome time like a particle, with the oddne that, when behaving a a particle, it e nergy depend on the frequency defined by the non-compatible wave model. Anyway, light compri e both wave and particle characteri tic together, but not a a i mple addition; it i omething more. However, the lack of a preci e definition h a not been an impediment for the creation of a number of device by the modern technology uch a la er , optical fiber , micro video camera or the recent pla ma TV. Many other model have been tried, ome of them very ophi ticated, but at the moment no one ha worked ati factorily. Keyword : Wave and corpu cular m odel, nature of light. PACS: 01.40.gb, 01.30.y, 42.25.B ISSN 1870-9095 lo que e ?

a la partcula del comportamiento en lo llamado fenmeno corpu culare ( eccin III ). El problema con e ta propo icin re ult er que primero habra que demo trar que l a luz efectivamente e t compue ta por do entidade uperpue ta , en vez de er u na ola co a. Y como nadie ha logrado alguna vez eparar experimentalmente la pa rtcula de la onda, iendo el experimento una de la ba e fundamentale del mtodo cientfico, el modelo demo tr er completamente intil [1]. En realidad, no e po ibl e dar en poca palabra una re pue ta inequvoca a la pregunta qu e la luz?, pue al

 

I. INTRODUCCIN Lo fenmeno de la naturaleza que la F ica trata de e clarecer u ualmente re ultan er muy complejo . De ah que la po ible explicacin o repre entacin de e to fenmeno lo admita er implificada ha ta cierto lmite . Si e o lmite e tra pa an, ya no er po ible reflejar la realidad correctamente. E por e o que en la f ica el facili mo y la obre implificacin u ualmente van de la mano de lo errore concep tuale . A , a vece e po ible encontrar definicione errnea que, a fuerza de tra tar de implificar, confunden en vez de ilu trar. Por poner un ejemplo, la encic lopedia WEB www.wikipedia.org afirma que la luz e una onda electromagntica, compu e ta por partcula energizada llamada fotone . Tal definicin e refiere a una pro pue ta ya hace mucho de cartada, que con i ta en uponer a la luz compue ta de do ente ; una partcula o fotn cabalgando de alguna forma obre la onda acompaante. A era po ible culpar a la onda del comportamiento de la luz en lo fenmeno de interfe rencia y difraccin (ver eccin II) y Lat. Am. J. Phy . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 51

      

  

 

 

 

 

 

  

La vemo , pero... abemo

  

 

 

 

 

  

  



  



   

   

  

 

 

   

 

 

    

  

  

  

     

meno hay do po ible -aproximada y paradjica re pue ta . Una de ella era que la luz e una onda, algo imilar a la ondulacione que e forman y propagan en la uperficie del agua cuando e le arroja una piedra o e le perturba uavement e con la mano. Lo que no e tara del todo mal. La otra era que la luz e un flujo de partcula compacta -lo fotone -, muy imilar a lo que e ob ervara al lanzar hacia una pared un puado de garbanzo . Y tampoco e tara muy mal. Pero Cmo e po ible que algo e parezca a la vez a la onda que e forman en el agua y a un puado d e http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

  

    

   

 

 

 

como la interferencia o la difraccin que lo pueden er explicado obre la ba e d e e te modelo (como, por ejemplo, la formacin de franja claro-o cura al pa ar l a luz por una rendija e trecha (ver figura 2). Y cuando decimo explicado ignifi ca que no lo e po ible predecir con toda exactitud lo que ocurrir en determinada ituacin e pecfica, ino tambin, lo re ultado numrico que e obtendrn (como puede n er la di tancia entre franja , la inten idad de la mi ma , o cmo vara todo e to con la frecuencia). Exi te una gran analoga con la onda mecnica , donde tamb in e po ible encontrar lo fenmeno de interferencia y difraccin. II. EL MODELO ONDULATORIO DE LA LUZ Segn e te modelo, la luz e una onda electromagntica, imilar a la onda que e g eneran y propagan en la uperficie del agua, pero aqu lo que o cila no e ninguna uperficie, ino un complejo revoltijo de campo elctrico y magntico . E to cam po continuamente e generan uno a otro , a la vez que e propagan en el vaco o cualquier otro medio con una velocidad caracter tica, de aproximadamente 300000 k m/ . Tambin e aco tumbra hablar de radiacin electromagntica, ya que a partir de un a determinada fuente u origen la luz e irradia en toda direccione , independizn do e de la fuente que la cre. El nmero de vece que e o campo cambian de entido en un egundo e la frecuencia de la radiacin, de ignada u ualmente por la letra griega ( ), y es del orde de miles de millo es o ms veces or segu do. El ojo hu ma o es ca az de detectar la radiaci electromag tica e u determi ado i tervalo de frecue cias; las ms altas corres o de al azul y al violeta, mie tras que la ms baja corres o de al rojo.

III. EL MODELO CORPUSCULAR DE LA LUZ Si embargo, tambi existe otro co ju to de fe me os que o uede ser ex licados sobre la base de la teora o dulatoria, ero que se logra ex licar satisfactoriame te cua do se em lea el i com atible model o cor uscular (a veces e este caso se habla de tica cor uscular). El ejem lo cls ico es el efecto fotoelctrico, muy relacio ado co el fu cio amie to de las celda s solares, de am lio uso e la tec ologa moder a. Seg ste modelo, u cor sculo de l uz o fot es ca az de chocar con un electrn y entre arle toda u ener a, ponindolo en movimiento. El electrn adquiere a uficiente ener a como para recorrer un circuito y enerar una corriente elctrica, que puede er utilizada con diver o fine . No e po ible explicar el ur imiento de e a corriente, ni u principale caracte r tica , a partir del modelo ondulatorio. Una onda e t di per a en el e pacio y, e ntre otra particularidade , no ay forma de que pueda conden ar u ener a en un in tante y en un punto como exi e el efecto fotoelctrico, prcticamente in tantneo. FIGURA 1. E quema de una onda electroma ntica en un in tante dado (muy implifica do). La fi ura 1 repre enta un e quema muy implificado de una onda electroma ntica en un in tante dado. El mbolo ( ambda) indica a ongitud de onda (distancia entre dos crestas), E y H os campos e ctrico y magntico y vp a direccin de propagacin. Existen fenmenos 1

 

  

FIGURA 2. Patro es de difracci al ilumi ar u a cuchilla co .

luz azul mo ocromtica

garbanzo viajando por el aire? Pue el a unto funciona de e ta manera. Para gar a obtener nuevo conocimiento , la f ica u ualmente trabaja con modelo re entacione idealizada de lo que an e de conoce 1 . Y exi ten una erie nmeno ptico que pueden explicar e ati factoriamente cuando e con idera lo ondulatorio de la luz. En lo cur o de f ica e to fenmeno e agrupan nte bajo el ttulo de ptica ondulatoria 2 . Otro fenmeno no aceptan e te ino el incompatible modelo corpu cular.

  

  

   

  

   

 

  

  

 

 

 

 

    

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

  


lle o rep de fe el mode u ualme modelo,

A. Gonzlez Aria

  

 

 

 

       

 

Es comn que os no fami iarizados con os mtodos de a fsica confundan os mode os con a rea idad. 2 La ptica Geomtrica ( entes, prismas, espejos) no necesita de mo de os para estab ecer sus eyes empricas. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vo . 2, No. 1, January 2008 52 http://www.journa . apen. org.mx

 

 

Qu es a uz?

fotn = h

Ahora bie ; y cul es la e erga d l fotn? Pu s, s ncillam nt , = h, do de h es u a co sta te de valor co ocido (la co sta te de Pla ck) y la frecue cia. Qu frecue cia? La de la radiaci . Pero cul radiaci ? No estamos a aliza do el modelo cor uscular? No es la frecue cia u armetro del otro modelo, del o dulatorio? Pues s. Y e esto recisame te co siste la dualidad artcula-o da, que siem re se me cio a al ex lic ar las ro iedades de la luz. FIGURA 3. El efecto fotoelctrico artcula. Co la articularidad de que cua do se com orta como artcula, su e erga de e de de la frecue cia, defi ida seg el modelo o dulatorio. El asu to se las t rae, verdad? Pero es as como fu cio a. El modelo (o los modelos) llega justame te hasta aqu. No da ara ms. Si embargo, esto o ha im edido que e la tec ologa mo der a exista u si mero de dis ositivos ticos basados e esta teora dual, tales como los lseres de todo ti o, las fibras ticas, las microcmaras de video o las rec ie tes a tallas la as de lasma ara TV. Y a adie se le ha ocurrido otro model o que combi e las caractersticas o dulatorias y las cor usculares? Por ejem lo, u equeo aquete compacto de ondas que se mueva como una partcu a? Se han intentado m uchos mode os con caractersticas parecidas, a gunos de e os muy comp icados, per o hasta e momento ninguno ha funcionado satisfactoriamente. Por ahora, no queda ms remedio que continuar con a dua idad. Y o vidarse de as ondas compuestas por partcu as de Wikipedia. Se aceptan nuevas ideas.

REFERENCIAS [1] Crowe , B., The Modern Revo ution in Physics, Book 6 in the Light and Matte r series of free introductory physics textbooks, avai ab e at <www. ightandmatte r.com>, 19982005. [2] Mason, G. W., Griffen, D. T., Merri , J. J., and Thorne, J. M., Physica Science Concepts (Brigham Young University Press, USA, 1997). . IV. A FIN DE CUENTAS... QU ES LA LUZ? Es partcu a o es onda? Quizs o mejor sera decir que ninguna de as dos. La uz es a uz. Posee caractersticas de onda y de partc u a conjuntamente, pero es a go ms que cua quiera de e as por separado [2]. Hoy da se acepta que a uz posee propiedades dua es. En unos casos se comporta como onda. Y en otros como Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vo . 2, No. 1, January 2008 53 http://www.journa . apen.org.mx



  



 

 

 

 

 



electr

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Deduction of the De Brog ie's re ation =h/p from the c assica e ectrodynamics N. Hamdan, M. Fa he and H. Aktaa Department of Physics, University of A eppo, A eppo-Syria. E-mai : nhamdan59@hot mai .com (Received 3 November 2007; accepted 14 January 2008) Abstract It is we known that De Brog ie enab es the use of the re ativistic mechanics a nd depending on a number of assumptions to discover his re ation =h/p, which ed fu rther to the creation of the theory of quantum mechanics (QM). However, after De Brog ie's approach famous contradictions have appeared between De Brog ie's the ory and the Specia Re ativity Theory, a so there were a number of suggestions i n order to so ve these contradictions. According to the suggested method in our papers it was remarked a serious part of the contradictions, and by fo owing th is method, we wi present a new approach to derive the re ation =h/p, starting f rom c assica e ectrodynamics without any contradictions between Specia Re ativ ity Theory (SRT) and De Brog ie's theory. Keywords: De Brog ie wave mechanics, L orentz force Law, specia re ativity theory. Resumen Es conocido que De Brog ie permite e emp eo de a mecnica re ativista y dependien do de un nmero de suposiciones descubrir su re acin =h/p, que condujo ms ade ante a a creacin de a teora de a mecnica cuntica (QM). Sin embargo, despus de famoso enfo que de De Brog ie han aparecido contradicciones entre a teora de De Brog ie y a teora de a Re atividad Especia , tambin hubo sugerencias para reso ver estas con tradicciones. Segn e mtodo sugerido en nuestros artcu os fue remarcada una parte s eria de as contradicciones, y siguiendo este mtodo, presentaremos una nueva apro ximacin para obtener a re acin =h/p, partiendo de a e ectrodinmica c sica sin ningu na contradiccin entre a Teora de Re atividad Especia (SRT) y de a teora de De Br og ie. Pa abras c aves: Mecnica ondu atoria de De Brog ie, Ley de fuerza de Loren tz, teora especia de a re atividad. PACS: 03.30.+p, 03.50.De, 03.65.-w ISSN 187 0-9095 I. INTRODUCTION The deve opment of QM was introduced in 1900 by Max P anck in his new hypothesis , name y: energy exchange between resonator and radiation takes p ace on y in in teger mu tip es of hf, where h is a new fundamenta constant. This was known as the P anck ypot e i for t e quantization of t e black body emi ion

II. BOHRS QUANTIZATION FOR THE ATOMIC ORBITAL HYPOTHESIS E = n f , n =1, 2 ,... (1)

N. Bo r extended t i ypot e i to contain an electron and to ive a curin exp lanation for t e ydro en atom pectrum, w o e analy i owed t at only li t a t certain definite frequencie and ener ie were emitted, and t e experiment ow t at t e pectrum of t e ydro en atom contain a eparated line, and ati fi e t i equation

Five year later Ein tein wa able to eneralize t e Planck ypot e i from t e black body emi ion to t e electroma netic field, e de cribed it accordin to mall particle (p oton ), w ic are di tinct by frequency, and every p oton carr ie t e ener y

     

  

  

 

  

  

   

  

  

limit, in no time t e need for t i

ypot e i for t e electron emer ed.





     

  

 

 

               

  

 

 

  

 

    

 

 

     

    

   

 

f E = f . (2) 1 1 , n m 2 2 (3) However, Eq. (2) contradicts with many ex eriments which were ex lained e wave theory for the electromagnetic field. Nevertheless, Einstein was ex lain the hotoelectrical effect using Eq. (2) after the fail of wave n ex laining it. Later, Plancks hy othesis for the quantization didnt electromagnetic fields Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008. 54 using th able to theory i sto on the

where m, n are hydrogen atoms levels. The classical theory of emission was unable to ex lain Eq. (3), this led Bohr to ostulate that the circular orbit of the e lectron around the nucleus is quantized, that is, its angular momentum could onl y have certain discrete values, these being integer multi les of a certain basic value. First, let us follow the usual athway where Bohrs quantization is introd uced. Bohr htt ://www.journal.la en.org.mx

Deduction of the De Broglie s relation =h/p from the c assica e ectrodynamics started from the hypothesis which says that the e ectron of the hydrogen atom mo ves in a circu ar orbit around the nuc eus, and in this way the potentia energy is the e ectrostatic energy III. SPECIAL RELATIVITY AND DE BROGLIE THEORY After the creation of the e ectromagnetic theory of ight, it become possib e to formu ate the aws of the corpuscu ar properties of radiation and the wave prop erties of the corpuscu ar as V = e 2 4 0 r , (4)

p = h = k , k = 2 , as we as (12a) E = hf = , p = h = k . (12b) therefore, the tota energy for the system is E =T +V = 1 e 2 2 4 0 r . (7)

E=R 1 1 2 , 2 n m (8) It was clear to De Broglie [1, 2] that the electromagnetic field demonstrates a rticles ro erties after it was demonstrating waves ro erties according to wave theory, Thats why De Broglie wanted to create a theory which contains both ro e rties of wave and its article counter art in light, and he understood Eq. (12b) as following: The quantities E and s ecify the ro erties of a article ( hot

Substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (3), w writ

wh r r is th radius of th l ctronic l ctron moving in a circular orbit, and m v2 2 (5) = , r 4 0 r 2 this allows ctron in such an orbit 2 1 1 2 (6) T

orbit. Using N wtons s cond law for th thus subj ct to Coulombs law, w hav us to calculat th kin tic n rgy of th = mv = , 2 2 4 0 r

 



on), while the quantities and specify a ave properties, hich means that Eq. (1 2b) connects bet een the ave and partic e properties of the ight, and he asked himse f hy e dont genera ize Eq. (12b) for an e ectron and getting Eq. (11) as a resu t. So De Brog ie, postu ated the va idity of re ation (12b) for a partic e ith rest mass mo through his hypothesis of the periodic phenomenon", i.e.: h f 0 = m0 c 2 . here R is the Rydberg constant. Comparing Eq. (8) ith Eq. (7) e find

(13) E 1 , n2 (9a) (9b) r n2 , Eq. (8) imp ies that the change in energy from the eve n to the eve m causes an emission or absorption of the e ectromagnet energy as photons, as e as Eq . (9a) means that the energy eve s of the e ectron are quantized, here Eq. (9b ) says that the e ectron can move on y on noncontinuous specified orbits. A th ese contradict the c assica theory of emission. Lets no see ho the momentum qu antization re ation of the e ectron is derived. Eq. (5) indicates that The frequency fo is to be measured, of course, in the rest frame of the partic e ; ith Eq. (13) De Brog ie connected bet een t o different things: The eft side sho s that the matter is a type of energy, hi e the right side sho s that the energy is a type of matter. The starting point for De Brog ie as app ying the S pecia Re ativity Theory (SRT) [3] on Eq. (13), since he considered that if it as correct for a rest partic e then it must be correct for a moving partic e. So Eq. (13) is correct for the rest frame S re ated to the partic e, and for an obs erver in the frame S hich is in uniform motion ith constant ve ocity u and uOx, then Eq. (13) must have the form h f = m c2 . (14) m vr r . (10) To et this equation agree ith the experimenta information the proportiona ity constant as taken on the form =h/2, a d by substituti g Eq. (9b) i Eq. (10) we the have De Broglie, assumed that E = hf does hold for the relativistic electro . O the other ha d, the relatio E=moc2(1 - v2/c2)-1/2 for the electro i SRT im lies t hat E i creases with the velocity, so does, the freque cy of movi g electro yie lds a i creased freque cy f = f0 1 v c2 2 mvr =n . (11) .



  

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

(15a)

Ho ever, as is e kno n in SRT, if the c ock has a frequency fo in the rest fr ame of partic e, its frequency, according to the so ca ed time di ation, hen i t is moving at a ve ocity v in frame S f = f0 1 Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vo . 2, No. 1, January, 2008. 55 v2 . c2 (15b)

 



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We see that the ana ysis of the hydrogen spectrum, Eq. (3), p us the stein hypothesis of energy, Eq. (1), eads that the angu ar momentum tron is quantized, Eq. (11). The importance of Eq. (11) emerges from ization of the quantization over matter, after it as monopo ized on

P anck Ein of the e ec the genera energy.



 

 

N. Hamdan, M. Fa he and H. Aktaa Evident y, Eq. (15b) is just opposite to Eq. (15a), indeed accounting for time d i ation eads to s o do n "moving c ock" frequency. Thus, it is c ear that some additiona assumption is needed to overcome such a fundamenta contradiction. T o find the ay out of this paradox De Brog ie assumed that f in Eq. (15b) is not the frequency of a c ock moving ith the partic e, but the frequency of a ave accompanying the partic e propagating ith ve ocity vp in the direction of motio n. The fact that its ve ocity vp = c2/v is necessari y greater than the ight sp eed c, sho s that it can not represent transport of energy. in a inertia frames) by riting them in terms of Lorentz sca ars, 4 vectors, tensors. We consider an e ectron ith proper ve ocity u moving into the 4 d e ect romagnetic fie ds described by A = ( A4 , A j ) = (Vc ,A ,A ,A ) . x y z The Lagrangian of a re ativistic e ectron, Eq. (18) in 4 d form is: L = c 1 or Ldt = c[m0 c + e A u ] ds , = c[m0 c u + e A ] dx . 2 v2 m0 c + e A u , c2 [ ] IV. DE BROGLIE METHOD TO DERIVE THE RELATION =h/p In his ork [1] De Brog ie stress the importance of Fermat s as e as Hami tons princip es, from hich, the e kno n de Brog ie re ation =h/p, as a consequence . We sha see no ho he matching bet een the Fermats princip e and the princip e of Hami ton to derive his e kno n re ation =h/p. De Brog ie have found from t he study of the mechanics and ave propagation that the app ication of the Ferma ts princip e on the phase ave B De Broglie then de ined the 4-d vector J by the re ation J = mocu2 + eA, the stateme nt of east action in Eq. (17) then gives: B J dx = 0 . A (19)

(16) similar to the application of the Hamiltons principle on the moving particle: B We shall stu y now phase wave propagation using a metho parallel to that of the principle of Hamilton. To o so, we take phase wave epen ing on space-time coo r inates x. Writing a so d in the relationship (16), according to the 4-d orm d = x , x

=0,

 

 

   

 

 

 

  

 



 

(17) where L is the Lagrangian of a relativistic electron moving in electromagnetic f iel s escribe by the vector potential A an the scalar potential V. where = ( t k r ) . Thus the Fermat s princip e, Eq. (16), becomes according to t he 4 d form the fo o ing B L = m0 c 2 1 v + e Av eV . c2 2 A

(20) (18) The matching bet een the Fermats princip e and the princip e of Hami ton had not been achieved by De Brog ie in on y riting both re ations (16) and (18) in the 4 d form. We consider no the matter of re ativistic dynamics for an e ectron. I f e have the metric in the form ds2 = (dx4)2 (dx1)2(dx2)2(dx3)2, here space coord inates are abe ed x1, x2 and x3, the coordinate ct is denoted by x4. Then the 4 d ve ocity u, of an e ectron is u = dx , ds

J4 = , x4 Ji = . xi (21) However, De Broglie gave the physical interpretation of the 4- vector J as energ y momentum vector J4 = E , c J i = pi . (22) = 1, 2,3, 4 .

Thus, if e app y Eq. (21) to the phase ave = (t kr),

e have

By comparing the spatia

and tempora parts of re ations (19) and (20) e find

 

 

x = 0 . x

S = L (q , q , t ) A

t = 0 ,

 

 

In modern physics, the re ativistic postu ates that ere presented by Einstein b ecame the base to represent the re ativistic transformation equation. According to Einstein, the mathematica equations expressing the a s of Nature must be co variant, that is, invariant in form hen e make a Lorentz transformation of the coordinates. In the 4 d formu ation e ensure covariance of equations (same for m Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vo . 2, No. 1, January 2008. 56 , = = c x4 (ct ) = k. xi

 



http://

.journa . apen.org.mx

No

from Eq. (22), and by taking into account the

ast re ation, e obtain

 

 

E = c c E= , (23a) (23b) pi = k p= k , w ere p = mv. Eq . (23) are relation of t e electron wave j u t a t e relation (12) are relation ip of t e wave of p oton. In particular , t e relation (23b) i t e famou De Bro lie relation p= k = h . p (24) Eq. (11) can be derived no as a resu t of using the famous De Brog ie s re atio n, Eq. (24). For a physica systems hose coordinates are periodic functions o f time there is a quantum condition for each coordinate expressed as pdr = nh . In our case, e have p = k , i.e., k r = nh . h 2 l = h l = n , 2 For the e ectron moving in a circu ar orbit around the nuc eus k =n h =

V. NEW METHOD TO DERIVE THE RELATION =h/p FROM CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS In 1925, L. De Brog ie proposed the idea of matter aves, hich as that any par tic e is associated ith a so ca ed pi ot ave: The momentum of one and the av e vector of the other are proportiona and the coefficient of proportiona ity is a universa constant. Any partic e of the 4d energy momentum p = (E/c, p) is "as sociated ith" a ave of 4 d ave vector k = ( /c, k) proportiona to p, and this 4 d equa ity breaks do n into a sca ar component and a vectoria component usua y stated using on y the magnitude p of the vectoria momentum p = |p|, name y: E = , p = k . The above re ations make the phase ave vp equa to E/p. For a partic e of rest mass mo and mechanica ve ocity v, e have E2 = c2p2 + c4mo2, therefo re 1/vp2 = (v/c2)2. This estab ishes an extreme y simp e re ation bet een the ph ase ave and mechanica ve ocity as vp v = c2. Since the appearance of De Brog i e theory, hich as formu ated through SRT s re ations, an obvious y contradicti ons bet een them as raised. Wave mechanics, no a fundamenta part of quantum t heory, does not a o for interpretation of the ave function as a physica (rea ) ave, due to the difference bet een phase ve ocity vp and group ve ocity vgr = v of de Brog ie aves. This situation has been the subject of much scientific Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vo . 2, No. 1, January, 2008. 57 controversy, discussion, and attempts at reso ution. The first of these attempts can be attributed to J. P. Wese y [4], ho supposed a rea ave function instea

 

 

   

and by u in Eq. (23b) and l=2r, we get r refore the same resu t of Bohr, Eq. (11).

= h/2, that is, L = r

, obtaining the

 

Deduction of the De Brog ie s re ation =h/p from the c assica

e ectrodynamics

    

 



  

     

   

 

   



 

   

 

d of the comp ex ave function in traditiona quantum theory. And he cou d prove that the phase ve ocity equa s the partic e ve ocity. Another attempt in this c ontext is by M. Wo ff [5], he ana yzes a spherica ave structure for the moving e ectron, and he formu ates SRT free from the usua contradiction, then he conc udes the compatibi ity bet een SRT and de Brog ie theory. Recent y, R. Ferber [ 6] has sho ed that the fo o ing re ation vpv = c2 is a resu t of using the Lore ntz transformation, and not a resu t of de Brog ies hypothesis. A. P. Kiri yuk [7 ] a so derived a major a s and physica entities, inc uding De Brog ie versio n and re ativistic dynamics, as intrinsica y unified manifestations of the unde r ying comp ex dynamic interaction process. In severa recent papers [8, 9] e s ho ed that choosing ne sets of postu ates, inc uding c assica (pre Einstein) p hysics a s, ithin the main body of the SRT and app ying the c assica re ativi ty princip e, enab es us to cance the Lorentz transformation from the main body of SRT. And these enab e us to derive a the famous dynamic equations for the charged partic e ike the re ativistic mass and to derive Einsteins equation E = mc2 from c assica physica a s. As a resu t de Brog ie re ations ere deduced from c assica physica a s and emphasize the incompatibi ity bet een SRT and p artic e dynamics [10, 11, 12]. These incompatibi ities arise because the Lorentz transformation and its kinematica effects have the primacy over the physica a in deriving the re ativistic dynamica quantities. As in the paper [8] e pre sent a derivation of re ativistic Lagrangian starting from c assica Lorentz for ce, ithout ca ing upon the usua approaches in re ativistic mechanics L = m0 c 2 1 v2 + e Av eV . c2 (25) No e need to c arify that Eq. (25) i sho the e ectron ave nature, ithout matching bet een Hami ton and Fermat princip es and ithout riting Eq. (25) in 4 d form. As e kno that Hami ton function in the c assica mechanic is given by H =v L L. v (26) Substituting Eq. (25) into Eq. (26) gives H = v (mv + eA ) + m 0c 2 1 v2 evA + e . c2 It can be proved easily that mc2 = mv2 + moc2(1-v2/c2)1/2 (see the re s. [10, 11 , 12]), so e have H = mc 2 + e , (27) and by squaring Eq. (27) e ind 2 (H e ) 2 = m 2c 4 = c 2 p 2 + m 0 c 4 . (28) Finally, by the di erential o Eq. (28) gives HdH = c2 pdp or



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N. Hamdan, M. Falhe and H. Aktaa

VI. CONCLUSION It i true, in De Bro lie t e i t at e tarted i analy i from SRT. Hence e tart from t e La ran ian for an electron movin in relativi tic velocity to derive Eq. (24). We demon trated t at if we tart from t e ame La ran ian w ic a been derived from t e cla ical electroma netic ba e, it will ive u t e mentioned relation, Eq. (31). tran lation by Kracklauer,

[2] De Bro lie, L., T e current Interpretation of Wave Mec anic , A critical Stu dy (El evier, Am terdam, 1964). [3] Ein tein, A., On t e Electrodynamic of Movi n Bodie , Ann. P y . 17, 891 (1905). [4] We ley, J., Cla ical Quantum T eory, Apeiron 2, 2732 (1995). [5] Wolff, M., Beyon the Point Particle A wave structure for the electron, Galilean Electro ynamics 6, 8391 (1995). [6] Ferber, R., A Mis sing Link: What is behin e Broglies perio ic phenomenon?, Foun . Phys. Lett. 9, 575586 (1996). [7] Kirilyuk, A. P., Quantum chaos an fun amental multivalue nes s of ynamical functions, Annales e la Fon ation Louis e Broglie 21, 455-480 ( 1996). [8] Ham an, N., Aban oning the I eas of Length Contraction an time ilat ion, Galilean Electro ynamics 14, 83 88 (2003). [9] Ham an, N. Hariri, A. K. an Lpez-Bonilla, J. L., Derivation of Einsteins Equation, E = mc2, from the Classica l Force Laws, Apeiron 14, 435-453 (2007). [10] Ham an, N., On the Interpretation of the Doppler Effect in the Special Relativity (SRT), Galilean Electro ynamics 17, 29-34 (2006). [11] Ham an, N., The Dynamical e Broglie Theory, Annales Fon ation Louis e Broglie 32, 11-25 (2007). [12] Ham an, N., Derivation of the e Broglie s Relations from the Newton Secon Law, Galilean Electro ynamics 18,108111 (2007). Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008. 58 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx



 

REFERENCES [1] De Bro lie, L., On t e T eory of Quanta, en li A. F., Annale Fondation Loui de Bro lie, (2004).

   

 

 

 

  

  

 

 

         

 

(29) dH = vdp , It is ell kno n = h = , then Eq. (29) may be ve ocity vg = v = d/dk e find nsidering the initia condition uation p h (31) = . k= p

that the Hamilton unction represents energy H ritten as d = vdp/; using the definition of the group dp , (30) dk = and by integration of Eq. (30), co here v = 0 so k = 0, and i get the famous eq

 

 

  

  

 

   

Sobre las imensiones extras espaciales Csar Mora y O. Pe raza Centro e Investigacin en Ciencia Aplica a y Tecnologa Avanza a Uni a Legaria el Instituto Politcnico Nacional, Legaria #694. Col. Irrigacin, CP.11500, Mxico D. F. E-mail: cmoral@ipn.mx (Recibi o el 5 e Octubre e e 2007; acepta o el 7 e Diciembre e 2007) Resumen En este artculo amos una intro uccin a los escenarios e imensiones extras. Empe zamos por efinir el concepto e imensin y enfatizamos el hecho e por qu en Fsica es importante trabajar con teoras que requieren e un espacio tiempo e ms e cua tro imensiones. Presentaremos los os mo elos ms importantes e los mun os brana . Finalmente, se ar un ejemplo en el cual se consi era una sola imensin espacial extra. Palabras claves: Cosmologa, teora e cuer as, teoras multi imensionales. Abstract In this article we give an intro uction to the scenarios of extra imensions. We begin by efining the concept of imension an emphasize the fact why in Physic s is important to work with theories that require a space-time of more than four imensions. We show the two mo els most important of the brane worl s. Finally, we give an example in which consi er only one extra spatial imension. Keywor s : Cosmology, string theory, multi imensional theories. PACS: 01.55.+b, 01.30.-y, 95.10.-a, 98.80.-k ISSN 1870-9095 I. INTRODUCCIN En la Fsica la i ea e imensiones extras se remonta por lo menos a principios e l siglo XX y tiene su origen en la bsque a e una teora que permita unificar la fu erza electromagntica y gravitacional. Hoy en a este objetivo se mantiene, aunque amplia o a incluir to as las fuerzas conoci as en la naturaleza (electromagntica, bil, fuerte y gravitacional). No hay una respuesta efinitiva a esta cuestin, no obstante, las teoras e cuer as, engloba as en la teora M [1], se consi eran el m ejor can i ato para este fin. Por otro la o, consi eramos que es importante intr o ucir temas e Fsica e frontera e una manera accesible para profesores y alumn os e los niveles e ucativos anteriores a la universi a y en carreras e ingeni era, en parte con el fin e espertar la curiosi a e los alumnos para conocer a lgunos e los ltimos avances y para innovar el curriculum e Fsica [2]; ya que por la misma naturaleza e la ciencia se tiene que es una necesi a actualizar la Fs ica escolar, y esto se pue e hacer intro ucien o temas que en los ltimos aos han r evoluciona o a la Fsica y a la tecnologa, pero que han que a o fuera e los conten i os regulares e los cursos e Fsica por consi erarse emasia o tcnicos[3]. Ejemplo s e omisin e temas trascen entales en el curriculum e Fsica son, la teora e la relativi a general y la mecnica cuntica, que iversos autores han seala o, recalca n o que seguimos ensean o la misma Fsica e hace 300 aos [4]. No obstante su comple ji a , algunas teoras como las e Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 59 unificacin espiertan inters, y sin embargo no son inclui as en los cursos e Fsica , posiblemente pue an ser consi era as a travs e seminarios o clubes cientficos. Motiva os por ello, presentamos una breve revisin sobre el tema e las imensione s extra espaciales y su importancia en la Fsica actual. El artculo est organiza o c omo sigue, en la Seccin II tratamos en concepto e imensin espacial, en la Seccin III menciona por qu se necesitan imensiones extras, la Seccin IV trata sobre mun os brana, en la Seccin V abor amos la cuestin sobre si es posible etectar las im ensiones extra, finalmente en la Seccin VI presentamos nuestras conclusiones. II. EL CONCEPTO DE DIMENSIN ESPACIAL Pero qu enten emos por imensin? Po emos explicar esto e una manera simple. De la figura 1 observamos que la lnea (uni imensional) necesita e un nmero o coor ena a para po er i entificar un punto sobre ella. Para un plano (bi imensional) neces

 

     

 

 

 

 

 

    

 

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

  

 

    

itamos e os nmeros o coor ena as para i entificar ca a punto. Para un espacio t ri imensional, ca a punto tiene tres coor ena as, es ecir, la imensin e un esp acio pue e pensarse como el nmero e coor ena as que necesitamos para especificar la localizacin e ca a punto en icho espacio. http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

    

 

 

  

Csar Mora y O. Pe raza i entificar la presencia e estas imensiones extras me iante algn experimento. FIGURA 1. Coor ena as en una, os y tres imensiones. Sin embargo, a partir e que Einstein io a conocer la teora especial e la relat ivi a [5] en 1905, el tiempo se integra como una imensin ms, es ecir, nuestro m un o tiene entonces tres imensiones espaciales y una temporal. La historia e l as imensiones extras, como suele llamrseles, comienza con los trabajos e Gunna Nor strm [6], Theo or Kaluza [7] y Oskar Klein [8] en el primer cuarto el siglo XX, estos os ltimos intro ujeron, e manera in epen iente, una quinta imensin co mo un intento para unificar las interacciones gravitacional y electromagntica (nic as fuerzas conoci as en ese tiempo). En los trabajos e Kaluza-Klein se consi er a a la quinta coor ena a compacta, qu significa esto? esto significa que la quinta imensin es enrolla a en un crculo, un circulo muy pequeo cuyo ra io es el tamao e la escala e Planck 10-33 cm. Las imensiones extra son entonces imensiones p equeas tanto que no pue en verse. Para enten er mejor la i ea e imensin pequea ve amos la figura 2. En ella se encuentra un equilibrista sobre una cuer a. El equi librista pue e esplazarse sobre la cuer a, es ecir, para l su mun o es la cuer a (un mun o uni imensional). Sin embargo, si sobre la cuer a se encuentra una ho rmiga sta pue e esplazarse sobre la cuer a y alre e or e ella, es ecir, existe otra imensin, con la iferencia e que la imensin a icional se cierra, en otras palabras, es compacta y muy pequea. Por lo tanto, el equilibrista no pue e ver l a imensin extra, por ser muy pequea. III. POR QU SE NECESITAN DIMENSIONES EXTRAS? En la seccin anterior se mencion que el Mo elo Estn ar (ME) unifica a la fuerza ele ctromagntica, bil y fuerte pero no a las interacciones gravitacionales. Actualmen te la teora e cuer as parece ser un buen can i ato para unificar los efectos gra vitacionales con las interacciones el ME e forma consistente a nivel cuntico. E n la teora e cuer as los elementos bsicos e la materia (leptones y quaks) ejan e ser escritos como partculas puntuales y son escritos por objetos uni imensio nales llama as cuer as. En esta escripcin ca a mo o e vibracin representa una pa rtcula istinta (figura 3). En la teora e cuer as hay un mo o que tiene las propi e a es el gravitn, lo cual significa que la grave a est inclui a en la teora.

Las cuer as pue en ser cerra as o abiertas, como lo muestra la figura 4. FIGURA 2. Para una persona la cuer a parece uni imensional, mientras que a una istancia ms cerca la cuer a parece bi imensional. La imensin extra es un crculo mu y pequeo que no se pue e observar. FIGURA 4. En la teora e cuer as las cuer as pue en ser abiertas o cerra as. Despus e un receso e casi me io siglo la i ea e imensiones extras resurge en las teoras e supergrave a [9], y posteriormente en las teoras e cuer as, hoy in clui as entro e la llama a teora M [1]. En to os estos casos el intento ha cons isti o en unificar la gravitacin con el Mo elo Estn ar el cual a su vez incorpora la interaccin electromagntica, bil y fuerte. El inters por consi erar escenarios co n imensiones extras ra ica en la posibili a e Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 60 Originalmente la primera teora e cuer as fue formula a sin supersimetra y requera e un espacio tiempo e 26 imensiones para su consistencia. Aqu las imensiones espaciales a icionales eran compactifica as implementan o la i ea e Kaluza-Klei n e inaccesibles a bajas energas (es ecir se espera que sus efectos ocurran a es

FIGURA 3. Diversos mo os e vibracin representan una partcula iferente. El tamao e las cuer as es muy pequeo (10-33 cm), mucho ms pequeo que el electrn.

  

  

   

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

  

  

  

 

    

 

    

 

 

 

 

calas e energas el or en e la masa e Planck MPlanck). Esta teora no contena gra os e liberta ferminicos. Esta teora recibe el nombre e cuer a bosnica. En 1984 Michael Green y John Schwartz y otros autores se percataron e que cuan o se inc orporaba la supersimetra a la teora e cuer as la http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Sobre las imensiones extras espaciales mecnica cuntica no tena problemas con los infinitos. A esta teora se le enomin e su percuer as y requiri e un espacio tiempo e 10 imensiones para su formulacin, o n e nuevamente las seis imensiones extras eran compactifica as e acuer o con l a i ea e Kaluza-Klein (KK). A esta serie e eventos suele llamrsele la primera r evolucin e las teoras e cuer as. Uno e los obstculos principales para poner a pr ueba la teora e cuer as consiste en que la escala e energa, masa e Planck MPlan ck=1.21019 GeV, (aqu c=1) en la que sus efectos se manifiesten, est abruma oramente fuera el alcance e los acelera ores e partculas actuales. A finales e 1990 J oe Polchinski [10] y otros autores mostraron que las teoras e cuer as contienen a ems objetos exten i os. Estos son llama os Dp-branas, D por Dirichlet, y p es e l nmero e sus imensiones espaciales. Por ejemplo, en la figura 5 se muestran tr es objetos; una 0brana es una partcula puntual, una 1-brana es una cuer a y una 2 -brana es una membrana. Inspira os por la teora e cuer as se han propuesto mo elos enomina os mun os br ana que a optan la i ea e imensiones espaciales extras. En estos mo elos se es tu ia la contribucin e las imensiones extras a procesos fsicos. Aunque ha si o e stu ia o el problema e conectar esos mo elos con la teora e cuer as, esto aun s igue sien o un proceso muy complejo. Sin embargo, ebi o a que an no es posible o btener pre icciones fenomenolgicas contun entes e la teora e cuer as es viable e xplorar estos mo elos como una primera aproximacin a la fenomenologa e cuer as. L os mo elos e mun os brana resurgieron con gran impacto espus e los trabajos e Arkani-Hame , Dimopoulos y Dvali (ADD) [15] y e Ran all y Sun rum (RS) [16] en 1998 y 1999, respectivamente. En estos mo elos nuestro mun o es consi era o com o una hipersuperficie llama a brana cuya imensin es 3+1, es ecir, tres imensio nes espaciales y una temporal, la cual resi e en un espacio tiempo hiper imensio nal e imensin D=4+n, aqu 4 representa la imensin e nuestro mun o cuatro imensi onal y n el nmero e imensiones espaciales a icionales. Una caracterstica e los mun os brana ra ica en que la grave a se propaga en to o el espacio tiempo hipe r imensional, mientras que los campos el ME estn localiza os en ella. Qu enten emo s por localizacin e campo el ME? Por localizacin enten emos que las interaccione s electromagnticas, biles y fuertes, as como la materia e nuestro universo eben estar atrapa as en una superficie hiper imensional llama a brana. nicamente la gr ave a pue e escapar e esta superficie y propagarse a travs el volumen el espa cio tiempo e imensin D, como pue e verse en la figura 6.

El inters en las p-branas ra ica en el hecho e que poseen simetra e norma. Dicha simetra se origina ebi o a que uno e los extremos e la cuer a abierta finaliz a en la brana. Consistente con esta i ea Petr Hovara y E war Witten [11] consi eraron teoras e cuer as con os 10-branas encaja as en un espacio tiempo e 11 imensiones. A bajas energas la grave a se propaga en to o el espacio-tiempo mult i imensional mientras el resto e los campos se localiza en las branas (en la si guiente seccin especificaremos ms la nocin e localizacin). Es importante enfatizar que estas i eas haban apareci o en aos anteriores in epen ientemente e las teoras e cuer as en los trabajos e Rubakov y Shaposhnikov [12] y e Akama [13]. En es tos casos, el confinamiento es implementa o a travs el acoplamiento e la materi a a campos escalares. Motiva o por estos trabajos Visser mostr que la materia pue e tambin ser confina a ebi o a la grave a e la brana [14]. FIGURA 6. La superficie llama a brana representa nuestro mun o cuatro imensiona l en on e la materia y las interacciones el ME estn confina as en ella. La ire ccin perpen icular representa la imensin extra. La grave a es la nica que pue e e scapar y propagarse en to o el bulto (volumen el espacio tiempo e imensin D). IV. MUNDOS BRANA

FIGURA 5. La evolucin e una partcula, cuer as y brana en un espacio tiempo hiper imensional escriben una lnea e mun o, hoja e mun o y volumen e mun o.

  

 

 

 

 

   

  

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

    

 

  

 

 

   

 

Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 61 La localizacin e la materia a lo largo e la brana explica por qu la fsica a bajas energas es efectivamente cuatro http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Csar Mora y O. Pe raza imensional para to as las interacciones excepto para la grave a y por lo tanto estas imensiones extras no pue en verse. Existen iferentes mecanismos que per miten localizar los campo el ME en la brana, el ms simple es consi erar la grave a e la brana [16], tambin se consi eran simetras especiales en las imensiones extra llama as orbifol [17] se consi eran efectos topolgicos como tipo vrtices [ 18] y pare [19]. En el escenario ADD se esprecia la tensin e la brana ( ensi a e energa por uni a e tres-volumen e la brana) y se consi eran imensiones e xtras compactas gran es; similarmente al caso e KK, pero ifirien o e este en que el tamao e las imensiones extras R no necesita ser microscpico. En este mo e lo el tamao e las imensiones extras es a o por R=MEW-1(MPl/MEW)n/2=1032/n-17 c m. (1) Aqu MEW es la escala electro bil (1013 GeV), MPl es la masa e Planck (1019 Gev) y n el numero e imensiones extras. Toman o n=1 en la ecuacin (1), R es e l or en e 1015 cm, lo cual llevara a conflictos con las observaciones el compor tamiento el sistema solar. Para n=2, R es el or en e milmetros. En contraposic in el mo elo RS parte el uso e la tensin e la brana pro ucien o grave a y en p resencia e una constante cosmolgica. La solucin e las ecuaciones e Einstein en estas con iciones incorpora a ems con iciones e frontera apropia as a la presenc ia e una o os branas conoci as como con iciones e Israel [20]. Notablemente e s posible encontrar una solucin que preserva la invariancia e Poincar cuatro- ime nsional. En este tipo e mo elos las imensiones extras no tienen lmite e tamao. FIGURA 7. El momento en la quinta coor ena a es iscreto. El campo est sujeto a l as con iciones e frontera mostra a. Es ecir, el momento tiene la forma p=(p0 ,px, py, pz, p5), aqu como en relativi a tenemos p2=0 y usan o la signatura (+ - - -) implica que p02=px2+py2+pz2+p52 E2= px2+py2+pz2+mn2. (2) Aqu c=1. Cmo po emos enten er la ecuacin (2)?, es e el pun to e vista e un observa or situa o en la brana (el cual representa nuestro mun o cuatro imensional), el momento iscreto e la quinta coor ena a se asemeja a una partcula masiva, cuya masa es a a por mn=n/R, con n=0,1,2, (3) Esta partcula pue e ser el gravitn, el fotn o un campo escalar. Estos esta os forman una torre l lama a torre e Kaluza-Klein, la que se muestra en la figura 8. V. SE PUEDEN DETECTAR LAS DIMENSIONES EXTRAS? Debi o a que la grave a es la nica que pue e escapar e la brana (existen otros mo elos e imensiones extras llama as imensiones extras universales en on e a l menos el campo electromagntico pue e tambin escapar e la brana), po emos usar st a interaccin para etectar la presencia e las imensiones extras. Es ecir, la g rave a ebe cambiar su forma funcional usual. Es conveniente primero mostrar un ejemplo; por consiguiente consi eremos el mo elo e ADD, incluyen o una sola i mensin extra gran e espacial. En este mo elo la imensin extra es compacta (est enr olla a en un crculo), por tanto el momento a lo largo e la imensin extra est cuan tiza o, como se muestra en la figura 7, y toma los valores p5=n/R, mientras que el momento tri imensional es continuo.

A bajas energas (E < 1/R) solamente las partculas sin masa pue en ser pro uci as, mientras que a energas (E >1/R) las imensiones extras pue en manifestarse. Aqu nu evamente hemos toma o c=1 y =1. Conocien o el espectro e Kaluza-Klein, se pue e calcular el potencial gravitacional entre os partculas e masas m1 y m2 localiz a as en la brana, este potencial es goberna o por el intercambio el mo o cero ( n=0) y el resto e los mo os (n 0). El potencial gravitacional es a o por [21,2 7] -RnGm1m2/rn+1 V(r)= -Gm1m2/r r<<R , (4) r>>R . Aqu G es la constante e gravitacin universal, n el numero e imensiones extras, r es la separacin entre las os masas Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 62 http://www.journal.lapen.o

 

 

 

FIGURA 8. Torre e esta os

e Kaluza-Klein.

 

   

   

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

     

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

    

  

 

            

rg.mx

Sobre las imensiones extras espaciales m1 y m2. En la ecuacin (4) estamos suponien o que to as las imensiones extras ti enen el mismo tamao R. Esto motiv el esarrollo e experimentos e gran precisin pa ra etectar alguna esviacin e la ley e la gravitacin e Newton que permita esc ubrir (o escartar) la existencia e imensiones a icionales. Estos experimentos se realizaron en el rango e milmetros [22]. Tambin se ha estu ia o la fenomenolo ga a bajas energas e algunos escenarios e imensiones extras; el efecto Casimir [23] y el corrimiento Lamb [24], entre otros. REFERENCIAS [1] Miemiec, A. an Schnakenburg, I., Basics of M-theory, Fortsch.Phys. 54, 5-72 (2006). [2] Sher, M. an Sullivan, K. A., Experimentally probing the shape of e xtra imensions, Am. J. Phys. 74, 145 (2006). [3] Hartle, J. B., General relativ ity in the un ergra uate physics curriculum, Am. J. Phys. 74, 14 (2006). [4] Mar olf, D., Resource Letter NSST-1: The nature an status of string theory, Am. J. Phys. 72, 730 (2004); Rosner, J. L., Resource Letter: SM-1: The stan ar mo el a n beyon , Am. J. Phys. 71, 302 (2003). [5] Einstein, A., On the electro ynamics of moving bo ies, Annalen Phys.17, 891-921 (1905). [6] Nor strom, G., On the po ssibility of unifying the electromagnetic an the gravitationalel s, Phys. Z. 15 , 504506 (1914). [7] Kaluza, Th., Zum unitatsproblem er physik (on the problem of unity in physics) (Sitzungsber Preuss. Aka .Wiss. Berlin, Math. Phys. 1921), pp. 966-972. [8] Klein O., Quantum Theory an Five-Dimensional Theory of Relativ ity, Z. Phys. 37: 895-906 (1926). [9] Van Nieuwenhuizen, P., Supergravity, Phys. Rept. 68, 189-398 (1981). [10] Polchinski, J., Dirichlet-branes an ramon -ramon charges, Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 4724 (1995), [hep-th/9510017]. Polchinski, J., L ectures on -branes, (1996), hep-th/9611050 [11] Horava, P. an Witten, E., Hete rotic an type i string ynamics from eleven imensions, Nucl. Phys. B 460, 5065 24 (1996), [hep-th/9510209]. Horava, P. an Witten, E., Eleven- imensional super gravity on a manifol with boun ary, Nucl. Phys. B 475, 94-114 (1996), [hepth/96 03142]. [12] Rubakov, V. A. an Shaposhnikov, M. E., Do we live insi e a omain wall?, Phys. Lett. B 125, 136-138 (1983). [13] Akama, K., An early proposal of brane worl , Lect. Notes Phys. 176, 267-271 (1982), [hep-th/0001113]. [14] Viss er, M., An exotic class of kaluza-klein mo els, Phys. Lett. B 159, 22 (1985), [h ep-th/9910093]. [15] Arkani-Hame , N., Dimopoulos, S. an Dvali, G. R., The hier archy problem an new imensions at a millimeter, Phys. Lett. B 429, 263-272 (19 98), [hep-ph/9803315]. [16] Ran all, L. an Sun rum, R., An alternative to compa cticationm, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 4690-4693 (1999), [hep-th/9906064]. [17] Muck, A., Pilaftsis, A. an Ruckl, R., An intro uction to five- imensional extensions of the stan ar mo el, Lect. Notes Phys. 647, 189-211 (2004). [18] Ran jbar-Daem i, S. an Shaposhnikov, M., QED from six- imensional vortex an gauge anomalies, JHEP 04, 16 (2003), [hep-th/0303247]. [19] Rubakov, V. A. an Shaposhnikov, M. E., Do we live insi e a omain wall?, Phys. Lett. B 125, 136138 (1983). [20] Bere zin, V. A. Kuzmin, V. A. an Tkachev, I. I., Dynamics of bubbles in general rela tivity. Phys. Rev. D 36, 2919 (1987). [21] Ito, M., Newton s law in brane worl s with an infinite extra imension Phys. Lett. B 528, 269-273 (2002). [22] Hoyle, C. D. et al., Sub-millimeter tests of the gravitational inverse-square law: A s earch for large extra imensions, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 1418-1421 (2001), [hep6 3 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx VI. CONCLUSIONES Se ha menciona o que la principal motivacin para consi erar imensiones extras, f ue el hecho e unificar a la grave a con las otras interacciones. Como sabemos el can i ato ms viable para este fin es la teora e cuer as, la cual naturalmente requiere imensiones extras. La i ea o nocin e imensiones extras est profun amen te influencia a por la teora e cuer as, es ecir, intro uce el concepto e compa ctificacin, localizacin e campos el ME emplean o efectos topolgicos o en puntos fijos el espacio compacto, branas, entre otros. Recientemente se han esarrolla o herramientas tericas al esarrollar teora e campos en escenarios e imensione s extras. Por ejemplo, se han esarrolla o herramientas e rompimiento espontane

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

  

 

o e simetra y supersimetra, como los mecanismos Scherk-Schwarz [25] y Hosotani [2 6], entre otros. To a la riqueza matemtica y conceptual esarrolla a en este cont exto permite reconsi erar varios problemas que no han si o resueltos completamen te en el contexto cuatro imensional (ver [27]). Estos son: el problema e jerar qua, es ecir cmo explicar la enorme iferencia entre, la escala e Planck y la es cala electro bil. Problemas convencionales e teoras e gran unificacin, el tiempo e vi a me ia el protn, relaciones e masas. El problema e la constante cosmolg ica, entre otros. Finalmente, concluimos con las siguientes observaciones: a) La s imensiones extras gran es tienen una motivacin fun amentalmente terica. b) Los escenarios e imensiones extras pue en ayu ar a resolver algunos problemas e l a fsica e partculas (problemas e jerarqua, rompimiento espontaneo e la simetra). c) Los escenarios e imensiones extras tienen implicaciones fenomenologas en nue stro mun o cuatro imensional. Como esviaciones e la ley e gravitacin e Newto n para cuerpos masivos en la brana, entre otras. AGRADECIMIENTOS Este trabajo fue realiza o me iante el apoyo el proyecto e investigacin SIP-200 71482. Los autores son becarios EDI y COFAA-IPN, y agra ecen a R. Snchez por los comentarios y sugerencias para mejorar el manuscrito. Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008

 

  

 

  

 

 

 

Csar Mora y O. Pe raza ph/0011014]. Hoyle, C. D. et al., Sub-millimeter tests of the gravitational inve rse-square law, Phys. Rev. D 70, 042004 (2004). [23] Linares. R., Morales-Tecotl , H. A. an Pe raza, O., Casimir effect in a six- imensional vortex scenario, Ph ys. Lett. B 633, 362-367 (2006). [24] Morales-Tecotl, H. A., Pe raza, O. Pimente l, L. O., Low-energy effects in brane worl s: Liennar -Wiechert potentials an H y rogen Lamb shift, Gen. Rel. Grav. 39, 1185-1202 (2007). [25] Scherk, J. an Schwarz, J. H., Spontaneous breaking of supersymmetry throug h imensional re uction, Phys. Lett. B 82, 60-64 (1979). [26] Hosotani, Y., Dyna mical mass generation by compact extra imensions, Phys. Lett. B 126, 309-313 (1 983). [27] Feruglio, F., Extra imensions in particle physics, Eur. Phys. J. C 3 3,114-128, (2004), [hep-ph/0401033]. PerezLorenzana, A., An intro uction to extr a imensions, J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 18, 224-269 (2005), [hep-ph/0503177]. Burgess, C. P., Extra Dimensions an the Cosmological Constant Problem (2007) [hep-ph/07 08.0911]. Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 64 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

 

On the Relativistic Concept of the Dirac s electron Spin N. Ham an1, A. Chamaa1 an J. Lpez-Bonilla2 Department of Physics, University of Aleppo, Aleppo-Syria. SEPI-ESIME-Zacatenco, Instituto Politcnico Nacional, E if. Z-4, 3er. Piso, Col. Lin avista CP 07 738 Mx ico DF 2 1

Abstract Despite the success of the Dirac equation, the incorporation of the special theo ry of relativity into quantum mechanics pre icts some para oxes, like that the s pin pre iction from Dirac equation can be only i entifie with non- relativistic approximations (Pauli an Fol y-Wouthysen), as well as the spin pre ication is a relativistic quantum phenomena because the spin pre iction is a necessary requ irement of the relativistic quantum mechanics only. In this paper we show that t he erivation of the spin an its magnetic moment can be one with a pure classi cal treatment. Since we start from the classical physical laws an the classical relativity principle to get the linear Schr inger equation as a result the eriv ation of the spin an its magnetic moment can be one with a pure classical trea tment. This approach result a Schr inger equation, in which we show that the spin of the electron is a non relativistic quantum phenomenon too. Keywor s: Dirac e quation, electron spin, non relativistic Quantum Mechanics. Resumen A pesar el xito e la ecuacin e Dirac, la incorporacin e la teora especial e rel ativi a en la mecnica cuntica pre ice algunas para ojas, como la pre iccin el spi n e la ecuacin Dirac que pue e ser i entifica a solamente con aproximaciones norelativistas (Pauli y Fol y-Wouthysen), as como el pronstico el spin que es un fe nmeno cuntico relativista porque la pre iccin el spin solo es un requerimiento nec esario e la mecnica cuntica relativista. En este artculo mostramos que la erivacin el spin y su momento magntico pue e ser realiza a con un tratamiento puramente clsico. Ya que comenzamos e las leyes fsicas clsicas y el principio e relativi a clsico para obtener la ecuacin e Schr inger lineal como un resulta o, se pue e r ealizar la erivacin el spin y su momento magntico con un tratamiento puramente c lsico. De esta aproximacin resulta una ecuacin e Schr inger, en la cual mostramos q ue el spin el electrn ya no es un fenmeno relativista cuntico. Palabras clave: Ecu acin e Dirac, spin el electrn, mecnica cuntica no relativista. PACS: 03.30.+p, 03. 50.-z, 03.65.-w, 03.65.Pm. ISSN 1870-9095 I. INTRODUCTION In 1926 while Schr inger was publishing his nonrelativistic single particle wave equation [1], Dirac [2] was searching for a relativistic invariant form of the o neparticle Schr inger equation for electrons starting from the relativistic equat ion, which was known as Klein Gor on equation (KGE). However, at that time severa l objections emerge against the KGE as a single particle equation because its s olutions allowe negative probability ensities, besi es there was the possibili ty of negative energies an their solutions i not have clear spin epen ence. In 1928 Dirac publishe an equation [2, 3] which was presente as a efinite sol ution to the above mentione problems where he has shown that the spin belongs t o the relativistic wave equation. The integration of the special relativity theo ry with quantum mechanics has yiel e many para oxes that remaine unsolve that it Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 was impossible to irectly write a non-relativistic equation for spin-1/2 partic

 

 

 

E-mail: nham an59@hotmail.com (Receive 8)

3 November 2007; accepte 10 January 200

 

 

  

  

 

les an that it coul therefore only be erive as a non-relativistic limit of t he relativistic Dirac equation. So it was known in stan ar quantum mechanics th at the spin of electron has only relativistic nature. However, in 1984, this sup position was questione by W. Greiner [4] when he erivates the spin from the no nrelativistic quantum mechanics, i.e., he erivates the spin from the Schr inger equation. In this paper we obtain a itional a vantage concerning the same resul t of Greiner, where we reveale that the spin of the electron an its magnetic m oment can be erive from the mo ifie Schr inger equation without using any kin of approximations (non-relativistic limit of Dirac equation), an that the eri vation of the spin an its magnetic moment can be one with a pure classical tre atment. 65 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

 

 



N. Ham an, A. Chamaa an J. Lpez-Bonilla II. THE RELATIVISTIC DIRAC EQUATION AND THE PAULI EQUATION AS A NONRELATIVISTIC LIMIT OF THE DIRAC EQUATION The early twentieth century saw two major revolutions in the way physicists un e rstan the worl . The first one was quantum mechanics itself an the other was t he theory of relativity. Important results also emerge when these two theories, i.e., quantum mechanics an the theory of relativity were brought together an one of these results is the Dirac equation which lea s to the spin of an electro n that was known as a relativistic effect. When calculating kinetic energy relat ivistically using Lorentz transformation instea of Newtonian mechanics, Einstei n iscovere that the amount of energy is irectly proportional to the mass of b o y: an intrinsic magnetic moment for the electron an gives its correct value only w hen it is obtaine as the nonrelativistic limit of the Dirac equation. In the Di rac equation for the relativistic charge particle moving in a constant magnetic fiel i e = c A + m0c 2 , t c (7)

(8) E = mc 2 , (1) where E is the total energy and m the relativistic mass. The energy and momentum of a article momentum are then related by the rinci al equation governing the dynamics of a free article: In the non relativistic limit, the rest energy, moc2 becomes dominant; therefore , the two com onent solution is a roximately

im 0c 2t 0,s . (9) E 2 = c 2 p 2 + m0 c 4 , (2) Su stituting Eq. (9) into Eq. (7), nd using Eq. (6), it gives i i 0 e = ci A s0 , c t where c is the s eed of light, mo is the rest mass of the article and is the momentum. Following Dirac, we take into account the time de endent of Schrdinger equation: (10a)

,s = e

we can follow Pauli s a roach by eliminating small com onents li equation. We consider a two com onent re resentation, where t s inor is decom osed into two s inors b and s ,each one with = b, s = 1, 2

to derive the Pau the four com onen two com onents s = 3. 4

 

 0 e s = ci c t i 0 s t A 0 2m0 c 2 s0 , (10 ) i = H , t (3) m0 c 2 s0 , (11) using (2) nd (3) Dir c ssumed th t 2 = c 2 p 2 + m0 c 4 . i t nd with this l st pproxim tion, Eq. (10 ) ecomes to e 0 = ci A 0 2m0 c 2 s0 , c

One of the conditions im osed by Dirac in writing down a relativistic equation f or the electron was that the square of that equation will give the Klein Gordon equa tion. Im osing the additional condition of linearity of in the com onents of l ed Dirac to following relation i = H D , t

(12) (4) The lower component s0 is gener ll referred to s the 'sm ll' component of the w vefunction 'l rge' component 0 . p , rel tive to the where H D = c (p) + m 0 c 2 , (5) Su stituting the expression s0 given Eq. (12), into Eq. (10 ), we o t in e e i A i A 0 c c 0. = i t 2m0 0 k = k k , 0 k = 1, 2,3, = I 0 , 0 I (6) and I is the two by two identity matrix. In standard quantum mechanics, it is no

 

which gives e i A c 0. s0 =

2m0c

 

t ossible to directly extend the Schrdinger equation to s inors, so the Pauli eq uation must be derived from the Dirac equation by taking its non relativistic li mit. This is in articular the case for the Pauli equation which redicts the ex istence of Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 Finally, by using the well known identities (a)(b) = ab+ i(ab) , we deduce t at, bein B=A the magnetic field, 66 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

On the Relativistic Concept of the Dirac s electron Spin

[ 2 ] (13) j = j 0 j ( j = 1, 2,3) , 0 4 = I 0 . 0 I (20) The Pauli equation for the theory of s in was derived as a non relativistic limi t of the relativistic equation and it was well known in standard quantum mechani cs as a direct roof of the fundamentally relativistic nature of the s in. As we shall verify, the modified Schrdinger equation will lead directly to the Pauli e quation and therefore to the s in of the electron without using the non relativ istic limit, with the same results as in Dirac s theory of the relativistic elec tron. IV. DERIVATION OF MODIFIED SCHRDINGER EQUATION FROM THE CLASSICAL PHYSICAL LAWS AND I TS SOLUTIONS In several recent a ers [5, 6] we suggested another way to account for the Lore ntz transformation and its kinematical effects in relativistic electrodynamics a s well as in relativistic mechanics. And by following the same a roach we deriv ed Einsteins equation as well as the De Broglie relation from classical hysical laws such as the Lorentz force law and Newtons second law [7, 8, 9] III. DERIVATION OF LINEAR SCHRDINGER EQUATION It is well known that the nature of s in defies non relativistic QM. Therefore a statement was known that the s in must have to do with s ecial relativity altho ugh its connection is not entirely understood. In contrast to this statement, W. Greiner [4] has followed the Diracs a roach where he started from the same rem ise: the 2 must be linear in Schrdinger o erator K = E 2m 0 momentum. Then Grein er writes the free Schrdinger equation K = 0 s = (AE + Bp +C ) = 0 , Et = mc 2 , p= h (21 ) (21 )

i e A 0 e c 0 = B

. i t 2m0 2m0 c

. We sho ed a so that Eq. (21a) cou d be ritten as Et = mv 2 + m0 c 2 1 v2 , c2 (22)

(14) here the operator ou d be inear in momentum, thus there must be an operator s uch that = A E + B p +C , v2 Ek = Et m0 c 2 = mv 2 + m0 c 2 1 1 2 , c and for non relativistic velocities, v<<c, Eq. (22) reduces to Et = Ek + m0 c 2 = 1 m0 v 2 + m0 c 2 . 2 (15) so the multi lication of Eqs. (14) and (15) result again the Schrdinger equation = 2m 0 K . (23) (16) According to Eq. (16) Greiner determines the m trix A, B nd C. He o t ined the line r Schrdinger equ tion (AE + Bp +C ) = 0 , (17) where 0 0 , C = i 0 2m0 I , A = i I 0 0 0 (18) and B5 = iM , B = M , = 1 to 4 , (19) s well s

0 I = M 1 . M = I 0 Greiner gets also that the have the usual re resentation In the a er [10], D. Ward, S. Volkmer started from the classical electromagneti c wave equation as well as the basics of Einsteins s ecial theory of relativity. And by extending this wave equation for hotons, generalize to non zero rest mas s articles they get the free Schrdinger equation. So following a similar a roac h to that used in [10], i.e., by starting from the classical hysical laws and t he classical relativity rinci le we get also the linear Schrdinger equation, i.e ., Eq. (17) without using Einsteins s ecial theory of relativity as in [10] did. Therefore, we can go beyond the mathematical similarities of the classical and q

and from the

ast re ation e have by definition the kinetic energy

uantum theories of the electron if we recognize that we get Eqs. (21) and (23) w ithout using of Einsteins s ecial theory of relativity this being the new in ut. Since our work carries D. Ward s work a ste further by deriving Eqs. (21) and ( 23) without using the s ecial relativity theory and we obtain also the same resu lt of Greiner, i.e., Eq. (17). As a result the derivation of the s in and its ma gnetic moment can be done with a ure classical treatment. Our starting oint is Eq. (17), but first we rewrite the matrices A, B and C as follows 67 htt ://www.journal.la en.org.mx Lat. Am. J. Phys. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008

N. Hamdan, A. Chamaa and J. L ez Bonilla iI A= M 0 0 , 0 (24a) (24b) (24c) For a given E from Eqs. (28) follows that 0 = j p j 2m0i 0 0 , C=M 0 2miI 0 , (31)

0 j . Bj = M j 0 0 . . 0 (32) can take one of Setting Eqs. (24) in Eq. (17), an multiplying by M -1, we get iI 0 0 E = 0 j 0 Using Eq. (30) in Eq. (32), we find that the re resentations 0 = , 0 1 j

(25) We shall continue to find the eigenfunctions of the new linear Schrdinger equatio n to rove that there is contradiction with Dirac s conce tions of relativistic s in of electron. That means we will show that the new linear Schrdinger equation is an equation for describing the s in of electron. Solutions to Eq. (25) are lane waves which can be written in the following form ( x, t ) ( x) iEt ( x, t ) = N =N e , ( x, t ) ( x) ( x ) or 0 = , 1 and from the above calculations we deduce that (x , t ) (x , t ) = N =N (x , t ) 0 i ( 0 (26) By calculating the normalization constant N for ositive energy solution, we obt ain N = 2m 0 . E + 2m 0

x Et ) . i p 0

0 0 .

+ 0 2m 0iI 0

an from Eqs.(28) an (31) we fin E 0 = ( j p j ) 2 2m0

where N is the normalization constant, and (x ) is a four com onent s inor. Subst ituting Eq. (26) in Eq. (25), and considering that ( x) 0 = e ( x) 0 i x ,

If we consider the free electron motion along the zdirection, then the two state s that re resent free moving electron are 1 2m0 0 i ( z Et ) , e E + 2m0 i z p 1 2m 0 0 2m0 1 i ( z Et ) . e E + 2m0 i z p 0 2m 1 where 0 = 1 , 2 1 p ,+ 2 = (34 ) nd 0 = 3 , 4 1 p , 2 = (34 )

These are just the wave functions that can describe the s in u , and the s in do wn. For each value of there is one ositive eigenvalue, Eq. (30), and two eige nfunctions, Eqs. (34), in according with eigenvalue Eq. (25). it im lies the two equations iE 0 j p j 0 = 0 , (28a) (28b) j p j 0 + 2m 0i 0 = 0 ,

V. INTERACTION WITH THE MAGNETIC FIELD- THE PAULI EQUATION The most important result of the relativisti Dira equation was presenting a th eoreti al des ription of the ele tron spin and its magneti moment, whi h means that the predi tions of ele tron spin is the property of the Dira equation only . That is not true for many reasons: If one derives the spin of the ele tron and its magneti moment from the non relativisti linear S hrdinger equation, Eq. (2 5). The predi tions of ele tron spin did not o ur dire tly from the Dira equat ion, but using approximation like the non relativisti limit of Dira 68 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx whi h have solution if iE j p j 2m 0 i

re two component spinors, we find th t iI E 0 0 0 0 j 0 0 0 0 (27) + 2m0i =

j 0

 j pj =0, (29)

E= p2 . 2m 0 (30) Lat. Am. J. P y . Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008

 

and by u in t e ame known identitie , t at u ed above, t en Eq. (29) oe

into

    

linear Schrdinger Hamiltonian s. From Eqs. (24) and (25) we can define the linear Schrdinger Hamiltonian s Hs =p +D , (40) where 0 0 , D = 0 2miI = 0 . 0 s The orbital momentum L doesnt commutes with [ H s , L ] = [ p + D , L ] = i ( p) , (41) s, which implies e A (x , t ) iE

(x , t ) 0 c

however, to find an o erator which commutes with remind the o erator B in Eq. (2 4c): 0 , B = 0 we and its commutator with s is (42)

[ H s , B ] = 2i( p) . (37 ) (37 ) it s tisfies Now if we define Dir c spin oper tor s S= 2 B, (43) therefore p e A c (x , t ) . E (x , t ) = 2m 0

and e iE

A = 0 , , c e

A + 2 m 0 i = 0 ,

equation to et t e Pauli equation wit t e proper value of t e pin of t e elec tron and it ma netic moment from t e non relativi tic Pauli equation A we know , t e momentum p i replaced in t e ame way to include t e effect of electroma netic field , and if we only con ider t e effect of a ma netic field B t en t e momentum i replaced a p p e A , nd Eq. (25) c ecomes iI 0 0 0 (35) 0 0 e E = 0

 

 

  

  

On t e Relativi tic Concept of t e Dirac

electron Spin

   

 

2 [ H s , S ] = i ( p) , (38) nd from commut tors (41) nd (44) we see th t: (44)

J = L + S , (45) we recover finally an equation for t e two- component pinore p A 2 (x , t ) e c B (x , t ) , (39) = i 2m 0 2m 0c t which is the P uli equ tion with spin g f ctor of 2, the s me result s in Dir cs theory, is erive from the non relativistic linear Schro inger equation, this means that the electron has a magnetic moment e /2mo an the magnetic moment interacts with an external magnetic fiel , the cor respon ing contribution to the energy is - B. An important characteristic of Eq. (39) is that we i not use any kin of approximation to reach it, i.e., we i not use the con ition (11) to eliminate the lower component of the wavefunction , here the component of eliminates itself without any approximation. In Schr ing er theory the orbital angular momentum L commutes with the Hamiltonian H = p 2 / 2m , this is not the case in Dirac theory, since the Dirac Hamiltonian is linea r in momentum an the total momentum J = L + S commutes with it. For this reason, it is conventional to choose an operator similar to J which commutes with the commutes with s. It shows also that the total angular momentum, Eq. (45), is giv en similarly as in Dirac theory. [( ) ] VI. CONCLUSION Despite successes of the Dirac equation, there remain a number of misun erstan i ngs about this equation. The first misun erstan ing about Dirac equation is the spin of electron which is well known as a relativistic effect. Although of this the spin pre iction from Dirac equation can not be allowe irectly without appr oximations metho s i.e.; the non-relativistic limit of the relativistic Dirac eq uation to get the Pauli equation which pre icts the existence of an intrinsic ma gnetic moment for the electron an gives its correct value only when it is obtai ne as the non-relativistic limit of the Dirac equation. The secon misun erstan ing about Dirac equation is zitterbewegung. In the Dirac relativistic equation for the spin 1/2 particle, there is a velocity operator v = c j . It is elieved th t this oper tor is in dequ te in two spects: The first one is th t its eigen v lues re +c nd c with c eing the light speed in v cuum. The other is th t it is not proportion l to the line r momentum. In the p pers [12, 69 http://www.journ l.l pen.org.mx L t. Am. J. Ph s. Educ. Vol. 2, No. 1, J nu r 2008

 

 

Using the well known identities, we get 2 e e e A =

A B , c c c

[ H s , L + S ] = [ H s , J ] = i ( which me ns th t the oper tor

p) i (

  

p) = 0 ,

13] it h d een shown th t the velocit of the p rticle o t ined from the modifi ed Dir c equ tion lw s moves with velocit v s o served in the l or tor , nd this result elimin te the pro lem of the zitter ewegung. In contr st to it st n ds the wrong st tement, which ttri ute spin to rel tivistic ch r cteristics nd th t nonrel tivistic qu ntum mech nics is theor of spinless p rticle. Recent l , m n Authors h ve rgued th t the Schrdinger equ tion of non rel tivistic qu ntum mech nics descri es not spinless p rticle s univers ll ssumed, ut p rticle in spin eigenst te [11, 12, 13]. The spin of electron c n e derived g r du ll from the non rel tivistic line r Schrodinger equ tion, nd ever thing r esult utom tic ll s it is shown in the present p per. REFERENCES [1] Schrdinger, E. u ntisierung ls Eigenwertpro lem, Ann. der Ph sik 384, 361 3 76 (1926); 384, 489 527 (1926); 385, 437 490 (1926); 386, 109 139 (1926). [2] Di r c, P. A. M., The u ntum Theor of Electron, Proc. R. Soc. London A 117, 610624 (1928). [3] Moyer, D. F., Origins of Diracs Electron, 19251928, Am. J. Phys. 49, 944949 (1981). [4] Greiner, W., Quantenmechanik I, (Ban 4) (Verlag Harmi Deutsch , Thun, 1984) pp. 303312. [5] Ham an, N., Aban oning the I eas of Length Contraction an Time Dilation, Ga lilean Electro ynamics 14, 83-88 (2003). [6] Ham an, N., Newtons Secon Law is a Relativistic law without Einsteins Relativity, Galilean Electro ynamics 16, 71-74 (2005). [7] Ham an, N., Derivation of the e Broglie s Relations from the Newto n Secon Law, Galilean Electro ynamics 18,108-111 (2007). [8] Ham an, N., The Dy namical e Broglie Theory, Annales Fon ation Louis e Broglie 32, 1-13 (2007). [ 9] Ham an, N., K., Hariri, A. an Lpez-Bonilla, J., Derivation of Einsteins Equati on, E=mc2, from the Classical Force Laws, Apeiron 14, 435-453 (2007). [10] War , D. an Volkmer, S., How to Derive the Schr inger Equation, arXiv:physics/0610121 , (2006). [11] Gurtler, R. an Hestenes, D. Consistency in the formulation of th e Dirac, Pauli an Schr inger Theories, J. Math. Phys. 16, 573584 (1975). [12] Bak houm, E. G., Fun amental Disagreement of Wave Mechanics with Relativity, Physics Essays 15, (2002). [13] Ham an, N., Altorra, A. an Salman, H. A., The Classica l Zitterbewegung, accepte for publication in Galilean Electro ynamics. Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2008 70 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

" "

     

N. H md n, A. Ch m

nd J. Lpez Bonill

 

  

Conference: 20 Years of the Young Physicists Tournament at Czech Republic Z enek Kluiber an Ivo Volf Department for Physics an Computer Science, Pe agogical Faculty, University of Hra ec Kralove, Czech Republic. E-mail: z enek.kluiber@email.cz (Receive 07 Nov ember 2007, accepte 3 December 2007) Abstract In 2007 the Young Physicists Tournament (YPT) celebrate 20 years of its internat ional lifetime. Between September 10th an 13th 2007 the Department of Physics a n Informatics of the Faculty of E ucation of the University of Hra ec Kralove ( FE UHK), the Czech Committee of the Young Physicists Tournament, the Committee fo r Talents of the Union of Czech Mathematicians an Physicists (UCMP) an the Fir st Private Language Grammar School in Hra ec Kralove (FPLGS HK) organise in Hra ec Kralove the conference with international participation calle 20 Years of th e Young Physicists Tournament. Keywor s: Tournament of Physics, search for talente stu ents, evaluation.

Resumen En 2007 el Torneo e Fsicos Jvenes (YPT) celebr 20 aos e su tiempo e vi a internac ional. Entre el 10 y 13 e septiembre el Departamento e Fsica e Informtica e la Faculta e E ucacin e la Universi a Hra ec Kralove (FE UHK), el Comit Checo el Torneo e Fsicos Jvenes, el Comit para Talentos e la Unin Checa e Matemticos y Fsic os (UCMP) y la Primera Escuela Priva a e Gramtica el Lenguaje en Hra ec Kralove (FPLGS HK) organizaron en Hra ec Kralove la conferencia con participacin interna cional llama a 20 Aos el Torneo e Fsicos Jvenes. Palabras clave: Torneos e Fsica, b que a e alumnos talentosos, evaluacin. PACS: 01.10.Cr, 01.10.Fv, 01.10.Hx ISSN 1 870-9095 I. INTRODUCTION Between September 10th an 13th 2007 the Department of Physics an Informatics o f the Faculty of E ucation of the University of Hra ec Kralove (FE UHK), the Cze ch Committee of the Young Physicists Tournament, the Committee for Talents of the Union of Czech Mathematicians an Physicists (UCMP) an the First Private Langu age Grammar School in Hra ec Kralove (FPLGS HK) organise in Hra ec Kralove the conference with international participation calle 20 Years of the Young Physicis ts Tournament. The conference took place in ceremonious an newly renovate premis es of the FE UHK. The UHK rector J. Mikulecka an Aca emy of Science of Czech Re public (CR) chairman V. Paces took patronage over the conference. English was th e official language of the conference. In 2007 the Young Physicists Tournament ( YPT) celebrate 20 years of its international lifetime. We can mark it as a very ifficult competition in physics that correspon s with physicists real work. It a vances the team work an that is why the participants contrary to other competi tions are the teams of secon ary school pupils. It is sympathetic that in really most of the countries, that have participate till now, the national Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 societies of physicists significantly participate on its organisational reinsura nce too. In the present history of this competition the Czech Republic has signi ficantly contribute to the competitions evelopment especially by fair an succe ssful participation of national teams we can say that the CR belongs to five mos t successful teams in competitions present international history. The Czech team lea ers share actively in the international evelopment of the competition by th eir theoretical an metho ological works which are relate to participating the competition an metho ology of processing the problems entere [1, 2, 3, 4]. The conference was focuse not only on the balance of the YPT evelopment history b ut also on the pragmatic perspectives connecte with the future evelopment. Z. Kluiber was the conference chairman; I. Volf was the International Scientific an Program Boar chairman. The conference was visite by 25 specialists from seve n countries an farther the DPI FE UHK postgra uates an stu ents, FPLGS HK pupi ls an other persons concerne an guests. The main themes of iscussions were:

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

    

 

  

 

  

 

 

   

  

1. The competition conception an organisation. 2. The competition problems an presentation of the problems solutions. 71 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

Z enek Kluiber an Ivo Volf 3. The rating of teams an in ivi uals. 4. National an international experience s. 5. The perspectives of the competition. After the conference ha been opene the UHK rector J. Mikulecka an AS CR vice-chairman P. Vlasak ha their speeches too the first scientific lecture was referre by F. Janouch from the University of Stockholm. In his speech he initially name the YPT competition positives fo r obtaining young people for the physics stu ies; then the scientific part of hi s speech was focuse on especially energetic balance on our planet, forms of ret rieval an use of energetic sources an prognoses in the future. The conference procee ing got also greetings from: J. Kocourek, the eputy of the Minister of E ucation, Youth an Sports of the CR, S. Zajac, the UCMP chairman or J. Ri ky, t he irector of the Institute of Physics of the Aca emy of Sciences. Stu ent J. H ron, the first winner of the Czech Hea Prize in the Hope category, briefly characte rise his experiences from the work of pupils in a team that participate in the YPT. The IYPT Executive Committee presi ent G. Tibell from Swe en referre the essential speech focuse on the history of 20 years existence of the IYPT. He ap preciate the CRs participation on the IYPTs a vancement. The Worl Fe eration of Physics Competitions vice-presi ent Z. Rajkovits referre about fun amental expe riences from organising the competition in Hungary an she also presente main ata about solving several competition problems. Some other problems were iscuss e by L. Skrapis, also from Hungary. G. Hofferek from Austria, S. Simeonova from Bulgaria an F. Kun racik from the Slovak Republic intro uce in their speeches their experiences from organising the competition an its progression in their countries. The IYPT Executive Committee General Secretary M. Plesch from Slovaki a formulate tasks for the perspective improving the quality of the IYPT competi tion. P. Ferko from Slovakia took a think on a eepness of physics cognition or correspon ing formulating an solving physical problems respectively. I. Stefanc inova from Slovakia an I. Volf ma e a summary analysis of physical problems sol ve by primary an secon ary pupils. V. Kulich from the CR formulate his experi ences from work with physics talente pupils from the position of a physics teac her; grammar school vice- irector. O. Kourimska from the CR intro uce a very co mplex physical problem attaching biology an sketche out the conception of solv ing it. S. Panos from the CR took a think on the conception of rating a team mem ber an a team as a whole in the IYPT competition. J. Vesely from the CR pai at tention to an international seminar of secon ary school pupils, who are interest e in scientific activities; M. Cvrcek from the CR ealt with questions of mo el ling an applying uring the IYPT problems solutions; L. Palkovicova from Slovaki a focuse her contribution on highlighting the car inal aspects of work with pup ils in scientific activities. J. Cesakova from the CR pointe out the influence of project teaching for preparation of future IYPT solvers. Z. Kluiber evaluate some experiences from Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 the worl presentation of young peoples scientifictechnical projectsthe Intel ISEFi n relation to the IYPT future evelopment. P. Pavlicek an E. Je lickova from Op ava Grammar School (CR) compare of work conception an results of pupils in the IYPT competition with present- ay main general e ucational goals of the grammar school. V. Pecina an D. Hruska, the UHK Faculty of E ucation stu ents (CR), ch aracterise their personal experiences from the YPT national final. I. Volf poin te out the relationship of the IYPT an other international physics competition s [5, 6]. U. Woznikowska-Bezak an P. Wolak from Polan ocumente the history o f single years of the IYPT an the competition progression in Polan . A. Kopynov a an V. Juranek from the FPLGS HK presente very quality information about work an results of their secon ary school an about participation of pupils in scie nce competitions. Z. Kluiber, who takes part in international competitions perio ically, balance the IYPT results in the CR uring passe two eca es. The conf erence came to following conclusions: The IYPT is significant specific internati onal competition of secon ary school pupils in physics that significantly orient s them for stu ying physics, technology an natural sciences. The IYPT as a comp

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

etition procee s ifferently in ifferent countries, the common goal is to get p upils familiarise with the precise work of physicists an the conception of tea m solution of a physical problem. The IYPT has got expectations for further eve lopment. New teams from new countries are entering the competition, e.g. China, Nigeria, Iran etc. The conference was an important inspiration for work of all w ho are intereste in the IYPT competition. Pupils of the FPLGS HK took a very at tentive care of the abroa conference participants; they took them aroun the hi storical town centre of Hra ec Kralove an arrange a very valuable concert for them. The conferences culturalsocial event then was the visitation of Hra ek chat eaux in Hra ec Kralove neighbourhoo . The conference procee ings will be issue , where all the conference papers will be inclu e . The procee ings will be a min istere to all IYPT participating schools in the CR an will become another theo retical an practical ai for the IYPT evelopmentit will be istribute to all eputies of participating countries at the 21st IYPT in Croatia in 2008. Thus the Czech Republic has contribute to future evelopment of the IYPT competition. E specially the conference participants from the CR enriche the rows of Czech phy sicists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We woul like to thank V. Jehlicka, the UHK PF ean, for his personal contributi on an support to conference arrangement. 72 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

 

 

   

Conference: 20 Years of the Young Physicists Tournament at Czech Republic NOTE The 20 Years of the Young Physicists Tournament conference took place within the sc ope of the LA 270 MSMT CR project. REFERENCES [1] Kluiber, Z. et al., The Development of Talents in Physics (Prometheus, Pragu e, 1995). [2] Kluiber, Z., 10th International Young Physicists Tournament (Hra ec Kralove, MAFY 1998).

Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 73 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

[3] Simeonova, S., IYPT - International Young Physicists Tournament (Sofia, Zvez i, 2006). [4] Simeonova, S. an Kwon, M. H., IYPT: The International Young Physi cists Tournament (Sofia, Zvez i, 2007). [5] Volf, I., What can o the Teacher of primary or secon ary School for young talente Physicists (Hra ec Kralove, MAFY 2001) p. 60. [6] Volf, I., Base of pyrami e, Journal of Worl Fe eration of Phys ics Competitions (2005).

 

 

BOOK REVIEWS Rubn Snchez y Csar Mora Centro e Investigacin en Ciencia Aplica a y Tecnologa Avanza a el Instituto Poli tcnico Nacional, Legaria 694, Col. Irrigacin, C.P. 11500, Mxico D. F., Mxico. E-mail : rsanchezs@ipn.mx Estu os e Histria e Filosofia as Cincias: Subs ios para aplicaao no Ensino. Cibell e Celestino Silva (org.). 381 pp. 1a E io, E itora Livraria a Fsica, So Paulo, 2006 . ISBN 8588325-57-8. En el libro en cuestin, se presenta una coleccin e trabajos e iversos autores en varias reas e las ciencias en on e se iscuten aspectos e la historia e la Fsica, la Filosofa e las Ciencias, la Epistemologa, la Biologa y la Matemtica. Se abor an tpicos especiales para la e ucacin cientfica, y tambin se tratan temas relaciona os con el mto o cientfico, errores ivulga os a travs e li bros e texto, esmitificacin e temas fsicos, ejemplos y relatos e historia y fi losofa que pue en ser aplica os en el aula, as como otros temas relaciona os con l as ciencias m ico-biolgicas. Primeramente, en el campo e la Epistemologa, Roberto e An ra e pone e manifiesto cmo los estu iantes ( e to os los niveles), los mae stros y el pblico en general tienen una concepcin errnea sobre la naturaleza e la ciencia y su relacin con la socie a , algunos perciben a la ciencia como una ver a o aquello que fue ya proba o. Esto obviamente no toma en cuenta que la ciencia ca mbia (y en ocasiones e forma ra ical), y que es construi a por seres falibles q ue por su esfuerzo en comn, tien en a perfeccionar ese conocimiento, e manera qu e nunca poseen la garanta e tener algo efinitivo. El autor enfatiza la importan cia e apoyar a la enseanza e las ciencias con investiga ores y material serio s obre el tema. Por ejemplo, se acostumbra re ucir la historia e la Ciencia a nom bres, atos y anc otas; se tienen concepciones errneas sobre el mto o cientfico; o b ien se hace un uso in ebi o e argumentos e autori a es cientficas, como si se t ratara e un mo erno sistema e supersticin. Antonio Augusto P. Vi eira presenta un trabajo en on e se hace notar que antiguamente se crea en la importancia que tiene el mto o cientfico para valorar y cuestionar la veraci a e ciertos conocim ientos y que sobre to o eran los filsofos ms que los propios cientficos, los que in sistan en este aspecto e la Ciencia. Menciona que tal posicin sufri un cambio ura nte 1950 en la llama a La nueva Filosofa e la Ciencia representa a por hombres com o Norwoo Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, Thomas Kuhn, Imre Lakatos y Feyebaren , ellos insistan en que no hay un mto o cientfico con las caractersticas e rigor, universali a , unici a , rigi ez, infalibili a , entre otras cosas: con el Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 74 tiempo, el mismo concepto e Ciencia sufri cambios. Por ejemplo, Rolan Omnes, me nciona que cuan o Bacon o Descartes hablaban e mto o cientfico, se trataba e lo que normalmente se entien e por una regla que pu iese ser aplica a para llegar i nfaliblemente a ms conocimientos. Es ecir, un mto o para construir Ciencia. El au tor concluye que pese a stas crticas se ebe e creer en la existencia e un mto o cientfico aunque no se consiga una efinicin estricta el mismo, pues si no se pro ce e e esta forma se corre entonces el riesgo e creer que la misma Ciencia es en s una quimera. Y piensa que en la investigacin cientfica: se po r isponer e ms e un recurso meto olgico: o pluralismo meto olgico que es una actitu ampliamente a opta a hoy en a tanto por filsofos como por cientficos. En el campo e la Fsica s e muestran algunos estu ios sobre accin a istancia y accin e contacto; la enseanz a e la termo inmica por me io e la prctica social; la simetra e las fuerzas elec tromagnticas; el mun o techa o e estrellas en la astronoma y la cosmologa e el U niverso, el Big-Bang, leyen as y mitos sobre ciertos pasajes en la historia e l a Fsica, isertaciones e Isaac Newton sobre las profecas bblicas y la existencia e ios, y la in uccin electromagntica en el aula. Los cuales son e importancia pa ra la enseanza e la Fsica, ya que ponen e manifiesto varios aspectos relaciona o s con la enseanza que a veces pasan esapercibi os tanto por los alumnos como por los profesores que imparten la materia. Por ejemplo, en el tema e accin a ista ncia contra la accin por contacto, vemos que la fuerza e grave a ya se conoca e s e haca siglos: es e tiempos e Galileo (1564-1642), se saba que los cuerpos cer canos a la Tierra, caen con una aceleracin constante que era in epen iente el pe

 

 

       

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

 

  

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

         

so que tuviera el cuerpo, su composicin qumica, o bien, su forma. Y es e Newton ( 1643-1727), se saba que esta aceleracin tambin es mutua, es ecir, que la Tierra ta mbin es atraa por estos cuerpos. Newton formul esta accin entre to o cuerpo con masa me iante su famosa ecuacin e la gravitacin universal, en la cual la fuerza gravi tacional es irectamente proporcional a las masas e los cuerpos e inversamente al cua ra o e la istancia entre ellas: Esta fuerza se ejerce a una istancia y en forma instantnea a lo largo e la lnea que une a os cuerpos con masa. Otro ej emplo e accin istancia, proviene e la Grecia antigua (siglo V a.C.) pues se sa ba que un imn permanente atrae pequeos trozos e fierro. Este fenmeno pue e ser inte rpreta o como la accin irecta http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

  

     

Rubn Snchez y Csar Mora el imn sobre los trozos fierro, o como la accin e un agente interme iario (como posteriormente lo escubri Oerste en 1820, con una corriente elctrica, que genera ba lo que se conoci espus como campo magntico). En otro caso, tenemos que Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806), seal en 1785, que os polos magnticos que no sean el mismo tipo se atraen y que os tipos e polos iguales se repelen. Y tambin se me nciona el caso e interaccin entre os cargas elctricas, escrita por Coulomb como una accin a istancia, similar a la fuerza e grave a escrita por Newton. A ems , An r-Marie Ampre (1775-1836), mostr en la ca a e 1820 por vez primera vez que o s hilos con uctores se atraen si la corriente en ambos circulan en el mismo sent i o, y se repelen en el caso que las corrientes fluyan en senti os opuestos, Ampr e interpret este fenmeno, como si fueran ocasiona os por una accin irecta, entre l os os elementos e corriente, sin que fuesen ocasiona os por cualquier agente i nterme io entre ellos. To o esto, tuvo que ser mo ifica o, ya que en la teora e Maxwell se concibe no slo el ente e campo elctrico y campo magntico, que efecta el c ontacto e la antigua accin a istancia, sino que se tratan e unificar en un solo ente unifica o: el campo electromagntico, que pue e ya existir in epen ientement e e sus fuentes. Tambin, la teora e la Gravitacin e Einstein llega a a optar la i ea e accin a istancia, y espontnea n ole un carcter ms geomtrico y e efecto reta r a o al agente interme iario que espus se llam campo. An r K. T. Assis a una escr ipcin ms etalla a y humanista acerca e los hechos que ieron origen al mo erno c oncepto e campo en la Fsica actual. Por otro la o, Cibelle Celestino Silva, mencio na en un trabajo que habla sobre Pierre Curie y las simetras e canti a es electr omagnticas, cmo es que algunos e estos conceptos e campo electromagntico a quieren simetra, y cmo esto nos ayu a a enten er mejor muchos fenmenos electromagnticos. Por ejemplo, Oerste observ que los campos elctricos y magnticos tenan iferente estruc tura. Curie entonces es responsable e enunciar que para que ocurra el fenmeno se necesita que haya una asimetra entre las canti a es involucra as. La parte sobre la manzana e Newton, su historia mitos y leyen as e Roberto e An ra e Martins, nos hace reflexionar sobre la importancia que tiene en la e ucacin, que el profe sor e Fsica investigue por su cuenta, lo que comnmente se escribe en los libros s obre esta materia como trasfon o histrico; ya que pue e evenir slo e un mito o cue nto que se escribi aos espus e lo supuestamente ocurri o. Se critica e una maner a constructiva el caso pasa o, ponien o e relieve que es muy posible, que conta rio a lo que comnmente se cuenta; que a Newton no se le ocurri la i ea e la gravi tacin, cuan o le cay en la cabeza una manzana. Esta historia que fue por primera v ez conta a por Voltaire en el ao e la muerte e Newton es e u osa vali ez, ya que la sobrina e Newton, Catherine Barton que cui aba e l le cont la anc ota e l a manzana a Voltaire. Otra fuente e la historia e la manzana es John Con uitt, que trabajaba con Newton en la casa e mone a inglesa y que Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 75 espus se cas con Catherine; su relato permaneci escrito como el e Stukeley. Ningu no e estos relatos eca que la manzana haba ca o en la cabeza e Newton, ni que es taba istra o. To os concuer an en que Newton estara pensativo en el jar n e la ha cien a e su ma re en Woolthorpe. Por mencionar una e tantas incoherencias, se menciona que a Newton no se le ocurri la i ea e la gravitacin en ese u oso acont ecimiento, pues este fenmeno ya se conoca es e la antige a , haca ms e mil aos antes e Newton ya se hablaba e la gravitacin. Ms bien lo que hizo Newton fue escribi r con ecuaciones la naturaleza e su interaccin. En cuanto al hecho e que una man zana golpe su cabeza mientras ormitaba bajo el rbol, lo pone en u a, pues no hay evi encias concluyentes que lo respal en. En el trabajo presenta o por Thas Cyrin o e Mello Forato sobre Issac Newton, las profecas bblicas y la existencia e Dios. El autor hace hincapi en que hay que consi erar a Newton en su ver a era imensin no slo e hombre e ciencia e su poca, sino tambin como uno e los filsofos teolgico s ms e ica os que ha a o la humani a . Sita la poca e Newton tambin, on e se ve la extrema a preocupacin e los hombres ilustres e llevar las octrinas ivinas antiguas, a su completa realizacin, con ayu a e las nuevas i eas cientficas. Como si hubiera una preocupacin generaliza a e rescatar las i eas e la existencia y

  

   

 

 

  

 

 

 

  

    

   

   

  

   

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

   

  

  

  

 

 

los atributos e Dios. Y ver en los nuevos conocimientos la presencia ivina. E n el trabajo e Newton tambin se ve la influencia e la astrologa y e Paracelso, para quien la observacin y la ciencia qumica eran la base e una nueva interpretacin e los fenmenos naturales, ya que as se explicaba a la creacin como una revelacin q umica e la naturaleza. Se menciona que cuan o la teora e gravitacin fue presenta a por primera vez en los Principia e Newton, en 1867, recibi cuestionamientos e iversos tipos. Esto origin la ivisin e su obra en varias partes, reservan o sus reglas para el raciocinio en filosofa para el libro III, on e se aba la efensa el mto o in uctivo en los experimentos y observaciones, que us en combinacin con e ucciones matemticas. Mto o, tan critica o en su poca, pero a la vez tan revolucio nario, que esto le vali, que en los siglos siguientes fuera consi era o como part e o mo elo el quehacer cientfico. (Cohen y Westfall, 2002, pp. 145-150.) El autor trata e contrarestar la imagen bizarra e Newton: e un hombre e ica o por un la o a la ciencia y por el otro a varias octrinas contra ictorias con la primer a: entre las que se encontraban la alquimia, la astrologa, la cbala o la teologa; m encionan o que los filsofos naturales ingleses el siglo XVII fueron influencia os por la tra icin renacentista europea, cuan o ya haba eclina o en la Europa conti nental. Los ingleses trataban e reconciliar el pensamiento e la filosofa mstica agregan o elementos como la filosofa mecnica el pero o, la filosofa cartesiana, la filosofa atomista, ms all e la experimentacin y e la utilizacin e la matemtica. Con i eramos esta lectura valiosa, porque nos a una personali a ms realista e Newt on, http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ubicn olo no slo como un hombre, pro ucto e su tiempo, sino tambin como un innova or que va intro ucien o, un prototipo el futuro mto o cientfico, en su poca. En la p arte e la in uccin electromagntica en la sala el aula e Valria Silva Daz, vemos una reconstruccin e lo que aconteca en los tiempos e Fara ay, y cmo se intro ujo en el campo e la investigacin e los fenmenos e in uccin magntica. Describe con etal le su trabajo, y cmo logr in ucir una corriente elctrica a partir e un campo magnti co variable. Su trabajo no lo benefici in ustrialmente (o financieramente) y fue apoya o siempre por la Royal Institucin e Inglaterra, hasta el fin e su carrera. Pensamos que ste trabajo es una pieza importante para la e ucacin e la Fsica en el rea e electrici a y magnetismo, pues explica cmo Fara ay contribuy e manera imp ortante a la unificacin e ambas fuerzas, an o paso a la mo erna teora e los cam pos electromagnticos. En cuanto al trabajo e Marcos Cesar Danhoni Neves titula o el mun o cerra o e la astronoma y la cosmologa e el universo cerra o el Big-Ba ng: Revisan o nuevos Dogmas e la Ciencia Astronmica, po emos ecir que es una rev isin histrica e cmo las i eas antiguas e la astronoma se cambiaron a las nuevas, p or ejemplo se habla e cmo la nocin e un Universo cuyo centro es la Tierra fue ca mbia o por uno on e la propia Tierra gira alre e or el Sol, y las i eas Ptolomi cas se cambian por las e Coprnico, tambin nos habla el trabajo e Hubble y cmo fu e que se io su ley e corrimiento hacia el rojo y la i ea e un Universo en exp ansin, tambin la consecuente i ea e que el Universo actual haya naci o e una gra n explosin inicial conoci a como el Big-Bang. En resumen, es una lectura interesa nte que abor a el nacimiento e la astronoma Mo erna con varios etalles. Por eje mplo a a conocer al lector, que fue Hubble quien por vez primera io evi encia e que el Universo visible estaba ms all e los lmites e la Va Lctea y cmo io una cl asificacin e las galaxias. En el trabajo e la enseanza e la termo inmica por me i o e la prctica social e Marcelo Luis Aroeira Rosella et al. Se pone e manifiest o la utili a e emplear argumentos e problemas e carcter social, que afectan l a economa e las naciones, y as espertar el inters e los alumnos por la Ciencia, entro el aula e clases. Por ejemplo, aqu nos muestra, en qu cosiste el efecto i nverna ero, y cmo icho problema pue e afectar la economa e una nacin, como la e los Esta os Uni os. Discute etalles el problema e este efecto e consecuencia s e cambio climtico, y argumenta que el conocimiento e la Termo inmica nos pue e ayu ar a compren er mejor el fenmeno. Y a partir e ah buscar respuestas para tra tar el problema, y evitar que se agrave. Por ejemplo, se pue e implantar la cult ura, e tratar e isminuir la emisin e gases, ya que el aumento en ixi o e car bono en la atmsfera, lleva consigo, un aumento e la temperatura global el Plane ta. Ocurre por ejemplo, que la temperatura me ia que el planeta ha Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 76 manteni o por millares e aos, es e unos 15 gra os centgra os. Ms en los ltimos 100 aos, esta temperatura prome io se ha aumenta o en aproxima amente 0.6 gra os, ms e lo normal. Esto pue e parecer insignificante, pero lleva o a la escala planet aria, significa un esequilibrio fuerte, trayen o consigo un aumento e un 30% e la concentracin e ixi o e carbono y otros gases extraos e polucin en la atmsfer a, que son el pro ucto e la activi a humana. El efecto inverna ero, es causant e e provocar un esequilibrio en la energa que circun a alre e or e la Tierra y el espacio que la ro ea, provocan o entre otras cosas, fenmenos meteorolgicos, co mo huracanes, sequa e tierras (transformn olas e tierras frtiles en ri as), erret imiento e los glaciares, ilatacin trmica e los ocanos inun an o regiones litoral es. Menciona, las presiones polticas e la comuni a cientfica para organizar reun iones internacionales para promover la isminucin e la contaminacin, principalmen te, e ixi o e carbono. Por ejemplo, cita la reunin ocurri a en Kioto, Japn en 19 97, que gener el protocolo e Kioto, que ebera ser respeta o principalmente, por los pases participantes que sean ms in ustrializa os. Por ejemplo, este acuer o ll eva o a cabo en Esta os Uni os sera bueno, pues la poblacin e este pas (el 4% e l a mun ial), emite cerca el 25% e los gases contaminantes emiti os en el planet a entero. Vemos en este caso, un tema e bastante inters poltico, social y econmico

 

 

 

 

 

  

   

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

  

  

 

 

 

    

 

 

 

 

    

Book reviews: Estu os Ensino

e Histria e Filosofia as Cincias: Subs ios para aplicaao no

  

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

   

 

  

    

   

  

, en on e, el enten imiento e la Termo inmica juega un papel crucial. En el rea e la Biologa se abor an temas e inters como son la botnica en la enseanza me ia; l a historia e la ciencia y la enseanza e la Gentica y la Evolucin en la enseanza me ia: un estu io e caso; enseanza el sistema sanguneo humano: una imensin histrico epistemolgica; historia el ADN y la e ucacin cientfica; razonamiento, experiencia e imaginacin en la ciencia: el caso e Charles Darwin. La historia e estos temas , son fun amentales para compren er el esarrollo e las ciencias mo ernas e la vi a. Por ejemplo, tratar e enten er los fun amentos en los que se basa el orig en e las especies e Charles Darwin, es importante para compren er el marco histr ico y social en el que se esenvuelve la Ciencia. Lleva a al aula, aumenta la ca paci a no slo cognitiva el alumno, sino que estimula el amor a la investigacin. En el caso e Charles Darwin, vemos que su trabajo fue el pro ucto e las observ aciones lleva as a cabo en las costas e Amrica el Sur y e algunas islas el Pa cfico. Inicialmente, hizo su viaje como naturalista a bor o el Beagle (1831-1836 ) al servicio el Imperio Britnico, para cartografiar estas costas. El origen e l as especies pone e relieve cmo las con iciones ambientales, influyeron en el proc eso e seleccin natural e los seres vivos en el planeta. Aqu Anna Carolina K. P. Regner (autora el artculo) a una revisin excelente el trabajo e Darwin y cmo si gui los pasos el mto o cientfico. Por ejemplo, tuvo que hacer una seleccin cui a os a e casos ejemplares como base in uctiva para legitimizar hiptesis explicativas. http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

Rubn Snchez y Csar Mora En el mbito e la Matemtica se tratan cuestiones sobre las ecuaciones algebraicas: un abor aje histrico sobre el proceso e resolucin e la ecuacin e segun o gra o. En on e se a to o un seguimiento histrico el esarrollo e la ecuacin cua rtica , en iversos pueblos antiguos como China, Grecia, Babilonia, In ia y el Mun o ra be. La obra en general es un compen io e atos y hechos histricos, que se han re copila o para apoyar una e ucacin ms sli a e los estu iantes en las reas e la Epis temologa, Fsica y Biologa. Su uso es recomen a o, por los autores e esta breve rev isin, para evitar varios e los errores y que se comenten en el aula. Por ejemplo , seguir ciegamente alguna tra icin, mito o leyen a que se tenga sobre algn person aje e la Ciencia, sin aplicar un criterio e evaluacin serio, siguien o una inve stigacin e los hechos histricos que ominaron la poca y el ambiente intelectual e l personaje, es algo que, comnmente se percibe en los salones e clase. Generalme nte el alumno cree, hace o sigue al pie e la letra, lo que el maestro ice que es correcto. Por eso se cae muchas veces en errores y mitos sobre la personali a e varios personajes en la historia e la Ciencia. Sin embargo, realizar un ex amen el tema e estu io suele ser constructivo, si se pue e investigar sobre la veraci a e los atos que se estn estu ian o. En la Ciencia no existen para igm as eternos, ms bien la Ciencia ebe su espritu al anlisis creativo e las materias, fenmenos o circunstancias (y hasta personajes importantes) que se estn estu ian o . Por lo tanto, el profesor ebe a veces incluir material a icional (como el e la revisin), para hacer una crtica e lo que comnmente viene en los libros e texto. As, se rompe to a una ca ena e vicios y actitu es e fe ciega en lo que se lee, o en lo que se escucha sin anlisis. Por lo tanto, lecturas, como las aqu analiza a s, son recomen ables, pues ponen en cuestionamiento varias e las creencias que se tienen en el esarrollo e la Ciencia, y que en ocasiones, por esgracia, son errneas. Lecturas a icionales, como ya analiza as pue en ayu ar al estu iante e Ciencias a ponerse alerta, y a formarse un criterio personal analtico y ms seguro , sobre los temas e Fsica que est cursan o.enseanza-apren izaje e la fsica, es com o el subttulo lo menciona opciones i cticas para intro ucirse a la aplicacin e la s nuevas tecnologas e la informtica en la enseanza-apren izaje e la fsica. El libr o es una obra e consulta in ispensable, muy aconsejable para ocentes que quier en comprometerse con los nuevos mto os e enseanza y para estu iantes que esean a pren er la fsica con las nuevas tecnologas computariza as con que cuenta el mun o mo erno. En ambos casos ocentes y estu iantes, encontrarn ejemplos que les en p istas claras e to as las posibili a es que se pue an esarrollar con las nuevas herramientas que se an a conocer y se iscuten ampliamente en esta obra, sin ejar e la o, que algunos e estos casos concretos que se iscuten en el libro, se pue an llevar a cabo, para que los lectores ocentes o estu iantes experiment en por s mismos lo que el autores ha trata o e comunicar en palabras e imgenes. Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 77 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

   

 

   

 

 

   

  

  

         

  

General Organiation (Preliminary). The activities of the general program will be in plenary sessions, workshops or symposiums. Up to now, the following symposiu ms an workshops are projecte : SYMPOSIUM 1: E ucation for the Development Susta inable Deca e. Importance of scientific e ucation. SYMPOSIUM 2: Scientific e uca tion in the mi le e ucational level an primary ages. Goo practices an new pe rspectives. SYMPOSIUM 3: Informal scientific e ucation. Divulgation an populari zation of sciences. Olympic games in science e ucation. SYMPOSIUM 4: Use of info rmation an communication technologies in science e ucation. About Pre-Congress courses These courses will be about Di actics of Science in General, Di actics o f Natural Science, Di actics of Physics, Di actics of Mathematics, Di actics of Chemistry, Di actics of Biology an Di actics of Geography. Each course will hav e uration of eight hours an a certificate of atten ance will be given to the p articipants. More information about Pre-Congress courses will be in The Congress WEB page: www. i acien.rime .cu. The course will be given in the Havana Convent ions Palace. Registration fee Participants: 150 CUC. Inclu es: congress materials , certificates, coffee, scientific activities an closing lunch. You must pay 20 CUC in a ition for the pre-congress courses. Inclu es: course materials, an c ertificate. The payment of the congress an the pre-courses must be in cash in C uba from Sun ay March 16, 2008 in Havana Conventions Palace. For any further info rmation about the Congress, visit the WEB page of the congress http://www. i aci en.rime .cu or contact irectly the following persons: Carlos Sifre o Barrios Ex ecutive Vicepresi ent of the Congress Email: i a cien@mine .rime .cu TEL/FAX: 5 67 553422 ngel Salabarra Lay Havana Conventions Palace Ave 146 e/11 y 13, Playa Ema il: angel@palco.cu Tel: 537 2026011 al 19, ext 1511 Fax: (537) 202 8382 Web:www. cpalco.com http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

ANNOUNCEMENTS X INTERNACIONAL WORKSHOP ON TEACHING OF PHYSICS Havana Conventions Palace, Havana, Cuba March 17 to 21, 2008 The Ministry of E uc ation of Cuban Republic an the Latin-American an Caribbean Pe agogical Institu te have the pleasure of inviting you to participate at the X International Works hop on Teaching of Physics which will be hel in the Havana Conventions Palace, H avana, Cuba, from March 17 to 21, 2008 Institutions an organizations that spons or the Congress 1. UNESCO-Santiago (OREALC) 2. UNESCO-Havana (ORCALC) 3. UNESCOPars 4. An rs Bello Convention 5. Ibero-American States for E ucation, Science an ulture Organization. 6. Cuban Union of Science Workers. 7. Ministry of Science, Technology an Environment of Cuba 8. Science Aca emy of Cuba 9. Ministry of Bas ic In ustry. 10. CUBASOLAR 11. Latin-Ameican an Caribbean Association of Teache rs. 12. Cuban Physical Society 13. Cuban Association of Teachers. General Theme of the Congress Teaching an learning of natural an exact sciences in all types an e ucational levels in the context of the E ucation for the Development Sust ainable Deca e promote by the ONU with special emphasis on the a vances an res ults in this aspect. Congress activities 1. Pre-Congress courses. 2. Lectures by guest speakers 3. Poster sessions. 4. Roun tables. 5. Contribute oral papers. 6. Symposiums. 7. Workshops. General Program 1. Pre-Congrees courses 2. March 17 3. Opening 4. March 18. 5. Scientifical activities 6. March 18-21 7. Closing 8. March 21 Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 78

 

 

  

 

 



 

  



  

XVI INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP NEWS TRENDS IN TEACHING PHYSICS May 22 to 25, 2008 Puebla, Pue., Mexico Each year at the en of May, the Univers ity of Puebla in Puebla, Mexico, organizes an International Workshop focuse to physics teachers. Invite talks an short courses on Physics E ucation are given . Further information: www.fcfm.buap.mx/taller Contact the following persons: Jo sip Slisko: jslisko@fcfm.buap.mx, A rin Corona: acorona@fcfm.buap.mx, University of Birmingham, UK email: I.Lawrence@bham.ac.uk Goraz Planinsic Secre tary University of Ljubljana Faculty of Mathematics an Physics Ja ranska 19, SI -1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia e-mail: goraz .planinsic@fiz.uni-lj.si Rosa Maria Sper an eo-Mineo Treasurer Universita i Palermo, Viale elle Scienze (E ificio 18), 90128 PALERMO, Italy e-mail: speran eo@ ifter.unipa.it International Scientific Committee Cesar Mora: cmoral@ipn.mx Constantinos P. Constantinou Conference Presi ent, Cyp rus GIREP 2008 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE an Theo ora Kyratsi Conference Manager, Cyprus Zacharias Zacharia, Cyprus Cesar E u ar o Mora, Mexico Dean Zollman, USA Goraz Planinsic, Slovenia Helmut Kuehnelt, Austria Ian Lawrence, UK Leopol Mathelitsch, Austria Manfre Euler, Germany Mar isa Michelini, Italy Michele D Anna, Switzerlan Prathiba Jolly, In ia Robert Sp orken, Belgium Rosa Maria Speran eo-Mineo, Italy Ton Ellermeijer, The Netherlan s Vivian Talisayon, Phillippines More information in: http://www.ucy.ac.cy/girep 2008/

MPTL 13th Workshop Multime ia in Physics Teaching an Learning University of Cyprus 18 - 22 August, 2008 The GIREP conference is one of the mai n international event in the fiel of Physics E ucation. Conferences are hel ev ery two years bringing together participants from all over the worl , rea y to s hare their experiences an research work in an interesting an rewar ing omain. This year, the Learning in Science Group, University of Cyprus hosts the GIREPMPTL joint meeting. The theme of the conference Physics Curriculum Design, Devel opment an Vali ation, highlights an aspect of great relevance to recent innovat ion efforts in Physics E ucation: research-base curriculum esign as a mechanis m for unifying ifferent approaches to enhance our knowle ge of learning process es an explore the role of context, esigne or circumstantial, in Physics learn ing an instruction. Girep Boar Ton Ellermeijer Presi ent University of Amster am, Netherlan s e-mail: ellermei@ science.uva.nl Michele D Anna Vice-presi ent Alta Scuola Pe agogica, Switzerlan e-mail: anna@lilo.lic.ti-e u.ch Ian Lawrence Vice-presi ent Lat. Am. J. Phys. E uc. Vol.2, No. 1, January 2008 79 http://www.journal.lapen.org.mx

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

LATIN AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS EDUCATION Volume 2, Number 1, January 2008 CONTENTS/CONTENIDO Papers/Artculos Physics Classroom Engagement: constructing un erstan ing in real time Dewey I., Dykstra, Jr. Problem solving an writing II: The point of view of hermeneutics J orge Barojas Teaching thermal physics by touching E. Marn Some Physics teaching w hispere fallacies C. H. Wrner Teaching physics: research-base suggestions an t eachers reactions, towar a better interaction? Laurence Viennot Qu po emos hacer ara lograr un apren izaje significativo e la fsica? Michel Picquart Visualizing the Doppler Effect Marcos H. Gimnez, Ana Vi aurre, Jaime Riera an Juan A. Monsor iu La balanza electrnica: la opcin ms rentable para realizar istintas prcticas aboratorio e fsica e flui os Jess Delegi o, Manuel Dolz, Mara Jess Hernn ez y n ro Casanovas Apren ien o cmo se construye la ciencia: el caso el pn ulo Joan Jo sep Solaz-Portols, Mag alena Moreno-Cabo,Vicent Sanjos Lpez Qu es la luz? Arnal zlez Arias De uction of the De Broglie s relation =h/p from the c assica e ectrod ynamics N. Hamdan, M. Fa he and H. Aktaa Sobre as dimensiones extras espacia es Csar Mora y O. Pedraza 1 5 6 14 15 17 18 20 21 28 29 36 37 39 40 46 47 50 51 53 54 58 59 64 Continued/Continuacin

 

  

 

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Continued/Continuacin LATIN AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS EDUCATION Vo . 2, No. 1, January 2800 contents/contenido On the Re ativistic Concept of the Dirac s e ectron Spin N. Hamdan, A. Chamaa an d J. Lpez Boni a Conference: 20 Years of the Young Physicists Tournament at Czech R epub ic Zdenek K uiber and Ivo Vo f 65 70 71 73 Book revie s/ Revisin de ibros Estudos de Histria e Fi osofia das Cincias: Subsdios para ap icaao no Ensino Rubn Snchez y Csar Mora 74 77 Announcements/Anuncios Prximos congresos 78 79