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CHAPTER 4
Source Models
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Chapter Outline
Introduction
Liquid Discharge
Vapor Discharge
Flashing Liquids
Liquid Pool Evaporation or Boiling
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Instructional Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, students should be able to
do the following:
Understand the requirements for consequence
modeling procedure
To describe the possible options of how materials
could be released from any process due to an accident
To apply suitable source model in order to estimate the
amount of released materials
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Introduction
Consequences Analysis Procedure
Sel ect i on of a Rel ease I nci dent
Sel ect i on of a Source Model
Sel ect i on of a Di spersi on Model
Fl ammabl e/ Toxi c
Sel ect i on of
Effect Model
Sel ect i on of Fi re
& Expl osi on Model
Mi t i gat i on Fact ors
Consequence Model
Loss of cont ai nment
Rupt ure or break i n pi pel i ne
Hol e i n a t ank or pi pel i ne
Runaway react i on
Fi re ext ernal t o vessel
To descri be rel ease acci dent
Tot al quant i t y rel eased
Rel ease durat i on
Rel ease rat e Neut ral l y buoyant model s
Resul t s from t he model s
Downwi nd concent rat i on
Area affect ed
Durat i on
Response vs dose
Probi t model
Toxi c response
No. of i ndi vi dual s affect ed
Propert y damage
Model s
TNT Equi val ency
Mul t i - Energy Expl osi on
Fi rebal l
Resul t s
Bl ast overpressure
Radi ant heat fl ux
Escape
Emergency Response
Cont ai nment di kes
PPE
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Introduction
Release Mechanisms
Release mechanisms are classified into wide and limited
aperture releases.
Wide aperture large hole develops and substantial
amount of material released in a short time. Eg.
overpressure and explosion of a storage tank.
Limited aperture material is released at a slow rate that
upstream conditions are not immediately affected
Several basic source models frequently used;
Flow of liquid through a hole
Flow of liquid through a hole in a tank
Flow of liquids through pipes
Flow of vapor through holes
Flow of gases through pipes
Flashing liquids
Liquid pool evaporating or boiling
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Various t ypes of limit ed apert ure releases
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Released of vapor or/ and liquid
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Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole
P = 1 at m
U
2
= U
Ext ernal Surroundings
Liquid Pressurized wit hin
Process Unit
P
g
T
o
U
1
= 0
z = 0
W
s
= 0
Liquid escaping t hrough a hole in a process unit .
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Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Equation for velocity of fluid exiting the leak through a
small hole:
Mass flow rate Q
m
resulting from a hole of area A:
The total mass of liquid spilled depends on the total
time that the leak is active.
g
o
2
c
g P
u C =

m o c g
2 Q uA AC g P = =
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Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole
The discharge coefficient C
o
is a funct ion
of t he Reynolds number of t he fluid
escaping t he leak and t he diamet er of t he
hole
As a guideline;
For sharp- edge ori fi ces and Re > 30,000, C
o
~
0.61. The exi t vel oci t y i s i ndependent of t he
hol e si ze.
For wel l rounded- nozzl e, C
o
= 1
For short pi pe at t ached t o vessel wi t h l engt h t o
di amet er rat i o < 3, C
o
= 0.81.
When C
o
i s unknown, use C
o
= 1 t o maxi mi se
t he comput ed fl ows.
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Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
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Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
Equation for instantaneous velocity of fluid exiting the
leak :
The instantaneous mass flow rate Q
m
resulting from a
hole of area A:
L
g c
o
gh
P g
C u +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

2
L
g c
o m
gh
P g
AC A u Q +
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

2
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Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
The liquid level height in the tank at any time t;
The mass discharge rate at any time t;
2
2
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = t
A
A C g
t gh
P g
A
A C
h h
t
o o
L
g c
t
o o
L L

t
A
A gC
gh
P g
AC A u Q
t
o o
L
g c
o m
2 2
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
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Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
The time t
e
for the vessel to empty to the level of the
leak is found;
If the vessel is at atmospheric pressure, P
g
= 0;
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=

g c o
L
g c
t
o
e
P g
gh
P g
A
A
g C
t
2
2
1
o
L
t
o
e
gh
A
A
g C
t 2
1
|
.
|

\
|
=
8
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Vapor Discharge
Flow of Vapor through a Hole
At Throat :
P
U < Sonic Velocit y
Ext ernal Surroundings
Gas Pressurized wit hin
Process Unit
P
o
T
o
U
0
= 0
z = 0
W
s
= 0
A free expansion gas leak. The gas expands isent ropi-
cally t hrough t he hole. The gas propert ies ( P,T) and
velocit y change during t he expansion
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Vapor Discharge
Flow of Vapor through a Hole
The mass flow rat e at any point during t he
isent ropic expansion;
The maximum flow;
( )
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+

1
0
/ 2
0 0
0 0
1
2
P
P
P
P
T R
M g
AP C Q
g
c
M
) 1 (
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

o
choked
P
P
Where
=C
p
/C
v
is the ratio of heat capacity
P
choked
is the maximum downstream
pressure
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Vapor Discharge
Flow of Vapor through a Hole
The choked pressure P
choked
i s t he maxi mum
downst ream pressure resul t i ng i n maxi mum fl ow
t hrough t he hol e or pi pe.
For downst ream pressure < P
choked
The velocit y of t he fluid at t he t hroat of t he leak is t he
velocit y of sound at t he prevailing condit ions
The velocit y and mass flow rat e cannot be increased
furt her by reducing t he downst ream pressure; t hey are
independent of t he downst ream condit ions.
Thi s t ype of fl ow i s cal l ed choked, cri t i cal , or
soni c fl ow.
For i deal gases t he choked pressure i s a funct i on
onl y of t he heat capaci t y rat i o, .
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Vapor Discharge
Flow of Vapor through a Hole
For an air leak t o at mosphere ( P
choked
= 14. 7
psia)
I f t he upst ream pressure is great er t han
14. 7/ 0. 528 = 27. 8 psia, or 13. 1 psig, t he flow
will be choked and maximised t hrough t he
leak
Condit ions leading t o choked flow are
common in t he process indust ries.
Gas Gamma Pchoked
Monotonic 1.67 0.487Po
Diatomic and air 1.40 0.528Po
Triatomic 1.32 0.542Po
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Vapor Discharge
Flow of Vapor through a Hole
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Vapor Discharge
Flow of Vapor through a Hole
P < P
choked
At Throat :
P = P
choked
U= Sonic Velocit y
Ext ernal Surroundings
Gas Pressurized wit hin
Process Unit
P
o
T
o
U
0
= 0
Choked flow of gas t hrough a hole. The gas velocit y is
sonic at t he t hroat . The mass flow rat e is independent of
t he downst ream pressure.
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Vapor Discharge
Flow of Vapor through a Hole
For choked flow, t he maximum flow is;
For shar p- edged or ifices, Re > 30, 000 ( and not
choked) , C
o
= 0. 61.
For choked flows, C
o
incr eases as t he downst r eam
pr essur e decr eases. For t hese flows and for sit uat ions
wher e C
o
is uncer t ain, a conser vat ive value of 1. 0 is
r ecommended.
Values for t he heat capacit y r at io for a var iet y of
gases ar e pr ovided in Table 4- 3.
( )
( )
( ) 1
1
0
0 0
1
2

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

T R
M g
AP C Q
g
c
choked M
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Flashing Liquid
Li qui ds st ored under pressure above t hei r normal
boi l i ng poi nt t emperat ure present subst ant i al
probl ems because of fl ashi ng.
I f l eak, t he l i quid wi l l part i al l y fl ash i nt o vapor,
somet i mes expl osi vely.
Fl ashi ng occurs so rapi dl y t hat t he process i s
assumed t o be adi abat i c.
The fract i on of t he l i qui d vapori zed i s;
v
b p
v
v
H
T T C
m
m
f
A

= =
) (
0
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Flashing Liquid
The fract i on of t he l i qui d vapori zed can al so be
det ermi ned usi ng mean heat capaci t y and
mean l at ent heat of vapori zat i on over t he
t emperat ure range T
o
t o T
b
;
The fract i on of t he vapori zed wat er can be
obt ai ned from St eam Tabl e;
(
(

A

= =
v
b p
v
v
H
T T C
m
m
f
) (
exp 1
0
( )
liquid vapor v liquid final
H H f H H + =
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Flashing Liquid
Two- phase fl ow condi t i ons may be present for
fl ashi ng l i quids escapi ng t hrough hol es and
pi pes.
I f t he fl ui d pat h l engt h of t he rel ease i s short
( t hrough a hol e i n a t hi n wal l cont ai ner) , non-
equi l ibri um condi t i ons exi st , and t he l i qui d does
not have t i me t o fl ash wi t hi n t he hol e; t he fl ui d
fl ashes ext ernal t o t he hol e. The fl ui d ( l i quid)
fl ow t hrough hol e appl i es;
m o c g
2 Q uA AC g P = =
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Flashing Liquid
I f t he fl ui d pat h l engt h t hrough t he rel ease i s
great er t han 10 cm ( t hrough a pi pe or t hi ck-
wal l ed cont ai ner) , equi l ibri um fl ashi ng condi t i ons
are achi eved and t he fl ow i s choked. A good
approxi mat i on i s t o assume a choked pressure
equal t o t he sat urat i on vapor pressure of t he
fl ashi ng l i quid. Thi s condi t i on val i d for l i quids
st ored at a pressure hi gher t han t he sat urat i on
vapor pressure ( P > P
sat
) . The fol l owi ng
equat i ons appl y;
( )
sat
c f o m
P P g AC Q = 2
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Flashing Liquid
For l i qui ds st ored at t hei r sat urat i on pressure P
= P
sat
, t he mass fl ow rat e i s det ermi ned by;
p
c
fg
v
m
TC
g
v
A H
Q
A
=
14
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Liquid Pool Evaporating or Boiling
Li qui ds wi t h hi gh P
sat
evaporat e fast er; t he
evaporat i on rat e ( Q
m
) i s a funct i on of P
sat
.
A general i zed expressi on for t he vapori zat i on
rat e;
For many si t uat i ons, P
sat
> > P such as for an
open vessel or from a spi l l of l i quid;
( )
L g
sat
m
T R
P P MKA
Q

=
L g
sat
m
T R
MKAP
Q =
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Liquid Pool Evaporating or Boiling
The concent rat i on ( i n ppm) of a vol at i l e i n an
encl osure resul t i ng from evaporat i on of a l i quid;
For most si t uat i ons T = T
L
;
The gas mass t ransfer coeffi ci ent i s est i mat ed
usi ng;
K
o
= 0.83 cm/ s for wat er
6
10 =
P kQ
KAP
C
v
sat
ppm
3 / 1
|
.
|

\
|
=
M
M
K K
o
o
6
10 =
L v
sat
ppm
PT kQ
KATP
C
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Liquid Pool Evaporating or Boiling
The rat e of boi l i ng i s det ermi ned by assumi ng
t hat al l t he heat from t he surroundi ngs i s used
t o boi l t he l i quid i n t he pool ;
The heat t ransfer from t he surroundi ngs can be
from t he fol l owi ngs ;
From t he ground by conduct ion
From t he air by conduct ion and convect ion
By radiat ion from t he sun/ adj acent sources such as fire
The heat t ransfer from t he ground i s gi ven by;
v
g
m
H
A q
Q
A
=
( )
( )
2 / 1
t
T T k
q
s
g s
g