Study Skills

guidance notes for students

Roy Johnson

Clifton Press

Clifton Press

Study Skills
Guidance notes for students
Roy Johnson was born in 1939 and educated at Stockport School, Cheshire. After starting his career as an industrial designer, he then graduated in literary studies as a mature student from Manchester University and completed postgraduate research on the relationship between literature and politics. He has been tutor in literary studies with the North West District of the Workers Educational Association for the last twenty-five years, and he has taught on a number of courses for the Open University. He is also currently an honorary tutor with the Extra-Mural Department of Manchester University. His recent publications include - Return to Study (1987), (with Bill Jones) Making the Grade (1990), Studying Fiction (1991), Writing Essays (1991), Revision and Examinations (1993), Marking Essays (1993), and the A to Z of Writing Essays: guidance notes for computer users (1994), Improve your Writing Skills (1995) and Electronic Writing (1996).

Clifton Press

Copyright Roy Johnson 1994 Published by Clifton Press P.O. Box 100 Manchester 20 ISBN 0 9519844 3 8 Reprinted with additions 1994 Second edition 1996

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of the author. The author asserts his moral rights in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Contents
Introduction 1. Time management 2. Reading skills 3. Concentration and memory 4. Taking notes 5. Generating ideas 6. Analysing questions 7. Clear thinking 8. Essay planning 9. Clear writing 10. Writing essays 11. Academic presentation 12. Revision and examinations 13. Using computers 14. Library and research skills 15. Tutorials and seminars 16. Projects and dissertations Further reading

Introduction
This book offers a series of guidance notes on the skills you will need for any form of serious study. They range from the efficient management of your time, through note-taking, reading and writing skills, to the more advanced techniques required for examinations and writing dissertations. At the centre of all this advice is the issue of essay-writing. This is approached in greater detail than anything else, because it is the single topic on which the majority of students most need help. There is also a section on the use of computers (to be more accurate, word-processors) as these now become more familiar tools in the world of education. The notes may be used as a programme of advice, or as a reminder and a source of reference to be consulted whilst you are engaged in study tasks. The illustrative examples are drawn largely from the arts and social sciences, and perhaps inevitably they reflect my own subject interest of literary studies. The notes aim to be comprehensive, but I have not tried to cover the skills of numeracy or any of the special presentation requirements in science subjects. There are many other books currently available which describe study skills in far more comprehensive detail: (some of these are listed in the section on Further Reading). In my experience however, most students simply do not have enough time to add yet another lengthy item of reading to their list of tasks. They also want advice to be available quickly and succinctly. Study Skills therefore sets out to make the most important elements available in an easily accessible form. The materials are set out as short notes in the belief that this makes the information easier to use. It also reflects the influence of Information Technology, the Internet, and other writing which is recorded in electronic form. This type of writing assumes that people working in a digital medium want information quickly, accurately, and presented in as concise a form as possible. Like many other books produced in an age of electronic communication, this one embraces two technologies and their associated cultures. It draws on the tradition of the printed word which harks back to Gutenberg; it has been produced using a computer and laser printer, and it embraces some of the culture of Hypertext which seems to be speaking to us from the future. This is expressed in an extensive system of cross-referencing and a comprehensive index which I hope will make for convenience of usage. There is a deliberate degree of overlap in the suggestions, since the same piece of advice may be appropriate in more than one place. For instance, the importance of good planning is stressed in almost all the sections concerned

with essay writing. Similarly, it is very difficult to discuss writing skills without taking into account both grammar and clear thinking. There is even a limited amount of repeated advice within some individual sections, partly for emphasis and partly for the sake of those using the notes as a source of quick reference. The suggestions made and the topics covered draw upon the collaborative work of teaching adult students which I started in the nineteen-seventies together with my colleague Bill Jones at Manchester University. It has been interesting to note how some of the conventions of grammar, punctuation, and academic presentation have been slowly changing during the time that has passed since then. I have also adapted some of my own earlier work which centres on essay writing skills and is published as Writing Essays. For the second edition I have added new material in a number of sections, extended the range of further reading, and [I hope] clarified the expression of some of my arguments. Additional acknowledgements are also due to Judith Butcher, whose CopyEditing provides such clear guidance on matters of bibliographical nicety, and to Judith Bell whose now standard text, Doing Your Research Project, throws light on research methods outside my own professional experience. I hope you find these materials useful to you in your work. If you have any suggestions for further additions or improvements, I would be pleased to hear from you, courtesy of the publishers. Roy Johnson Manchester 1996

Time management
1. Study time. If you are taking up study seriously, you need to gain the maximum benefit from your study time. In general this will mean three things: o creating more free time in which to study o making more efficient use of your existing time o integrating study with other parts of your life wherever this is possible 2. Timetable. The simplest way to tackle this issue is to draw up a timetable or a schedule of study. Take a typical week, look at each day in some detail, and make a note of those slots of time which are free - or can be made free. Try to create regular periods of an hour or more. It is better to study for an hour on each day of the week than to study for seven hours on one day at the weekend. Sleep. Check your sleep requirements. Many people find that they can cut back to six or seven hours sleep a night without suffering any feelings of tiredness during the day. If by doing this you save just one hour per day, this adds up to an extra seven hours a week. Regularity. Develop regular study habits. You will learn more and remember what you learn if you work in regular periods of study rather than occasional spurts of enthusiasm punctuated by lay-offs. Studying is rather like physical exercise: you need regular training to maintain a state of mental fitness. Realism. Create a realistic and modest schedule of work and then stick to it, thus achieving your aims. This will be much better than having one that is overambitious, which might lead to your failing. If you overstretch yourself too much, this will simply make you feel demoralised. Lifestyle. Be prepared for some disruption to your lifestyle at first. Then, as you become more accustomed to study you should discover that you are able to study for longer and longer periods. This will be partly due to practice and the development of your skills. It may also be (if you have chosen your subject well) out of the sheer enjoyment that learning can bring. Time. The exact amount of time you will need depends on the type of course you are pursuing. On average, you might allow ten to fifteen hours per week for one module of a part-time degree (say, a typical Open University course). Twenty-five or thirty hours might be realistic if you were studying on a full time degree course (this is in addition to your attendance at lectures and seminars). Innovate. Many people make good use of existing time by combining some form of study with daily life. For instance, it is possible to listen to pre-recorded audiocassette tapes whilst driving to and from work. For those using buses and trains, the travel time can be used for reading. Even a household task such as ironing can be done whilst listening to tapes or the radio. Listening. Take a lead from the Walkman-users. For those people who need to practice their foreign language vocabulary, simply walking down the street can be used as study time if you listen to tapes. You could also use this strategy to listen to radio programmes or tapes appropriate to your subject.

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Reading. Always take a book. Whatever you do in daily life, there are usually short periods of dead time which could otherwise be spent reading. Waiting for a bus, a gap between classes, a lunch break: any of these opportunities can be used to keep up with your reading. Dont waste time: even short periods can be put to use. Take the book with you. Read more. At first you might feel slightly odd, reading in public, but you will notice how other people involved in study and teaching very often carry around a book or a magazine. They read over coffee, standing in a queue, or whilst they are waiting for someone. Get used to the idea that this is perfectly normal and an efficient use of your time. Explain. If you live with other people, either in a family or among friends, you should try to explain your need to be undisturbed from time to time. Try to enlist their support for what you are doing. You might discuss with them the possible rearrangement of domestic tasks. Ask them to respect your need for privacy, and explain that you are not being anti-social when you need to spend time alone, studying. Change. To create more good quality study time in crowded domestic circumstances, you may need to get up early in the morning or stay up late at night. If you can do this you are less likely to be disturbed by the presence of others. Some people are at their best in the early morning; others work better at night. Decide which is best for you - and dont let other people make you feel guilty about your choice. Confidence. You might need to get used to the idea that you will be studying whilst other people are relaxing or socialising. At first this could make you feel something of an outsider. But remember that many other people are students too, that studying is a perfectly normal activity, and that it can bring its own rewards and satisfactions. Conditions. Good study conditions are part of good time management. Your studying will be more efficient if you try to arrange the following for yourself: o o o o an isolated place of study no distractions or interruptions comfortable conditions all your study materials to hand

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Families. For people living among large busy families or in cramped housing (or both) these might seem like utopian conditions. However, many students manage to arrange time and space for themselves by being inventive and determined. Be prepared to make the effort. Organisation. If possible, keep all your study materials together in the area you will be using. Even if you do not have the luxury of your own desk and study, you can keep all your notes, text books, and papers stored in a box which is brought out for each study session. Persistence. Be prepared for a certain amount of discomfort or hardship. You may have to work at a kitchen table or in a spare room which is not comfortably furnished. You may have to take your books to the local library and work there

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whilst your family or friends are relaxing in comfort. Keep in mind that you have opted to pursue your studies which (hopefully) will bring their own rewards. 19. Concentration. Try to minimise the distractions you may have to face whilst studying. Dont try to do any work when you are surrounded by other people. Ask the people you might live with to grant you a right to free time. Keep well away from the telephone. Whatever you do, never try to work in a room where a television set is switched on. Concentration is impossible in such circumstances. Practice. Beginners should start with short periods of study which are then gradually lengthened. Those new to studying might find it difficult to concentrate for long stretches at first. However, as you become more experienced and more interested in your subject, your ability to concentrate will improve. (See Concentration and memory) Relaxation. Even experienced students study more effectively if their work is punctuated by occasional short breaks. You should allow yourself a mental breather from time to time. However, it is important that you have the self-discipline to keep the breaks short. Go straight back to your task when the break is over. Avoid stress. Do not try reading and studying when you are very tired. In these circumstances, you will not retain much of what passes before your eyes. [For most people this is likely to be late at night.] You are using up time which could be spent more profitably. It would be much better to go to bed and start afresh the next day. Organisation. Good time management also includes good study techniques and housekeeping practices. You will waste less time if your notes are well organised. Work with all your text books on the table. Keep a record of the course outline so that you can see the context of your studies. Have a good dictionary and works of reference close to hand. Planning. Organise your study periods consciously so that you are aware of your objectives. Then be active in your methods - taking notes, questioning the text, storing information which may be useful later. In this way your time is well spent. Your use of existing time will be far more efficient if your study is purposeful. That is, make a deliberate effort to be conscious of what you are doing, which topics you plan to cover, and where you are up to in your study plan. Avoid waste. Even though copying out long passages from a book might help you to digest its arguments, it is doubtful that this will be time efficiently spent. Make photocopies instead. You can decide later if it is important or not. Notes composed in your own words will be of more use to you, because in making them you will be selecting and digesting the original information. (See Taking notes) Create time. For the vast majority of people, more free time will be available simply by watching less television. This is not to suggest that you become a puritanical killjoy, but the average person in Britain watches television for twenty-five hours per week. Just cutting this in half would release enough time to undertake a part-time degree. Lighting. Dont read or write in gloomy conditions. This will cause eye-strain, headaches, or drowsiness. Have a good strong light source (preferably natural light) directed onto the page. Read near a window. At night, use a lamp which casts a strong light onto your workdesk or table.

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Materials. Use standard materials - such as A4 notepaper, folders, ring-binders, and document holders. Most educational materials are now produced in this international standard format. Dont use small spiral-bound notepads or letter-sized notepaper. Notes recorded on such paper are easily lost. Filing. The neat and efficient organisation of your study materials will actually save time. Keep a simple filing system. Use a separate folder for each subject - or keep your notes in well-distinguished sections. Number your pages. Use colour coding. Loose-leaf folders are possibly the most efficient because you can add materials easily. Layout. Get used to using lots of paper. It is not a good idea to cram as much information as possible onto one sheet of paper. This is false economy. The retrieval of this information will be less efficient because it is too tightly packed together. Let your work breathe. Use plenty of white space.

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Reading skills
1. Types of reading. Just as there are different types of writing, there are different types of reading. This is the most important lesson in developing your reading skills. You will increase your reading efficiency by using the type of reading which is most appropriate to the task before you. It is no use skimming quickly across something which needs to be thoroughly absorbed. On the other hand, you will be wasting time if you dwell ponderously over a book when you are only searching for one piece of detailed information. You should make your reading appropriate to the materials you are working with. Reading materials. There are also different types of reading matter. During the course of your studies you will come across information and argument presented in many different forms. You will help yourself by being aware of the differences. It is no good starting your studies with an advanced textbook, and pointless looking for detailed technical information in a beginners guide. Concentration. If you are new to study, start out with short periods of reading punctuated by quick breaks. This will prevent you becoming tired, and you will remember more of what you read. As time goes on you will find that your concentration span and your understanding of the material increases. (See Concentration and memory) Take notes. For serious study always read actively. Keep a pencil and paper at hand. Make notes or even a summary of what you read. Always make a record of anything which strikes you as interesting. Enter into a silent questioning debate with your material. Take nothing for granted. Question everything -including your own responses. (See Taking notes) Efficiency. Unless you are studying a passage closely, try to avoid backskipping. This is the habit of reading along a line of print and allowing your eye to keep jumping back to words which appeared earlier. If necessary, use a pencil or ruler as a guide when you read. Drag the guide slowly down the page and force yourself to keep up with it. Lighting. One important item under conditions of study is that you should always read with a strong light directed onto the page. If you read in a poor light it is very easy to become drowsy and to develop eyestrain and headaches. Read in natural daylight if possible, but when reading indoors or at night always have a good strong lamp directed onto your materials. Summarising. In subjects such as literary studies, history, or modern British politics you might well have to read quite long texts - books such as Charles Dickenss novel Bleak House, E.P. Thompsons The Making of the English Working Class, or Nigel Lawsons memoirs The View from Number Eleven). It is very unlikely that you will have chance to read such texts a second or third time during the academic year. To maximise the effectiveness of your reading (and recall of it) there are a number of simple stratagems you can adopt:

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o o o o 8.

Summarise the content of chapters Make a list of the principal issues or characters Annotate the text with your own comments Make notes for your possible essays as you go along

Bibliographies. Sometimes your tutor may issue a Course Reading List. This will be a list of texts related to your field of study - standard text books, critical commentaries, and articles in journals. In some cases your reading will be limited to specific items (in preparation for a seminar, for example). More often than not however, the listings will be presented as suggestions which may be followed up. Dont imagine that you are obliged to read them all. They are being offered as a resource, an aid to study, and an attempt to arouse your intellectual curiosity. (See Library and research skills) Selection. Be selective in your use of background materials - particularly when writing essays. Go to a library and preview the books you might use, rejecting any which are not going to be appropriate to your task. Skim read your selections in the first instance, then choose just those which are directly related to the subject of your current studies. Thoroughness. A few books thoroughly studied and digested will probably be more profitable than several treated in a superficial manner. If you have the ability to read and grasp the arguments of one book in a thorough manner, you can bring these skills to bear on any others you read. Memorising. If your reading tasks involve absorbing large amounts of information which you must commit to memory, you need to be specially rigorous. Make outline notes, and draw up a chronology of events or lists of topics which you can periodically review. This will provide you with an intellectual framework into which you can fit the information for further study. A wall chart can be useful for this purpose. Alternatively, make a permanent record inside the front cover of a note book. (See Concentration and memory) Multiple readings. Some people make multiple readings of work which is important for their course of study. They might first skim read the work to gain a rough idea of its general argument. Then they might read it thoroughly in detail, reading it again a third time whilst taking notes. You can use these strategies in whichever order best suits your purpose. The important thing is that you recognise that different reading strategies are available for your use. Reading strategies. What follows is an account of the study techniques used by a student on a distance learning course. This type of course relies even more heavily on thorough reading than conventional study, and the students reading plan reflects this very well. The strategy also illustrates a careful approach to essay planning. (See Essay planning) 1. Read the story in the set text 2. Read the tuition sections in the course units 3. Reread the story 4. Make notes on the topics raised in the course units 5. Reread the story again, keeping these topics in mind 6. Reread the tuition sections

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7. Complete self-assessment exercises 8. Make notes for an essay plan 9. Essay drafts 10. Produce final essay

Types of reading
1. Rapid surveying (to preview or select a book). Here you are checking the type of book or the level of its contents to decide if you should read it or not. Is it suitable for your needs? Is it at the appropriate level? Is it up to date (the latest edition)? Are all its contents relevant - or only some of them? Is it written by a specialist? You should be able to answer these questions very quickly. A very rapid glance through the contents is all that is necessary. (See Previewing a book.) Sampling or exploratory (to preview - but in more detail). In this case you may have decided that the book is appropriate, or is pitched at the right level, but you need to check the contents in more detail. You might look closely at the contents or the chapter summaries, glance over the introduction, or skim read a page or two in three or four chapters. Keep asking yourself Is this book suitable for my purposes? Rapid reading (for entertainment - to find out what happens next). When people read popular fiction (holiday reading) they rarely dwell on the text but just read to discover what happens in the story. This is reading for sheer pleasure. The same may be said of reading newspapers in a casual manner. You are unlikely to be paying attention to every single word. Selective reading (focusing on parts of a text). This is a very useful skill to develop. You have a whole text in your hands, but only one part of it is important or relevant to your needs. You read the section you require, take its essence, and [heres the important part] leave the rest alone. Dont be distracted into browsing over more of the book than you need. Skim reading (keeping in touch, but superficially). Sometimes you may only need a superficial understanding of a topic - just enough to plug a gap in your knowledge or to gain an overview of a subject. You may wish to acquire a general understanding of a topic before studying one specific aspect of it. In this case you need to glance through the material quickly and try to pick up the main points. Keep your eye on the general picture. This is a very useful skill which comes with regular practice. `Scanning or search-reading (looking for particular facts). A perfect example of this occurs when looking up somebodys number in the telephone book. There might be eight hundred pages of closely printed text, but all you are interested in is finding one number. You go to the initial letter of the surname, locate the name, look up the correct initial(s), check with the address if necessary, then take down the number. Having done that, you shut the book. The task is finished. There is no need to read anything else. Detailed study reading (for understanding of the content). This is the sort of reading which will form the major part of most peoples studies whether your subject is literature, history, psychology, or politics. You need

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to read in a fairly concentrated manner in order to understand an argument or the exposition of a particular subject. The reading may be part of your coursework, research for an essay, or preparation for an examination. You may also need to read a particular text more than once to grasp the point(s) it is making. 8. Close reading (for aesthetic appreciation). This is a type of reading used in some disciplines such as literary studies, philosophy, and religious studies. Every word (and even punctuation) may be studied in scrupulously close detail and examined for any possible meaning it may yield. The text is being interrogated for all its potential connotations. At this level the study becomes closely allied to linguistics.

Types of books
1. Textbooks (introductory and specialised). These are the types of books which will probably be set texts for your course of study. They are selected by the course director as being suitable for your level of studies. They will set out the main topics of your subject and their relation to each other. You are likely to spend a lot of time engaged with such books, and you may find that your copy of the text becomes heavily annotated with your notes. In some subjects one set text may cover an entire year of study. Think of these books as a rich learning resource. Reference books. These are books such as dictionaries, encyclopaedias, bibliographies - all books in which you might occasionally be seeking specific information. You should learn to find your way around such books by making yourself familiar with their lists of contents, indexes, alphabetical listings, and suggestions for further reading. Try to develop the skills of gathering information from them as quickly and efficiently as possible. Make yourself acquainted with the standard forms of bibliographic abbreviations. (See Abbreviations) Standard texts. These are works which have come to be regarded as having primary importance in their particular field of enquiry. They may be the result of original research in their field (such as Marxs Capital or Darwins The Origin of Species); they could be works of a philosophic nature (Platos Symposium or Machiavellis The Prince), or they might be literary classics (Miltons Paradise Lost or Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness). Critical (secondary) works. These are works which offer a critical commentary on primary sources. That is, they are usually written in response to some existing corpus of work or opinion. A literary critics views about a particular poet or novelist would be such a work. The same would be true of a political philosophers views on Liberalism or Marxism. If the writing becomes regarded as particularly important, it might assume the status of a primary text in its own right. Journals, magazines, periodicals. There are many specialist academic journals in good libraries which you might wish to consult in more advanced forms of study. These contain scholarly articles which will be of interest to specialists in their field. However, even popular magazines and periodicals may be a source of information in your studies, especially if they include an element of current affairs.

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Readers. These are a hybrid type of publication in which an editor gathers together extracts or articles relating to a single theme or subject. The original articles will have been written by specialists or experts, and individual pieces may be important passages from longer works. The purpose of the book is to provide students with a convenient collection of views in one volume. Your course of study may require that you read all or just some of the articles. Newspapers, radio, television. If you are new to study, it may seem odd to think of these examples of mass media as study material, but they can be very useful. Newspapers would be an important source for anyone studying current affairs, parliamentary politics, or economics. Many interesting lectures and documentaries are broadcast on the radio, and the same is true for television. The Open University uses both radio and television for the transmission of its undergraduate study programmes. All of these materials can contain very valuable background information. Literary texts. Students of literature will spend a great deal of their time dealing with works such as novels, stories, poems, drama texts, or even biographies and letters. Even though some of this material might have originally been written for entertainment (and profit) it could since have achieved classic status and now be taken very seriously. Archive material. Students of history or public affairs might at some stage be sent in search of primary source materials. This information may be in the form of documents or statistics held by local libraries or the Public Record Office. The same might be true of someone looking at copies of early nineteenth century newspapers or analysing the information on birth and death certificates. (See Library and research skills) Official reports. If you were studying a topic such as the urban development of a particular locality or town, you might need to consult documents such as the official reports of planning committees or development bodies. These texts might contain important information related to public decision-making or the geographical history of the area concerned. Variety. You can see from these examples that the materials you read could be in the form of a textbook - but they might extend into all sorts of other printed and even broadcast materials. It is for this reason that you need a variety of reading skills and the ability to put them into practice where appropriate. Keep in mind the important rule that your reading strategy should be appropriate to the materials of study.

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Previewing a book
1. Author. The author may be well known or not, but this is the key item of information for identifying a book or recalling it at a future date from a library. It is also important that you cite the author of a work if you are going to quote from it. Always make a note of the authors full name. Title and subtitle. The title should normally give you a clear indication of the books content. If it doesnt, the subtitle might be equally important in offering an explanation of the title or an indication of the books level. Make a note of both. Subtitles are particularly important if the main title is a quotation. Date of publication. This will tell you when the book was first published, which may be very important, particularly if you need information which is up to date. It will also normally tell you if there have been any editions or revisions of the book following the first edition. The number of editions and reprints is usually an indication of how successful the book has been. A good scholarly text may sometimes go through several editions. Dust cover or blurb. On any book which is to be taken seriously, this is more than just advertising copy. Publishers will be keen to let readers know exactly what the book contains and for whom it is written. The blurb should tell you if the material is at an introductory or an advanced level. It will usually offer a rapid overview of the contents and say what approach it takes to its subject. [It is a mistake to imagine that the blurb will be boastful or misleading. Most books you will use for serious study are likely to carry an accurate description of their contents. Both the author and publisher have an interest in being honest in such matters.] Contents page or chapter headings. This should be a concrete and specific account of the topics covered by the book. A good contents page might also have further details of the sub-sections within each chapter. A glance at this page will give you valuable information on the books possible relevance to your study requirements. Bibliography and index. These are usually included in any book intended for serious use. The bibliography will offer you a list of the texts cited or consulted by the author, and it might include suggestions for further reading. Any book written for educational purposes should normally have a good index which will allow you easy access into the materials. Some scholarly texts might even have two or three indexes, covering subject topics, authors, and books which have been mentioned. Illustrations, tables, graphs, or pictures. If your subject calls for the presentation of visual material, statistics, or the analysis of data, then any book is likely to be more useful if it has this information clearly presented. Its inclusion is often a mark of the publishers seriousness, because this sort of material is costly to produce. Preface or introduction. If you have previewed the book from its general appearance and still not made up your mind, a glance at the preface or the introduction should tell you what you want to know. At this point authors are declaring what their work is about. The manner in which they write will

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give you some impression of the level at which they are presenting their ideas. They will also give some idea of the range or scope of the book in question.

Improve your reading skills

1. Be aware of the type of book you are reading. You will improve the quality and the efficiency of your reading if you keep in mind the type of book you are studying. This may not be immediately apparent, and you may need to do some initial reading to establish the type of text you have. Do this as quickly as possible, and then adjust your type of reading to suit. Adapt your type of reading to the book. Your style of reading should be appropriate to the type of text. There is no point starting to read in depth if you have not yet established if the book is suitable. Similarly, you should not dwell on a text if you are supposed to be searching for a piece of information. Whenever necessary, be prepared to keep switching your approach to suit the reading task in hand. Read with purpose and understanding. Make up your mind on the purpose of your reading task before you begin. Keep reminding yourself of the principal objective whilst you are reading. The study task should be alive in your mind. Be prepared to concentrate and take notes for serious study. (See Taking notes) Be selective in choice of texts. Try to choose the type of book which will be of most use to your task. If you are just starting on a new subject, read an introductory or a general survey type of book. A quick review of the main issues of the subject will help to establish a context in which to place the next topics of study. If you are a beginner, it is no use going straight to one of the more advanced classics just because it is well known. Beware of browsing. Libraries and good bookshops have a fascination and charm for anyone studying. After all, they are packed full of the very things in which you are taking an interest - books and ideas. However, it is easy to spend hours glancing through one volume after another without achieving anything except a vague sense of pleasure. There is nothing wrong with this if you have the time. Everyone enjoys the experience of stumbling across an unknown gem. If you have to ration your study time however, be careful not to spend too much of it in this way. Switch from one reading mode to another. You should always be prepared when necessary to make rapid switches from one mode of reading to another. This is likely to be when you are selecting material or in the preliminary stages of research for essay writing. This reading skill is probably the second most useful after that of being able to read closely and carefully. It shows that you are aware of the nature of what you are reading and conscious of your current study purpose. Speed reading. These courses may help some people who have to skim read lots of documents and absorb information at a superficial level in a

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short time. In general however, they are rarely suitable for the skills of understanding and retaining information over long stretches. There is not much evidence that they will help people engaged in serious academic study. Keep in mind the Woody Allen joke: "I went on a speed reading course and it worked! Yesterday I read War and Peace in ten minutes ... Its about some Russians."

Concentration and memory

Reassurance. If you are new to studying you might be worried that your powers of concentration and memory are not strong enough for the study tasks which lie ahead. Many people feel like this - especially if they are returning to education after a long break. If this is the case, here are two immediate items of reassurance. o You are likely to develop your powers of concentration with study practice. o You will not have to rely on your memory as much as you probably imagine. 2. Concentration. Most people will develop their powers of concentration with no difficulty. It happens fairly naturally as they gradually become more familiar with their subject. This is the same as any other activity. If you are not used to doing something, the task may seem difficult at first; but as you develop your skills with practice, it will become easier. Memory. There will not be as much need for memorising information as you probably imagine. Except for a very few disciplines which require the memorisation of facts, most subjects will put their emphasis on your being able to think clearly and make intelligent discriminations. In addition to this, your memory will become more efficient with practice. Experience. Your ability to concentrate will normally be proportional to your study experience. If you are just starting, split your study into short manageable periods. Each period should be punctuated by a short pause to give you time for rest and recovery. Have the self-discipline to start work again as soon as the pause is over. Dont invent excuses for yourself. Practice. As time goes on, you will find that these study periods will expand of their own accord. You will be developing your ability to engage with your chosen subject. Normally, your sense of interest and pleasure in studying will help this process. Once you strike up a rapport with your chosen subject, studying will seem easier and you are likely to forget about problems of concentration. Time will pass quickly and easily. Planning. In the early stages of study, if you encounter new material which is difficult to understand, go back to shorter study periods. You will grasp difficult or complex issues if you break up the material into discrete, manageable sections. It might be better to spend three or four periods of half an hour spread throughout a day, rather than a single two hour stint which grinds to a halt after three quarters of an hour.

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Avoid stress. Dont force yourself if you are tired or stressed. You are not likely to absorb your study materials properly in such conditions. This time would probably be better spent recovering and creating a healthy state of mind in which to start work afresh. In order to be efficient, you need to be in good physical and psychological condition, which is one good reason for looking after your health. Switch tasks. If your concentration keeps wandering and you feel that your study is becoming unproductive - be prepared to stop. Make a note of what you still need to cover, then switch to some other activity - possibly something more passive such as listening to audio tapes. If all else fails, start afresh the following day - but keep in mind the topics you may still need to cover. Have an overview of your tasks in mind. Dont make excuses. There will be times when study involves a lot of hard intellectual work - so be prepared! Sometimes you will have to drive yourself. When things become difficult, dont introduce pauses into your work as an excuse for giving up. These arduous periods should become fewer as you become more closely acquainted with your subject. Conditions. You will concentrate more productively on your learning tasks if you create the best possible conditions for study. You should study in isolation if possible; you should be free from distractions and interruptions; you should be in comfortable surroundings; and you should have all your study materials to hand. (See Time management) Memory. Not many subjects call for committing large amounts of information to memory. Education today places more importance on the ability to think clearly, to create persuasive arguments, and to discover where information can be found when necessary. It is unlikely that you will have to memorise lots of facts and details. However, in a subject such as mathematics it might still be necessary to remember basic formulae. [I also have to admit that rote learning is still quite common (and necessary) in biological sciences.] Mind maps. Your ability to retain and recall information will grow as you develop the intellectual framework into which new details from your studies are fitted. In a study of history for example you are likely to develop a sense of the chronology of events. Once you have developed a mind map or a mental checklist of the nineteenth century (for instance) you will slot into its appropriate place some new piece of information related to 1836 or 1897. Wall charts can be helpful here. Materials. Make sure that your study materials are pitched at the appropriate level. If you are just starting, read one or two books aimed at an introductory level to get a general idea of your subject. This will provide you with an understanding of the main issues. Dont make the mistake of trying to plunge straight into textbooks which are written for advanced studies. Revision. Good note-taking and revision skills will help you to grasp the essential of your subject. Some students regularly review their notes to make sure that they have a firm grasp of all the material studied on the course to date. In revising for examinations, some students carry round a condensed version of their notes and course topics written on index cards.

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Mnemonics. Some students find it useful to use mnemonics as an aid to recalling commonly used information. A mnemonic [which is pronounced without the initial m] is a device in which one thing is remembered by means of another. For instance, the notes in the treble clef of a music stave are (on the lines) E,G,B,D,F and (in the spaces) F,A,C,E. These are commonly remembered as Every Good Boy Deserves Favour and the single word FACE.

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Keep it simple. These mnemonics need to be short, sharp, and effective. If they are too long or complex they might take as much effort to remember as the subject(s) they are supposed to summon up! Dont make things more complicated than they need to be. Layout. Many people have a very visual memory. That is, they can remember the picture or shape of words on a page or items which have been represented as symbols or images. This is a case where the clear layout of notes may help you to remember their contents. It is quite common for people to remember quite complex issues if they can be presented in a visually simple manner. (See Taking notes)

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Taking notes
1. Active learning. Taking notes promotes an active engagement in the learning process, and it will also help you to concentrate whilst studying. Try to get into the habit of taking notes in all study activity - whilst reading, whilst attending lectures and seminars, reading articles, or even when studying via radio and television (as do many Open University students). Understanding. Your notes act as a sort of translation of the lecture or book into your own words, and this will assist your understanding of it. Instead of receiving the information passively (in which case you are more likely to forget it) you are digesting it, processing it, and putting it into the context of your existing knowledge. Assessment. Making a prcis of lecture or a book assists your understanding of it because you are taking the trouble to assess the information. You are also, via selection, establishing its most important features or concepts. This is one reason why you do not need to record all its details. Thinking. The activity of taking notes will also stimulate your thinking about and engagement with your subject. It is commonly observed that writing down one idea often, via association, produces ideas about another. Write it down. Memory. Taking the trouble to synthesise information by taking notes will produce a stronger memory trace of its details than just reading or listening. For those with their eye on examinations, you are far more likely to remember information in six or nine months time if you have made a good set of notes whilst attending a lecture or reading a book. Record. A good set of notes also acts as an excellent record for use when writing essays or revising for examinations. The record of the lecture or the book is permanent, and a reading of the notes will often bring back in a surprising state of fullness the original experience. Notes. Some of the most diligent students even re-write their notes following a lecture or the reading of a book. This allows them to produce a neater set of study materials for future use, and it also reinforces their understanding of the subject in question. Storage. Even though your notes represent an intermediate stage in the learning process, get into the habit of treating them with respect. Keep them stored in a folder or binder. They may be useful to you at a later stage when writing essays or revising for examinations.

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How to take notes

1. Record. When taking notes from a lecture or a book you are reading, keep in mind that you are attempting to make a compressed and accurate record of information. You may also be noting other peoples arguments, and possibly your own observations on the subject in question.

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Assessment. Think about the material. Your objective is to distinguish the more important from the less important points being made. You should not attempt to make a reproduction of the original. If you need detail of this kind, a photocopy or an exact transcript would be called for. Engagement. Taking notes is a very active form of studying. You should be listening or reading closely, thinking about the content, and deciding which parts of it to record for your own use. By engaging actively with your material in this way, you will be strengthening the memory traces which your notes will activate at a later date. Conversion. You should also be converting the argument of the book or the lecture into your own words. Do not be tempted to copy down undigested chunks of the original in the belief that it will be of more use to you. It wont. (Of course the occasional telling or quotable phrase may be an exception to this general rule.) Recall. You will need to be able to recall and re-use the information you record at subsequent stages of your studies. You may need the notes for reference, revision, for an essay assignment, or exam preparation. Your notes on one topic may also have relevance to another topic in a different part of the course. This is a good reason for recording them neatly. Clarity. Although the notes are only for your own use, they will be more effective if they are recorded clearly. Dont make the mistake of thinking that you can just scribble assorted thoughts on any old piece of paper. The more well-ordered and carefully stored, the more useful they will be to you when you need them in the future. Materials. Always use loose-leaf A4 paper. This is now the internationally accepted standard for almost all printed educational matter, and you will find it easier to keep track of your notes if they fit easily alongside other materials. Avoid using small notepads. These may be used for recording onthe-spot observations (journalists often still use them) but they are not really suitable for academic work. Layout. Write as clearly as possible, and leave a space between each entry. Many people make the mistake of thinking that they should cram as much as possible onto one page. This is not a good idea. You will recapture information far more easily from the page if it is laid out in a spacious manner. Tabulation. Use a system of tabulation (as I am doing here). That is, number your points. Even if the progression of numbers doesnt mean a great deal, it will help you to keep one point distinct from another. Whatever you do, dont string the points together continuously, one after another on the page. You will find it very difficult to disentangle these items after a lapse of time. Brevity. Dont attempt to write continuous prose. Many people think they will be doing themselves a favour if they record every word of a lecture or transcribe every word of a significant paragraph in a book. This is not the case. You can write in grammatically incomplete sentences. Miss out any words which are not important. These are notes, not finished prose writing.

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Headings. Use a logical and a memorable layout. That is, if a lecturer states that he will be discussing the eight principal causes of the First World War you know that you will have eight main headings. Each of these can be numbered or highlighted using your own system of notation. Arrangement. Use a new set of pages for each new topic. Do not create a false economy by having notes on Palmerstons Foreign Policy sharing the same page as Approaches to the Boer War. Keep things separate, and have them clearly titled and labelled to facilitate easy recall. Layout. Write on one side of the page only. This may seem scandalously wasteful at first, but it will be useful in the long term. You can always make additions to your notes on the blank sides of the page - or add bibliographic details which may be needed later. (It is also a much-observed fact that those who write on both sides of the page are the very people whose work is often out of order.) Separate. Use lettering, numbering, and indentation for sections and subsections of the notes. This helps to keep the items visually separate and thus easier to recall and use again. The act of laying out information in this way will cause you to assess the importance of each detail compared with the rest. Many people have good visual memory, and clear layout may help you to remember the details. Abbreviations. Use a system of abbreviations. In an essay on the House of Commons or the Prime Minister there is no need to keep writing these terms out in full. HC and PM would obviously explain the subject more briefly. You can also use common mathematical symbols such as +, =, and >, as well as typographical symbols such as , &, #. Distinctions. Try to make a clear distinction between the central argument of the lecture or the writers work and the illustrative examples which are being discussed in it. If these two elements are not clearly distinguished, it may be difficult to follow the general argument in six months or a years time. This is a clear case for using sub-sections, indentation, and clear labelling. Sources. Always make a note of your sources. When taking notes from a book, always make an accurate bibliographic record of it. (Author, title, publisher, publication date, and edition of book.) You should make a note of any pages from which you may be quoting or which you may wish to use in citing evidence later. This will help develop scholarly rigour, and it could save you lots of time if you need to re-check the information. (See Library and research skills) Library record. If you are using a book from the library, keep a full bibliographic record of it. Write out the library catalogue number in full. This could save you a lot of time going through the catalogue index for a second time at a later stage. If the catalogue number (in the Dewey system) is 832.8 M/324, dont just write 832.8, otherwise you will have to look through all the books in that section, which might be quite large when you get to it. With the complete number you can go straight to those authors whose surnames begin with M, then locate book number 324.

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Storage. Keep your notes carefully stored in a loose-leaf binder or a pocket file. Use coloured dividers to keep sections distinct. The advantage of the loose-leaf method is that you can add new notes without disrupting the system. You might also wish to re-write the odd page which is not so clear, and you can also add diagrams, pictures, or other illustrative material. Index cards. Some people find it useful to keep a record of their notes on small index cards of the kind used by libraries. This acts as an aid to recovery. At the later stage of most courses which involve examinations, you may also wish to use the index card system in another way. You can compress your notes onto index cards which you can carry around during the period of revision and preparation for the exam itself. This is a system of making notes from notes. Library books. Never write notes in library books. Respect the right of other readers to a text which is free from interference. If you feel the inclination, make your remarks in the form of separate notes to yourself. This will be more useful to you anyway. Quite apart from that, any notes you make in the book disappear once you have returned it to the library. Annotations. If a book is your own property on the other hand, a well annotated text is a sign that you have engaged actively with the contents. The comments you have made in the margins may be of use to you for essay writing or revision. Tutors copies of books they have used for teaching are often richly decorated with margins full of observations accumulated over the years. Underlining. Dont make the beginners mistake of underlining every line in a paragraph. If you think a particular section is especially significant, it will be of more use if you try to say why as a brief note. Summarise the issue, put a line in the margin, or write a note at the head of the page. All of this will be of far more use than lines scrawled across the page - which may mean nothing to you in several months time. Diagrams. Use diagrams, graphs, pictures, or any other type of visual material if this helps to preserve a record and fix the material for future use. One good picture may do the work of a hundred or even a thousand words. Many people have very good visual memories. Codes. Some people find it useful to devise their own personal code of abbreviations and signs. These may be used to comment on the study material. They may also represent the relationship of notes to the main issues or the location where they will be stored. Do this if you find it useful, but remember to be consistent. Shorthand. This may not be quite so useful as you might think. Possessing the ability to write out everything verbatim does not encourage you to distinguish the more from the less important parts of your materials. Especially in lectures, it may bypass some of the listening, analysing, and discriminating which should be going on.

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Taking notes from lectures

1. Preparation. When taking notes in lectures, you will find the task easier if you have prepared beforehand. Learn in advance the main headings, names, or concepts which will be discussed. You will find it easier to take notes if you already know how to spell the key terms of the subject. Listening. You should be an active listener. This means paying close attention to what the lecturer is saying. You should also be consciously thinking about what is being said. Try to follow the development of the argument or the exposition. Dont just sit back and let the words wash over you. Watching. Look at the lecturer and watch for any signals or clues. Most tutors will give verbal emphasis to things which they consider important. Pay specially close attention to the beginning of lectures when the tutor might give some idea of the ground which is to be covered. Similarly, listen carefully to the conclusion when a good lecturer will try to draw together all the main arguments into one coherent statement. Digest. Remember that your objective is to record the main points of the lecture. Dont make the mistake of trying to write down everything that is said. You will never keep up. It is much more useful to listen carefully to what the lecturer is saying. Wait until the key issues or the main ideas are expressed. Record these rather than the detail which surrounds them. Question. Part of being an active listener is that you should enter into a silent questioning dialogue with what is being said. Do not take anything for granted, and be prepared to doubt - wisely. If you have observations or reservations of your own, write them down [in square brackets, like this] to separate them from the lecture notes. Layout. You should try to follow the structure of the lecture. The use of good notes which are tabulated should help you to do this. It will even be possible to rearrange the information afterwards if you see that this is necessary. Questions. It is usually possible to ask for clarification. This may be necessary if something is unclear, if you missed a point, or if a term or name is used which you have not heard before. However, this should be done with restraint and discretion. If possible, wait until the lecture has ended. Some lecturers may provide handouts which list the topics they will be discussing and possibly any special terms they use. But this doesnt always happen. You should develop the skills to cope without this extra form of assistance. Reviewing. The best time for reviewing and adjusting your notes is immediately after the lecture. All the information should still be fresh in your mind. Some of the most diligent students even re-write their notes. At this point you can eliminate any of the less important information you may have recorded. You can also put the main arguments into their true prominence in relation to each other.

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Taking notes from books and articles

1. Sources. When taking notes whilst reading, always start by making an accurate bibliographic record of the material you are using. At the head of your notes write down the following sequence: author, title, date, edition. If it is an article from a scholarly journal: author, article title, journal name (and number), publication date. References. You are recording this information so that if you use quotations from a text in your work, you will be able to give an accurate reference to their source. This is the development of good academic practice. Time. The recording of this information will also save you time if you have to recover the material on a second occasion from a library. This often happens when working on longer essays, projects, or dissertations when you might need further information from the same source. Purpose. Your strategy in taking notes will depend upon your reading purpose. If you are searching for a piece of information, just use skim or search reading techniques: (see Reading skills). If you have to absorb and digest information more thoroughly, make sure that you approach the task with conscious purpose. Do not just drift through the material reading at random or looking for something of interest (though this can be pleasant). Decide in advance what it is you require. Types of reading. Some people skim an entire book in the first instance to get an overview, then choose the parts which will be most useful. They might also read a relevant section first, then read it again, taking detailed notes. Others (students of the novel for instance) may choose a single reading, making notes as they go along. Your strategy will depend upon your subject and the length of the material you are reading. Copying. In general you should not bother copying out long sections from the work in hand. This is not a good use of your time. Even if you think a passage interesting, it will help you more to make a digest of its argument in your own words. If you feel you might need a long passage for future reference or quotation, simply take a photocopy of the pages. Brief notes. Shorter quotes are a different matter. If a few words strike you as summing up the authors argument, then make a note of them. Remember to always make a note of the page on which they occur. As with titles, this will give you accurate reference, and it could save you a lot of time if you need to check a quotation later. Main points. How can you know what to make a note of? This will depend upon your experience of the subject. You should certainly try to grasp its main issues. You might do this by noting any key terms or phrases which are repeated in the material. Try to make a summary of the authors argument. Note anything which seems like a recurrent theme. Relate your notes to each other.

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Discrimination. Whilst taking notes, try to make a distinction between the principal issues and the detailed examples used as illustration. These might even be listed separately. It is not always easy to see the distinction between the two, but making the effort to do so will help develop your analytic skills. Marginal notes. If the book or the article is your own, you might wish to make marginal notes on the page itself. When reading your own copy of a novel for instance, you can record your own personal responses in the margins. At the same time you might be compiling notes on the plot or the characters on separate sheets of paper. But do not make notes in library books - for two good reasons. As soon as you return the book to the library, your notes will disappear. It is also bad manners to write in library books. Leave others with a clean text, as you would wish for yourself.

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What to avoid
1. Wrong sized paper. This might seem like a rather trivial note of guidance, but its not! You are much more likely to lose your notes or get them mixed up if they are written on the wrong sized paper. If some notes are on small notepaper they cannot be filed along with A4 notes. In such cases, take the trouble to copy them out onto sheets of A4 paper. Too much information. This is probably the most common problem encountered by people when they first begin studying. Because they lack confidence and experience, they take down as much as possible - only to find that they have too much information. The value of your notes is not measured by the quantity of what you have written, but by the quality of your analysis and discrimination. Too little information. Dont allow yourself to be swallowed up so completely with the subject that you forget to do the work of summarising and recording which is necessary. Some people read a book avidly, or listen very attentively to a lecture - but then discover that have no more than two or three topic headings on a piece of paper. You must pay attention to both the subject and your need to makes notes on it. Missing key points. This often happens when too much detail is recorded and small illustrative points are allowed to occupy too much prominence in the notes. The details swamp the key issues (if they are there at all). Listen or think carefully, then make a note of only the most important ideas. Illegibility. This is often caused by taking down as much as possible and not leaving enough white space on the page around each entry. Do not write on every line, and record your comments as clearly as possible. You should not need to write quickly, and a little care taken over the presentation of your notes will make them more useful at a later date. Write as carefully as possible. Poor labelling. This is often caused by writing continuous prose in a vain attempt to record everything. Take the trouble to highlight the important issues with such simple measures as underlining, capital letters, boxes, or coloured ink. As each major point is recorded, it might be given a new number or an underlined heading, depending on which system you are

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using. Dont run everything together. Clear labelling will help you to see the structure of the material. 7. Too much of original text. When taking notes from books you should not waste your time copying out long quotations. Too much of the original means that you have not digested the material and translated it into your own terms. You have not processed the material, and you will probably not have extracted the main argument. Poor layout. Notes which are cramped closely together are difficult to read and will not be as useful as they might be at some later stage of study. Let the ideas breathe and stand clear of each other. Use plenty of white space. Good page layout will help you to see the overall scheme of the information, and it might even help you to remember it. Poor storage. Pieces of paper which are not properly stored will easily become disordered, and you may even lose material this way. Take the trouble to keep separate folders for different subjects. Use ring binders and all the simple devices of dividers and numbered pages to store your material efficiently. Example. What follows is an example of notes taken whilst listening to an Open University radio broadcast - a half hour lecture by the cultural historian, Isaiah Berlin. It was entitled Tolstoys Views on Art and Morality, which was part of the third year course in literary studies A 312 - The Nineteenth Century Novel and its Legacy. Isaiah Berlin - Tolstoy on Art and Morality 3 Sep 89 1. Ts views on A extreme - but he asks important questns which disturb society 2. 1840s Univ of Kazan debate on purpose of A T believes there should be simple answers to probs of life 3. Met simple & spontaneous people & soldiers in Caucasus Crimean Sketches admired by Turgenev & Muscovites but T didnt fit in milieu 4. Westernizers Vs Slavophiles - T agreed with Ws but rejects science (Ss romantic conservatives) 5. 2 views of A in mid 19C - A for arts sake/ A for societys sake 6. Pierre (W&P) and Levin (AK) as egs of searchers for truth 7. Natural life (even drunken violence) better than intellectual 8. Ts contradiction - to be artist or moralist 9. Ts 4 criteria for work of art

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- know what you want to say - lucidly and clearly - subject matter must be of essential interest - artist must live or imagine concretely his material - A must know the moral centre of situation 10. T crit of Shkspre and Goethe - too complex St Julien (Flaubert) inauthentic Turgenev and Chekhov guilty of triviality 11. What is Art? Emotion recollected and transmitted to others [Wordsworth] Not self-expression - Only good should be transmitted 12. But his own tastes were for high art - Chopin, Beethoven, & Mozart - T Argues he himself corrupted 13. Tried to distinguish between his own art and moral tracts 14. Artist cannot help burning like a flame 15. Couldnt reconcile contradictions in his own beliefs Died still raging against self and society

Generating ideas
1. Brainstorming. When faced with an academic writing task, some people find it useful to brainstorm the subject or the topic(s) concerned. This helps to generate ideas for the work ahead. Dont just sit staring into space. Be prepared to do some preliminary exercises to prime the pump of your imagination. Warm up. This activity is a preliminary stage in the writing process. You should keep in mind that it acts principally as a warming-up exercise to supply you with ideas and material for generating a plan for what you will eventually produce. The piece of work might be an essay, but it could also be a project report, a dissertation, or a seminar paper. Page one. Take a sheet of blank paper and write in the middle of it the subject, topic(s), or the question concerned. Dont write it at the top of the page. This encourages you to list your ideas in a linear progression, and this form might hinder the chance of making random connexions between your thoughts. Write down ideas. Without editing or questioning your ideas in any way, write down everything that comes into your mind which is connected with the question or the subject. Dont stop to wonder if its relevant. Get it down on paper. Dont query your thoughts: that will come later. Rough notes. This should be done in rough note form or with very abbreviated reminders. Dont try to write out full and grammatically complete sentences. Give your thoughts a chance to flow freely. One word triggers might be enough. Write everything. Write down all items which occur to you, even those which are trivially or vaguely associated with the subject. At a later stage they might help you make connexions with other points which are more centrally important. Any irrelevant items can be removed at a later stage. Find order. Next you should try to make sense of the items you have written down. You need to arrange them in some logical or persuasive order. This is the beginning of planning. You are trying to find or create some shape or structure into which your ideas will fit. Create order. Alternatively you could think of this next stage as grouping the topics or the ideas you have produced. If some items belong naturally alongside each other, put them together. This is a form of creating order. The process is often known as categorising - which is dealt with next. Pre-planning. Remember that you are doing this to generate a coherent plan for your arguments in response to an essay question or a project topic. You are trying to put your ideas into some logical order, sequence, or pattern which will help you form an essay plan. Page two. Go through this next stage on a separate piece of paper. This will help you to free yourself from the randomness of the brainstorming. It should also help you to see more clearly any shape or structure which you are in the process of creating.

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Eliminate irrelevance. As a first step you might eliminate anything which you can see is completely unrelated to the question topic(s). Be prepared to delete even the most attractive item if it is not relevant. It is no use trying to incorporate material just because you have written it down during the brainstorming stage. Make connexions. When you have eliminated any irrelevant items, your next task is to look for connections between the individual points. You might do this as you transfer them from the brainstorming to your second page. This process should help you analyse the ideas you have produced on the subject and begin to create some form of organisation. Categorising. The connections between topics might exist because the items are of the same type: (cars, trains, and aeroplanes are all forms of transport). They might alternatively belong in the same category: (banking, taxation, and public expenditure are all financial or fiscal matters). Relevance. Your task at this point is to detect these general categories and to assign to them the individual items from your brainstorming. Each of the general categories should be directly relevant to the principal topic or the subject of the piece of work you are going to produce. Pending. There may be some items which do not fit easily into any category. Put these to one side for the moment. You should be prepared either to incorporate them at a later stage or to abandon them altogether. Do this if they will not fit logically into the plan you are devising. Create a possible use file into which these items are temporarily slotted. Optimise. It is better to have three or four coherent general categories all directly related to the central issue, rather than several, some of which are not really relevant. Any material that is not appropriate to the subject dilutes the effectiveness of the material alongside it. Create sequence. It may be that your piece of work requires its parts to be ordered in a particular sequence. This might be chronological, or an order dictated by the conventions of your subject. Whatever the sequence, it is arranged most easily at this planning stage, leaving the details to be filled in later. Share ideas. If you are in the early stages of studying, try out this brainstorming process more than once. It should help you to realise that you probably have more ideas than you thought at first. Try it out with fellow students - and dont imagine that this is cheating. There is nothing wrong with sharing or generating ideas together. The important thing is that the written work which is produced from them is your own. Long-term plans. More advanced students may not need to generate ideas at a single sitting in this way. They are more likely to assemble their ideas for a writing task over a longer period. In such cases you should get used to writing ideas down when they come to you. Even if it is a few words on a bus ticket, write down the idea before it disappears. (See Writing strategies)

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Assemble notes. These fragments or scraps of ideas should then be assembled on separate pages. These will then be used as the basic material from which you will assemble the plans for your project or essay. Dont throw anything away at this stage, even though you may do so later. (See Essay planning) New ideas. You may sometimes find that new ideas arrive when you are engaged in the process of writing out the essay or the project. Dont imagine that this is somehow peculiar or wrong. It is perfectly natural that you should think of new ideas as you become more actively engaged with your material. Be prepared to add these new ideas to your plans. Change plans. The plan is created to help you produce the finished work. It is not an end in itself. Therefore, if you do develop new ideas you should be prepared to incorporate them into your plan (assuming that they are relevant). You might even wish to change the nature of the basic plan itself. This is something which you will do more confidently as you develop experience of planning and writing. (See Essay planning and Writing essays)

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Analysing questions
1. Pay close attention. When a question is posed as an essay writing task or in an examination, you should pay extra-close attention to its wording. Be prepared to analyse the terms in which it is expressed with scrupulous care. Make a serious attempt to understand both the principal issues at stake, and the reason why the question is being posed. Instructions. The secret to answering questions successfully lies in producing exactly what they are asking for. You should focus your attention exclusively on the topic(s) they wish you to discuss. In addition, you should stay within any limits they set and make every part of your answer directly relevant to the subject in question. Relevance. The most common weakness in work produced for essay tasks (and examinations) is that the writing which is produced does not answer the question. It may be well written, it may be true, it may even be interesting; but unless it answers the question it will not gain marks. The task. Most questions are set as an academic exercise designed to help you develop your skills of understanding, analysis, and your presentation of argument. Your tutors are simply offering you a task to complete as part of the course requirements. The purpose. Questions may be set with a variety of detailed purposes in mind, and it is important that you know what is required. You might be asked to: o show that you know the facts of a topic or a subject o demonstrate that you can intelligently discuss a statement or a proposition which is offered to you o show that you can explore the arguments for and against a given issue o present your own opinions and ideas on a topic o show that you can evaluate the validity of a case or a statement o demonstrate that you can analyse a statement, a body of work, or a set of data 6. The three elements. In a typical question set for coursework or examinations there are usually three important elements: the principal issue or concept behind the question; the key terms which embody that concept or tell you what to deal with; the instruction terms, which tell you how to approach the question. Some of these elements may not be directly stated in the question, but may be implied within it. The purpose. Some questions may seem to be written in a complex or obscure manner. Do not imagine however that they have been set to trap you, catch you out, or confront you with some mind-numbing difficulty. The purpose of almost all questions is to present you with an exercise which is part of developing academic discipline. Academic exercise. Remember that many thousands of students before you have answered questions similar to those you have been set. You are not being asked to solve the riddles of the universe, but to show that you

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are developing the skills required by your subject. The essay assignment is an academic exercise.

The principal issue or concept

1. What were the causes of the Russian revolution of 1917? This question looks perfectly straightforward, but many people might mislead themselves by starting to describe the events of the revolution, rather than what the question is asking for - the causes of it. This requires that you discuss the conditions and problems which led up to the revolution taking place - not the events of the revolution itself. The purpose of this question is to give you an opportunity to show that you have absorbed a body of knowledge. 2. Defend the right to tell lies. This is a philosophic question which is asking you to stretch your imagination to look at things from an unusual point of view. You are being asked to present arguments in favour of lying, or you might wish to discuss circumstances in which lying would be justified. 3. Children should be seen but not heard. Is this still true today? This quotation comes from the Victorian period when notions of how children should be treated were quite different than they are today. The question is asking you to consider this idea in the light of contemporary life. The principal issue here is changes in the way children are raised and considered. 4. Lord Acton claimed that Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely. How far is this true? This question is concerned with politics, history, and political philosophy. It is asking you to consider the connexion between power and corruption. The proposition is challenging, and you would need to consider both cases where it was obviously true (the rule of corrupt and malign dictators) and any historical instances which modified or offered an alternate view. 5. Examine the significance of Iagos role in Othello. This is a question which asks you to consider the importance of one character in a work of fiction. It is asking you to focus your attention on this one person in the drama and his relevance to its events. At the same time you would need to keep in mind the principal issues of the play and his relationship to the work as a whole.

Instruction terms
1. Instruction terms are words commonly used by people setting essay questions. They will instruct or direct you in the approach you should take towards the proposition or the main statement of the question. The exact meaning of these terms will vary slightly depending upon the subject you are studying. The following will give you some idea of what they mean in general use, both for essay assignments and examination questions.

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You should get used to looking for these terms and thinking carefully about their meaning in relation to the remainder of the question. Even when you have more confidence, do not become blas or inattentive. Sometimes even experienced students forget the important differences which exist between Compare and Contrast. In trying to interpret a question you should attempt to understand exactly what an instruction is asking you to do with the material in hand. But be reasonable. Dont look for problems where there may not be any. If in doubt, ask your tutor. Explain the reasons for, giving an indication of all relevant circumstances. Not to be confused with Give an account of which asks only for a detailed description.
ACCOUNT FOR

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Study in depth, identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics.

ANALYSE ASSESS

Examine closely, with a view to weighing up a particular situation. Consider in a balanced way the strengths and weaknesses or points for and against a proposition. In conclusion, state your judgement clearly. State clearly and in moderate fashion your opinions on the material in question. Support your views with reference to suitable evidence or explanations.
COMMENT COMPARE

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CONTRAST CRITICISE

Look for similarities and differences between two or more

Deliberately single out and emphasise the differences and dissimilarities between two or more things. Give your judgement about a statement or a body of work; explore its implications, discussing all the evidence which is available. Be specific in your examination. Set down the precise meaning of something. Be prepared to state the limits of the definition. Take note of multiple meanings if they exist.
DEFINE DESCRIBE DISCUSS

Give a detailed and comprehensive account of.

Investigate and examine by careful argument. Explore the implications or the advantages or disadvantages. Debate the case and possibly consider any alternatives. This is probably the most common instruction term. It is inviting you to say something interesting in response to the topic in question. Make an appraisal of the worth of something in the light of its truth or utility. Emphasise the views of authorities as well as your personal estimation.
EVALUATE

Make plain. Account for. Clarify, interpret, and spell out the material you present, giving reasons for important features or developments.
EXPLAIN

... This is similar to questions which begin To what extent.... You are expected to make your case or present your argument, whilst
HOW FAR

showing an awareness that alternate or even contradictory explanations may exist. Careful assessment and weighing of evidence are called for.
ILLUSTRATE

Make clear and explicit by the discussion of concrete

examples. Show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions. Answer or refute the objections likely to be made against them.
JUSTIFY

Give the main features or the general principles of a subject, omitting minor details and emphasising structure or arrangement.
OUTLINE RELATE REVIEW STATE

Show how things are connected, and how they possibly affect, cause, or resemble each other. Make a survey of, examining the subject critically. Present the main points in brief, clear form.

Give a concise account of the main points of a matter, omitting details and examples.
SUMMARISE TRACE

Follow the development or history of a topic from some point of

origin.

Key terms
1. In what sense could Doctor Aziz be regarded as the hero of A Passage to India? This is a question from literary studies. Dr Aziz is a character in the novel, and In what sense is an open-ended instruction term inviting you to discuss the idea, so the key term here is hero. This concept has a precise literary meaning as well as its meaning in everyday life, and the question is asking in what way could Dr Aziz be so considered. 2. To what extent was Clement Atlee a successful politician? A question from politics and government - or modern history. To what extent is the instruction term; a variation on How far. We know that Atlee was a politician: that is a historical fact. So the key term is successful. You are being asked to consider what success is in political terms. It might be length of office, completed programme, notoriety, or whatever else you wished to put forward. 3. Computers will revolutionise society in years to come. Discuss. We know what computers are; we are being asked to Discuss the idea (so this is the instruction term); and society we can assume to mean the world we live in. The key term therefore is revolutionise. It could either be taken in its loose sense of effecting radical change, or in its more specific sense of changing the power structure. 4. Discuss the idea that socialism offers the chance of a more just society than capitalism. Political philosophy is at issue here. Discuss is the general instruction term. Socialism and capitalism are both strong candidates for being the key terms, and you would certainly need to know what these concepts entailed. But just would also need to be taken into account. It is close to an instruction since it narrows the focus of the question, but it is also a key

issue, since there can be differences of opinion on what exactly constitutes justice. 5. Human beings at odds with their society and environment. To what extent is this a dominant theme in the twentieth century novel? Literary studies again, Im afraid. The statement quoted needs to be understood in its own right; then To what extent is the How far variation again; and twentieth century novel merely marks the limits of enquiry. The key term here then is dominant theme, of which theme is the more important element. You would need to know what this means in literary studies.

Common problems and mistakes

1. Answering the wrong question Some students read a question with no more than a quick glance, then immediately start answering it. This sometimes happens because they know a lot about the subject. But they sometimes misread the question. They might not see one of its key terms, or they might be so eager to get their opinion onto the page that they distort its meaning. In a question which asked you to discuss an important eighteenth-century political theorist, an over-eager student might write a very good essay on Karl Marx - forgetting that he was alive in the nineteenth, not the eighteenth century. Its easily done. 2. Misunderstanding the point of what is being asked for This can sometimes be a matter of badly placed emphasis. Alternatively, it might come from not knowing which is the most important part of a question. In an essay title such as Discuss the importance of Newton as a mathematician and scientist a student might give an enthusiastic account of Newtons life and his work on optics, astronomy, and his development of calculus. But the question asks you to discuss the importance of his work - not to give an account of it. You might in fact answer the question by referring to his influence on other scientists, though you would keep his work in mind all the time. 3. Failing to see the emphasis of the question Complex questions which include a number of items may often call for a particular emphasis - which may not be easy to spot. Discuss the influence of Thomas Hardy on the novels of D H Lawrence involves consideration of Hardy, but the main emphasis of an answer should rest firmly on the work of Lawrence. It would be very easy here for a student to be so carried away with an enthusiasm for Hardys novels that Lawrence was treated as an afterthought. 4. Misreading the instructions No matter how clearly a question is expressed, there are nearly always some students who fail to follow its instructions. This often happens in questions which present you with a range of options. An artist can produce great work even under the constraints of patronage. Discuss this statement in relation to either Michelangelo or Bernini. Many students might ignore the either ... or part of

the instruction here and write an essay on both artists instead of just one. Examination papers sometimes have these terms printed in italics or even capital letters in an attempt to avert the problem. It doesnt always succeed. 5. Changing the question This can be done quite innocently. It often happens when students read the question, then write down a shortened version of it at the head of their essay. This usually has the effect of removing some of its complexities, as well as its instruction terms. To cite a genuine example from an essay in A level Human Biology, the full title was Review the ways in which the ears and eyes provide a wide range of sensory information. The student however had written at the head of the essay The Eyes and Ears. This is not the same thing. 6. Wandering off the point Abbreviating the question title or failing to write it down often signals a piece of work which will wander a long way from what is being asked for. In one sense this is quite logical, since the question is being changed - and usually simplified. What students are sometimes doing [perhaps unconsciously?] is answering the question they would like to have been asked, rather than the one they have been asked to answer.

Clear thinking
1. Simplify. Clear thinking is not, as many people imagine, a matter of having complex or profound ideas. More often it is a case of simplifying ideas, expressing them clearly, and striving to be precise. It can also mean taking the trouble to avoid prejudice, sloppy-thinking, and making invalid generalisations. Take care. Clear thinking is also a matter of being careful with language and putting limits on what may be said or claimed. It sometimes requires that we take care to define or clarify the subject of enquiry before any discussion begins. Thinking skills. Nevertheless, clear thinking is a complex issue. This is because it involves a number of skills which you commonly employ simultaneously. You are analysing, reasoning about, and understanding a subject of enquiry. For this reason it cannot easily be taught in isolation (especially in short guidance notes like these). Good habits. However, you can develop the ability to think more clearly alongside other good study habits. This is possible if you take the trouble to follow one or two basic guidelines. It might involve getting rid of bad habits, as well as developing ones which are new and good. Generalising. Avoid over-generalising. People are often tempted into making rash statements such as Women in the nineteenth century were all ... or The French are a nation who find it absolutely impossible to .... Whatever the conclusions to these two statements, they are making claims about every woman in the nineteenth century and the entire population of France. Neither statement is likely to be true, because there will be so many exceptions. Accuracy. In academic writing and discussion you should avoid this sort of generalisation. Be more accurate and precise. If you still wish to make such a claim in your work but do not have exact numbers or percentages, you might be more cautious and modest. You could at least say that Many women in the nineteenth century were ... or French people on the whole .... Precision. As you develop academically however, you will need to be even more precise. You will be expected to discuss what percentage of women did the thing you claim; to which part of the class system they belonged; and between which years in the nineteenth century this occurred. And by this stage, claims about national characteristics will no longer be acceptable. Question. Inspect the nature of any claims you are going to make, and question their validity. Before dashing in to discuss the possible causes of the rising crime rate, ask yourself Is the crime rate really rising? Tabloid newspapers may suggest that it is, but the truth might be otherwise. You may not have absolute proof at your fingertips, but casting doubt on received wisdom will at least make you more cautious about the claims you make. Academic enquiry. Keep in mind that the academic process itself is one of trying to establish the truth of a matter or an issue. This will involve looking

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at all the available evidence and opinion, then trying to reach some conclusion. Other peoples arguments have to be taken into account, no matter how much you might disagree with them. 10. Modesty. You should be accurate and precise in any claims you make. Unless you have compelling reasons to do otherwise, you should try to be modest in the manner that they are expressed. Avoid being rash, do not make exaggerated claims, and dont launch personal assaults against well-known figures. Rigour. Question even your own most dearly held beliefs. Even if you dont wish to overturn your own opinions, you might at least admit in your arguments that some people think otherwise. It will show that you are not being narrow-minded. This is particularly true in the case of religious, moral or ideological discussion. Opinion. Try to make a clear distinction between opinion and fact. Opinions generally enshrine subjective individual belief (even though they may be held collectively - such as a belief in God). They are not susceptible of proof. Fact. Facts on the other hand are what can be measured or demonstrated in some way. Teachers should be paid more is the expression of a belief (even though it is one I share). The statement The river Amazon is 3,900 miles long is a fact which can be empirically proven. Clarity. Clear thinking is very often bound up with clear writing. Remember that it is in the form of essays, reports, and examination papers that you will be expressing yourself most frequently. If you wish to clarify your ideas, make sure that you are writing in a simple and direct manner, avoiding overlong sentences and tortured syntax. (See Clear writing) Jargon. Many philosophers and respected academics have expressed themselves in a complex and at times impenetrable manner. However, this is not a good model for most students to follow. Such people are usually speaking in the jargon of their speciality and addressing fellow professionals.

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Fallacies of argument
1. Fallacy. Many people, when producing an argument, do so in a way which rests on sloppy thinking, a lack of logic, or sometimes a deliberate attempt to mislead. You should be aware of the more common fallacies in arguments. This will help you to avoid using them yourself and sharpen the clarity of your thinking. Much of this will rest on your precise use of language. Persuader words. People often use words such as obviously, clearly, and surely in their attempts to be persuasive. Words like these invite us to agree with the statement, even though it may not be true. Do you remember the former Chancellor of the Exchequer, Norman Lamonts statement - We are now clearly on our way out of the recession? It is difficult not to use them if you believe your case to be true, but be on your guard against their misuse.

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Emotive language. Advertisers and tabloid newspapers (both keen persuaders) are very fond of using terms which carry very emotive overtones. A particular term may appear unexceptional, but it is being used because of its associations, negative or positive. The slogan Kelloggs Cornflakes - the Sunshine breakfast uses the emotive term Sunshine to produce a positive association where none necessarily exists. A headline such as Militants cause shut-down invokes negative images [by using the term Militants] of what might otherwise be seen as honourable trade unionists fighting for their rights. False analogy. This occurs when one thing is likened to another for illustrative effect. The two things might have some (usually superficial) similarity - but then it is argued (illegitimately) that they will be alike in some other respect. The comparison being made is untenable. Getting married is like betting on the horses; sometimes you win and sometimes you lose may only be a comic statement, but it illustrates the point: marriage and betting are not the same. The following is a more serious example of the same thing: The family is like a tree, the parents its roots and the children its branches. To separate a child from its parents is therefore akin to murder, because the branch cannot survive without the roots. False metaphor. This is similar to the false analogy. A metaphor is used for persuasive effect, but then is taken literally in a way which is not true. The Ship of State needs the PMs firm hand at the helm. A modern state is a very complex network of forces, people, and organisations which are often in competition with each other, and they are simply not like a ship. They cannot be controlled or steered by a ministerial rudder, and the development of society is not something linear like the movement of a vessel through water. The image might be striking, but the comparison is invalid. Generalisation. People holding strong views or thinking in a sloppy manner often drift into the habit of over-generalising. This is a form of mental laziness, since it is usually easier to generalise than to think precisely. Generalisations range from All men are bastards (and You know what women are like) to The works of D.H. Lawrence show us that .... Generalising may be popular in the saloon bar, but it has no place in academic argument. Appeal to authority, number, tradition. This is another device beloved of tabloid journalism - in which an appeal to some apparently respected source is invoked to support a proposition. Scientists have proved that ... The image of men in white coats (whose identities are usually unspecified) is used to support some notion. Most people support the invasion: most people might, but this is not necessarily a convincing argument in its favour. Britain has always been proud of its monarchs: even if this were true (although it is another generalisation) it does not mean that it is a good argument. False cause. Because the cock crows every morning, it causes the sun to rise This is obviously defective reasoning, because we are not stupid enough to think that chickens control the sun. In more subtle cases however (those concerning the cause of diseases for instance) it might be more difficult to spot a false cause, because the two things appear to be closer together.

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Hidden assumption. This is a similar case (put the other way round) in which an assumption is improperly made. The girl must have been nervous, because her nostrils were quivering. In fact her nostrils may have been quivering for other reasons - because she had a cold for instance. Ad hominem. This is a Latin expressions which means to the person. The fallacy occurs when criticism is aimed at the person holding an opinion rather than at the opinion itself. If Margaret Thatcher supports de-nationalisation, it must be a bad thing The personality of a speaker is being criticised rather than the basis of an argument. You might not approve of Mrs Thatcher personally, but she could be right. Changed emphasis. This is another strategy much loved by newspapers both tabloids and broadsheets. REVOLUTION IN FRANCE feared by authorities. This statement transforms a fear that something might happen into the appearance that it already has done so. The golden mean. This is a type of argument in which two (apparently) opposite and extreme positions are said to be unacceptable, and that the answer or truth must therefore lie somewhere between them. It's not to the left and not to the right, therefore it must be in the middle. In fact it might be behind, below, above, or to the rear. This argument is often combined with false spatial metaphors, as in the case of the left and right of political parties. Grammar slippage. Many people hide behind carefully manipulated language. They conceal their arguments, their beliefs, or the positions they hold. Watch out for the use of the passive voice when someone is trying to evade responsibility. They might say The book has been misplaced instead of admitting I have lost the book. Another popular linguistic device is to use the future or the conditional tense. They might say I will (or could) pay the bill in order to avoid having to say I havn't paid it. Former US president Ronald Regan used this device to evade personal responsibility when he said that mistakes were made.

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Essay planning
1. Essays. The production of an academic essay is probably the most important skill you will need to develop for any type of serious study. Almost every course of conventional learning one can imagine - even those which have abandoned examinations as a form of testing - still use essay or project assignments to assess students. Writing. Unfortunately, this skill is rarely taught in schools or colleges. You are normally expected to pick it up as you go along, with guidance from tutors. People coming to essay writing for the first time sometimes make the task more difficult than it needs to be. They sit down with a blank piece of paper and hope that the finished essay will emerge from the end of the pen. Of course it can't be done that way. Planning. At the risk of over-simplifying this matter, I would go as far as saying that Writing essays is relatively easy: it is planning them which is difficult. The task of writing an essay should be the culmination of a long process of reading, thinking, sorting out ideas, and generally preparing the ground. You should have detailed plans to work from and all the detailed evidence to hand before you begin writing. Conventions. Different subjects have their own conventions for what an essay should look like and the form it should take: (see Writing essays). However, the general principles of planning an essay are worth knowing no matter what subject you are studying. The outline suggestions which follow are not a guarantee of success or a formula which will work in all cases, but they offer a basic strategy which can be brought into play if you need it. Rough notes. The planning stage is best carried out in rough note form, using lots of scrap paper. Dont imagine that your first efforts will be the best. You should be prepared to change your ideas, move them around, and add to them wherever necessary. You might also be taking away less relevant items, working and re-working the plan until it seems reasonable. (See Generating ideas) 7. New ideas. Many people get new ideas whilst they are actually in the process of writing an essay. This can sometimes seem alarming. The idea might be useful and too good to leave out, but this could mean changing the plan. Dont worry: its a perfectly reasonable procedure. If you have an outline plan, you will be able to see where the new idea is best placed, what changes it might bring about, and how you can retain the coherence of the essay.

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The stages of planning

1. Analyse the question. Make sure that you understand what the question is asking for, what it is giving you the chance to write about, and what is its central issue. Note carefully any of its key items and any instruction terms. Think about the question, turning it over in your mind and discussing it if possible with fellow students. If you are in any doubt, ask your tutor to explain what is required. (See Analysing questions)

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Generate ideas. Take a sheet of paper and make a brief note of any topics, ideas, observations, or information from your study material which might be relevant to an answer. Dont copy out chunks of texts. Use brief notes or even one-word triggers. Write down anything you think of at this stage. Your objective is to assemble a stock of potential ideas from which you will pick out the most appropriate. (See Generating ideas) Choose topics. Take another sheet of paper and extract from your brainstorm listings all those topics and points of argument which are of greatest relevance to the question and its central issue. At this stage do not worry too much about any order. You are simply picking out the best material. If anything strikes you as quite irrelevant to the subject, throw it out. Selection. Selecting items on the strength of their relevance to the question may not always be an easy judgement to make. Keep asking yourself - Is this directly related to the subject? Will it answer the question? You might have two categories of rejection: one like a Pending tray containing items which might be used later, another like a dustbin into which the completely unrelated material is thrown for good. Topics. The exact nature of these topics will depend upon your subject and the question itself. They could be a list of Causes of the Second World War - that is, important features you must include in your answer. They might be separate stages in the development of a philosophic argument; or they could be your own responses to a piece of art or fiction. Put topics in order. On yet another sheet of paper, try to put your chosen topics and material in some sort of order. At this stage you should be starting to formulate your basic response to the question. Arrange the points so that they form a persuasive and coherent pattern or argument. Some subjects will lend themselves more easily to the creation of this order than others. In some, such as the appreciation of the arts, there is no set pattern and one must be created. This is probably the hardest part of essay planning at a conceptual level. Arrange evidence. Most of the major points in your argument will need to be supported by some sort of evidence. One purpose of the essay task is to show that you have read widely in your subject and considered the opinions of others. In some subjects (say, sociology or the sciences) you will actually need proof to support your arguments. During the process of study you have probably been assembling notes and references for just such a purpose. If not, this is the time to do so. On another sheet of paper you should compile a list of any brief quotations from other sources (together with page references) which will be offered as your evidence. Matching. The matching of this evidence with your own argument may not be as simple as this planning approach might suggest. Hence the need for separate sheets of paper. You will probably have notes which seemed relevant once but now dont seem to be quite what is required - and yet you are reluctant to throw them out. Keeping things separate should help you maintain control.

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Material. Dont worry too much if on completion of this stage you have surplus evidence. This is perfectly normal. You have picked out the best from what was available. But you should be a little concerned if you dont have enough. This suggests that you might need to do a little more background reading or engage with the subject once again. Make necessary changes. Whilst you have been engaged in the first stages of planning, new ideas may have come to mind. Alternate evidence may have occurred to you, or the line of your argument may have shifted somewhat. Be prepared at this stage to rearrange your plan so that it incorporates any of these new materials or ideas. Try out different arrangements of your essay topics until you are sure they form the most convincing and logical sequence. Revising plans. Remember that the plan is not an end in itself. You are planning so as to create a solid foundation or structure on which to build the edifice of your essay. But the plans may change at any stage. In fact it might even be regarded as a good thing if they do - because it suggests that you are continuing to think about the task in hand. A far worse mistake would be to put down a few ideas on paper then write the essay without giving the matter any further thought. Finalise plan. Most essay plans can be summarised as Introduction Argument - Conclusion. State your case as briefly and as rapidly as possible, present the evidence for this case in the body of your essay, then draw together the points of your argument and try to lift them to a higher conceptual level in your conclusion. Your final plan should be something like a list of half a dozen to ten major points of argument. Each of these points, with your supporting evidence, will be expanded to a major paragraph of something around 100-200 words. Relevance. At all stages of essay planning, and even when writing the essay, you should keep the question in mind. Keep asking yourself Is this evidence directly related to the topic I have been asked to discuss? Be prepared to scrap plans and formulate new ones - which is much easier than scrapping finished essays. Paragraphs. A good tip on the relevance of your argument is to check that the opening of each major paragraph is directly related to the question. The first sentence (which is called the topic sentence) should be a direct response to what you have been asked. It might be an example to illustrate it, or a major point of your argument on the topic in question. If it is not, something may be wrong. Sequence. You might do these things in a different order than that suggested here. It might be that your evidence comes first and you have to find an argument, or that you have to start writing before your evidence is all assembled. This does not matter too much. The important thing is that you are aware that some form of planning is necessary.

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Advanced studies. At a more advanced level of study, this process might be stretched over longer periods in which you are engaged in background reading which influences the assembly of the plan. Your plans and the production of writing will probably have a relationship in which one affects the other as you go along.

Other writing strategies

1. The general strategy proposed in these guidance notes is recommended to anybody still gaining experience. Emphasis is placed firmly upon making detailed plans before starting an essay-writing task. You are then advised to produce multiple drafts, and then to revise extensively what you have written. This will be a suitable approach for almost all assignments. However, other techniques of composition do exist, and may even be appropriate for different subjects and tasks. They might also suit those who are not at ease with detailed planning. Some people are more comfortable with approaches which involve the collection of data, improvisation, or the gradual generation of a work. It should also be said that each stage of the pre-writing phase may be punctuated by any amount of thinking. Some people make rough notes first, then put them on one side. Meanwhile, they might be thinking about what they are going to write - either consciously or unconsciously. Some time later, often without any apparent effort on their part, they find that the ideas in their rough notes have expanded and developed - like a butterfly emerging from a chrysalis. It is also true that some people are more at ease with unplanned writing. They like to see what emerges during the process. They find that one idea sparks off others as it is written down on the page. Too much planning might give them the feeling that their possibilities have been hemmed in, that their plan acts as a straightjacket rather than a foundation on which to build. What follow are brief descriptions of the most common writing strategies. If you feel particularly uncomfortable with detailed planning, read through them all. Try to find one which suits your temperament. You might even wish to experiment with one or two until you discover the most appropriate to your needs. Outline - draft. In this approach the writer creates a list of headings or tabulated subject topics. These follow the same order that they will be arranged in the finished document. Each one of these items is then expanded separately and discussed in turn until the final text is generated. This approach is suitable for those tasks in which the contents are decided by some outside authority, such as a report or the completion of a questionnaire. Computer programmes which assist this approach are called outliners. Draft - revise. This approach may be suitable for those who prefer to work spontaneously, free from the constraints of detailed planning. The writer sets down a stream of first thoughts and ideas on the page. These may

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have only glancing relevance to the finished work, but they give the writer a sense that there is something with which to work. The writer may deliberately avoid criticising the quality of what is produced. These first thoughts then form both a rough draft and a source of inspiration for further writing. More work on drafting and revision is then done until the final text is produced. 8. The polished draft. Sometimes when producing longer pieces of work, there may not be time for creating multiple drafts. In this case the writer may choose to maximise the quality of the first draft so as to cut down on work to be done at a later stage. The preparatory stages of collecting information, and planning will have been done. A draft is produced which is as close as possible to the end product. Care will be taken with grammar, word choice, spelling, and sentence construction. All this may not eliminate the necessity for a subsequent draft, but the bulk of the detailed work will have been done. Expansion. In this popular approach, materials and notes are assembled, then individual items are selected for separate consideration. Each of the notes is gradually expanded until some shape and ideas begin to emerge. This is the opposite of planning. Each separate issue is being explored to see what it might yield. Individual topics might be developed independently so that the writer doesnt feel overwhelmed by the whole writing assignment. This is one example of what is sometimes called a discovery approach to writing. Cut and paste. This approach is one of collection, mixing, and assembly. The writer gathers together a variety of materials related to what will be the end product. These can come from a variety of sources. They might be notes, quotations, fragments of earlier writing, extracts from other peoples work, or materials which might just act as prompts or sources of ideas. The materials are then moved around and organised until they fit the current writing task. The resulting collage may be used as a plan or a rough draft on which the finished piece of work will be based.

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What follows on the next page is an outline plan drawn up in note form in response to the question: Do you think that depictions of sex and violence in the media should or should not be more heavily censored? I have placed the notes on a separate page of their own so that the structure of the essay plan is clearly visible.

Introduction Sex, violence, and censorship all emotive subjects Case against censorship 1. 2. Aesthetic: inhibits artistic talent, distorts art and truth. Individual judgement: individuals have the right to decide for themselves what they watch or read. Similarly, nobody has the right to make up someone elses mind. Violence and sex as catharsis (release from tension): portrayal of these subjects can release tension through this kind of experience at second hand. Violence can deter: certain films can show violence which reinforces opposition to it, eg - A Clockwork Orange, All Quiet on the Western Front. Censorship makes sex dirty: we are too repressed about this subject, and censorship sustains the harmful mystery which has surrounded us for so long. Politically dangerous: Censorship in one area can lead to it being extended to others - eg, political ideas. Impractical: Who decides? How is it to be done? Is it not impossible to be correct? Any decision has to be arbitrary. Sex is private and precious: it should not be demeaned by representations of it in public. Sex can be offensive: some people may find it so and should not have to risk being exposed to what they would find pornographic. Corruption can be progressive: can begin with sex and continue until all decent values are eventually destroyed. Participants might be corrupted: especially true of young children. Violence can encourage imitation: by displaying violence - even while condemning it - it can be legitimised and can also encourage imitation among a dangerous minority. Violence is often glorified: encourages callous attitudes. Case against censorship much stronger. No necessary connexion between the two topics.

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Case for censorship 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Conclusion

Clear writing
1. Clarity. For most academic writing, you should aim to write in a style which is plain, clear, and straightforward. Short and simple sentences are usually more effective than those which are long and complex. Avoid piling up clause upon clause, and dont imagine that you have to be impressive. Style. You should avoid sloppiness and a casual manner of expression. Remember that speech and writing are two different forms of communication. Avoid the use of a chatty or a conversational manner when writing. Do not use contractions (isnt, cant, dont) which occur in speech but should not be used in academic writing. These terms should be written out in full, as is not, can not, and do not. Abbreviations. Avoid the use of common abbreviations such as etc, eg, &, ie. These may be used in your brief notes and whilst planning a piece of work, but when you produce the essay or project such terms should be written out in full: (for example, and, that is). There is a good case for avoiding et cetera altogether: it gives the impression of laziness. Punctuation. Punctuate your writing clearly, making a clear distinction between marks such as the comma, the semicolon, and the full stop. Remember that all sentences without exception must begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop. Most people who have problems with style could help themselves by using less punctuation and writing shorter sentences. Syntax. Remember that the common word order (syntax) of a simple sentence written in English is as follows:
SUBJECT (The cat) - VERB (sat on) - OBJECT (the mat)

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If in doubt, adopt this pattern in forming your sentences. Most sentences which skid out of grammatical control do so when these elements are put into a different order. 6. Construction. In general, you should avoid starting sentences with words such as Again, Although, But, And, Also, and With. These are conjunctions which are used for joining together two or more separate clauses. People who start sentences with these terms often fail to realise that they are starting their sentence in its middle. They then forget to include the subject of their statement, and the result is very frequently a grammatical disaster. Tone. Avoid using unnecessary jargon (technical terms), clich (leave no stone unturned), vogue words (situation or ongoing), and slang (far-out, fantastic). These all create a tone which is inappropriate for an academic essay. Metaphor. Avoid using metaphors and figures of speech which you are used to seeing in print. (This is one of George Orwells rules for avoiding a tired style.) Punctuation. The paragraph which follows demonstrates the correct use of the comma, semicolon, colon, and full stop.

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Punctuation should always be used lightly, even sparingly, and as accurately as possible. You will discover through practice that there are three basic rules: the comma, semicolon, and colon mark increasingly long pauses; full stops separate distinct sentences; and a new paragraph should always be used to begin a new topic or point of argument.

Miscellaneous punctuation
1. Brackets. The use of brackets (whose technical name is parentheses) should be kept to a minimum. They are used to indicate a supplementary remark, an authorial aside, or a qualification of some sort. If they are used too frequently, they interrupt the flow of the argument and create a choppy, unsettling effect. Square brackets. Square brackets [like these] are used to indicate authorial additions, changes to, or your own comments on somebody elses text. For instance, if you are quoting a text which requires brief amplification, you would insert your own remarks between square brackets:
Thompsons article then goes on to claim that these dramatic upheavals [in government policy] were heralded by cabinet reshuffles earlier in the year (3) and it ends with an analysis of the election results.

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[Sic]. If a quotation contains a mistake in the original you might wish to indicate that the error is not your own:
The senior government minister recently acquitted of kerb-crawling claimed that at long last his trails [sic] and tribulations were at an end.

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Exclamation. The exclamation mark (!) should be used as little as possible in academic essays. They tend to create a somewhat juvenile, over-excited tone, and in any form of writing the more frequently they are used, the weaker becomes their effect. Questions. The question mark (?) too should be used as little as possible. In fact questions should not be raised in essays - unless you are going on to answer them. Keep in mind that most essays are posed in the form of questions which you should answer. Dont make life more complex than it need be by inventing new questions. Dashes. Try to minimise the use of the dash (). These may be used singly to indicate an afterthought, or in pairs to insert an explanatory comment or a short list. They should not be used as a substitute for parentheses, or mixed with them.
Everything in the house furniture, carpets, paintings, and books survived the fire.

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Hyphen. The hyphen (-) is a short dash used to connect prefixes to words (multi-storey car park) or when forming compounds such as son-in-law or a couldnt-care-less attitude.

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Oblique stroke. In general, the oblique stroke (/) should not be used as a substitute for words such as and, plus, and or. Try to avoid the either/or construction and such lazy (and ugly) compounds as this:
an entire social/sexual/ideological system

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Pointers. The combination of colon-plus-dash (:-) (which is called the pointer) is never necessary. Some people use this to indicate that a list will follow, but the colon alone should be sufficient. Bad writing. Too frequent or uncontrolled use of these marks of punctuation tends to create a loose, sloppy style. In general you should keep them strongly in check, otherwise you might produce writing as bad as this:
What went wrong? - how was the political impetus of the late 60s/70s lost that manifested itself so strikingly in the field of film study?

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Quotation. Quotations from a text are normally shown in single quote marks - like this. When quoting speech use double quote marks:
"These conventions are designed to give your coursework essays a pleasing and well-designed appearance", the tutor said to the students.

Good style
1. Jargon. This is defined as the technical language of a profession or group. The implication is that this language is not intelligible to people outside the group. When solicitors use terms such as probate, leasehold, and conveyance they are using the jargon of their profession which in general is only intelligible to other solicitors. Restraint. Only use the specialised terms of your own subject when you are quite sure of their meaning. Do not use newly acquired technical terms just for the sake of trying to be impressive. You are more likely to create a bad rather than a good impression. Tone. Too much use of the first person pronoun (I think that and I feel that) has the effect of making an essay too personal and subjective in its manner. I think E.H. Carr is a really brilliant historian, and when I first started reading The Bolshevik Revolution I suddenly felt ... . This approach is also likely to encourage a casual and conversational tone, which is inappropriate in a formal essay. Objectivity. You can easily avoid the use of I think and I believe by substituting impersonal expressions such as It seems that...Carr argues that...but there is now increasingly good evidence to show that.... Tense. When writing essays which deal with a literary text, the easiest way of discussing events and characters is to use the present rather than the past tense. The present is less cumbersome to deal with than the past tense. You are less likely to become grammatically confused when dealing with topics from different points in the chronology of events. If this seems odd at first, remember that the contents of the text will never change. They exist in a sort of frozen present.

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History. Essays dealing with history or political issues of the past are normally and most logically written in the past tense:
Within six weeks of the revolution Cossack armies and other white forces were already mustering in south-eastern Russia; the Ukraine, egged on by French and British promises, was in a state of all but open hostilities against the Soviet power; the Germans, in spite of the armistice, were a standing threat in the west. E.H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution 1917-1923: Volume One, Penguin: 1984, p.167

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Journalese. Some people try to give a sense of vividness or urgency to their writing by casting their narratives in the present tense. The result is often modish and posturing. This should be avoided in academic writing.
Within six weeks of the revolution Cossack armies and other white forces are already mustering in south-eastern Russia; the Ukraine, egged on by French and British promises, is in a state of all but open hostilities against the Soviet power; the Germans, in spite of the armistice, are a standing threat in the west.

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Scientific writing. When writing scientific reports, the past tense is generally to be preferred. The solubility of potassium dichromate in chloroform was measured. However, when the item at issue is a fact or a constant, it may be spoken of in the present tense because it will not change: The dipole moment of hydrogen chloride is 1.05 Debye. Directness. A manner of expression which is direct, simple, and clear is preferable to one which is flamboyant or wordy. Keep your writing short and to the point. He sent for the doctor is more direct than He called into requisition the services of the family physician. Gender. You can avoid the use of the rather clumsy he or she, the ugly he/she, and the ridiculous s/he by simply using the plural. Instead of writing Each student will receive his or her diploma just write Students will receive their diplomas.

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Writing essays
1. Answer the question. No matter how interesting or well written an essay, you will not be given any credit for your efforts unless it answers the question which was set. This is the most important feature of what makes a good essay: it must deal with the subject or the topic(s) posed in the question rubric or title. This requires that you both understand what the question is asking for and that you follow all its instructions. (See Analysing questions) Relevance. Each separate point of your argument should be directly relevant to the subject in question. The relevance of an argument can usually be judged by the relationship of each paragraph to the original question or topic. In good essays the first (topic) sentence of each new paragraph will be firmly anchored to the topic in question. (See Clear writing) Structure. An essay should be like a good piece of architecture which is built on firm foundations to carefully made plans. The points of your argument should be arranged in some form which is logical and persuasive. If you are dealing with a number of issues the relation between them should be made quite clear. The connections between each part and the original question should be evident at every stage of the argument. (See Essay planning) Appropriate style. For an academic essay the third person (he, she, or it) rather than the first person (I) is preferable - although occasional use of I may be accepted if a personal opinion has been specifically requested. In scientific essays or reports, you should use the passive voice and past tense (The solubility of potassium dichromate was measured) rather than a personal and active voice (We took the average of six samples). Audience. You should keep your audience in mind. Try to imagine that you are addressing someone who is intelligent and reasonably, but not necessarily well informed in the subject. Although it is your tutors who will actually read coursework essays, they are written for this imaginary audience. In more advanced work such as dissertations and theses you are writing for the supervisors and examiners who will read them. Accuracy. Remember that your written style should be grammatically coherent. Poor punctuation and sentence construction, mixed tenses and metaphors, and even spelling mistakes will create a bad impression. Always take the trouble to edit your work thoroughly and remove any mistakes or blemishes. (See Clear writing) Evidence. Essays should not be composed of merely a series of unsupported assertions. You need to provide some evidence to support your arguments - either in the form of factual details, your own reasoning, or the arguments of others. Show that you have a knowledge of the subject you are studying by drawing upon your reading of it to create these arguments.

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Attribute. If you draw upon the work of others, you should always acknowledge the fact that you are using someone elses ideas. Be honest, and record your sources accurately by using a system of endnotes. Never try to pass off other peoples written words as your own. This is a form of intellectual dishonesty which is severely frowned upon in academic circles. (See Academic presentation) Clarity of thought. One of the hallmarks of a good essay is that it demonstrates clarity of thought. It might reveal an ability to identify different types of issues and argue them through logically. It should show materials well organised into a coherent structure. It will probably display that you are able to make important distinctions and insights. These skills may not come easily at first, but with practice it is possible to gain greater clarity through discipline, selection, and planning. (See Clear thinking) Reading and understanding. Essays are often set to encourage and direct your reading in a subject. If you show that you have read widely and thoroughly understood the subject, you will be demonstrating your competence. The best essays are often produced by people who have taken the trouble to acquaint themselves both with the set book(s) and with secondary works of commentary and criticism as well. They will often show evidence of intellectual curiosity which has gone beyond the bounds of what has been prescribed as a minimum. Competence. An essay which competently reviews all the well-known arguments in a subject, answers the question, and reaches a balanced conclusion should normally be rewarded with a good mark. You should not imagine that you need to be extraordinarily gifted to do well. Originality. The highest marks are often given to essays which display some special quality or something extra to what is required. This may be a demonstration of original ideas or an unusual, imaginative approach. Such essays usually stand out because of their freshness and the sense of intellectual excitement they convey. But remember that you are not required to be original. Your tutor(s) will be perfectly satisfied if you simply answer essay questions in a sensible and competent manner.

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Introductions
1. Introductions. An introduction should normally address itself directly to the question topic. If possible it should be a bright crisp statement which seizes the readers attention. Introductions which are direct and clear usually signal essays which will be addressing the relevant issues. Definitions. Try to avoid producing introductions which offer long-winded discussions of the terms in which the question is set. Unless the question specifically (or by implication) asks you to do this, you should not need to debate definitions. Your understanding of the terms in the question should be made clear from the arguments in your essay. Difficulty. Even if you think the question is especially difficult or that it embraces complex issues, you should avoid saying so as part of your introduction. This often creates the impression that you are making excuses

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in advance. Questions are set to pose difficulties: your task is to answer them. You might however wish to name or outline the difficulties - so long as you go on to tackle them. 4. Restatement. It is not a good idea to restate the question, and if possible you should even avoid using the same terms as those in which it is set. You may however wish to translate it into your own terms - paraphrasing it as a demonstration that you understand what it calls for. Approach. An introduction should make clear the particular approach you intend to take in the essay. However, try to avoid signposting your answer with expressions such as First I will be discussing ... then later I will go on to consider.... There should be no need to discuss the structure of your essay. In a successful piece of writing it should reveal itself as the essay unfolds. Proportion. Introductions should not usually constitute more than five to ten percent of the total length of an essay. One paragraph of two hundred words on the first page should normally be enough. More than this may be taking too long to get to the point. Directness. If in doubt, you might go straight to your answer. Some tutors argue that no introduction at all is often preferable to one which is vague or uncertain. If all your arguments are directly relevant to the question, your approach to it will quickly become apparent. Example. This is a reasonably good introduction to the question Are there universals?
Plato was the first to deal comprehensively with the concept of universals, and he did so in such a compelling manner that his ideas still have an influential force today. His general method is to set himself questions (through the mouthpiece of Socrates). He begins The Republic by asking What is Justice? and goes on in pursuing this question to ask What is the Good?. This method, it will be seen, somewhat predetermines the nature of his answers.

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8. Strategies. Many people find introductions difficult to write for a number of reasons which are largely to do with essay writing strategies. o You have not yet written the essay and are therefore not sure what you are going to say. o If the argument does not yet exist, you may not be sure what you are introducing. o You find it difficult to summarise an argument which does not yet exist. 9. Solution. The solution to this problem is to leave writing the introduction until after the essay has been produced. It will be much easier to write after the first draft has been produced and you have a grasp of the substance of your overall argument.

Conclusions
1. Summary. A good conclusion should draw together all the arguments of an essay into one general statement. This statement must be directly relevant to the original question. The statement offers a rapid summation of the ideas discussed in the essay - and tries to add something else in addition. Avoid restatement. Try to avoid merely repeating the statements made in your introduction. Do not restate the original question, and if possible avoid using the terms in which it was posed. To do so creates a weak and disappointing effect. End brightly. Try to end on a crisp and firm note. Many good essays will save a telling phrase for this point. Others might finish with an appropriate quotation. It creates a good impression if your conclusion can somehow echo the introduction. Save your best shot for last. Abruptness. Do not end abruptly, because this creates an impression of haste and incompleteness. It can easily suggest that you broke off with nothing else to say or that you could not be bothered to complete the essay. Keep in mind the point that a conclusion returns to the original question. Raising the level. If possible, you should try to raise the topic to its next higher intellectual level. This can sometimes be done by relating the original question to the subject of study as a whole. You might end the essay by discussing briefly why it is important or what issues it leads on to. Example. This is a good conclusion to an essay in response to the following question: What is the value of studying the writings of dead men? Is sociology too obsessed with the classics?
The one thing all these thinkers have in common is that they were trying to provide solutions to the problems of human existence. As science rationalised the physical world, so the desire to rationalise human activity became stronger. It may well be that human behaviour is essentially subjective and incapable of being totally understood. This may not be such a bad thing. The implications otherwise are that whole groups of people could be subject to experiments in social engineering. Nevertheless, it seems certain that people will never stop trying to make sense of the often chaotic conditions in which they find themselves. If that is the case, then we ignore history at our peril: a refusal to learn from the mistakes of the past can only lead to a repetition of such errors. The great men of sociologys past have at least provided us with some ammunition to protect ourselves against such eventualities.

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Paragraphs
1. Definition. The purpose (and definition) of a paragraph is that it deals with just one topic or point of argument in an essay. That topic or argument should be announced in the first sentence, which is sometimes called a topic sentence. Good essays are usually built from paragraphs whose topic sentences are directly related to the question.

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Development. The sentences which follow it normally expand and develop the topic sentence, explaining its significance to the question in general. This explanation is then illustrated by examples which are discussed at greater length. Conclusion. The paragraph is finally rounded off with a statement which summarises the point(s) being made, and if possible links the argument back to the question. It may also contain some element which looks forward to what is coming in the next paragraph. Links. Consecutive paragraphs may be linked with terms such as Nevertheless, ... and On the other hand, ... so as to provide a sense of continuity in your argument. However, if you are in any doubt, let them stand separately and speak for themselves. Structure. Paragraphs might be thought of in structural terms as being like essays in miniature: Introductory statement Explanation and development Illustrative examples Conclusion 6. Example. What follows is an example of an entire paragraph which has been punctuated using only the comma and the full stop. It discusses the nature of a paragraph itself.
The central thought or main controlling idea of a paragraph is usually conveyed in what is called a topic sentence. This crucial sentence which states, summarises or clearly expresses the main theme, is the keystone of a well-built paragraph. The topic sentence may come anywhere in the paragraph, though most logically and in most cases it is the first sentence. This immediately tells readers what is coming, and leaves them in no doubt about the overall controlling idea. In a very long paragraph, the initial topic sentence may even be re-stated or given a more significant emphasis in its conclusion.

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7. Short paragraphs. Avoid using very short paragraphs in essays. They are sometimes used for dramatic effect in fiction and journalism, but they are out of place in academic writing. If a paragraph contains no more than one or two sentences, there is not much chance of an argument being developed or examples discussed and analysed.

Academic presentation
1. Quotation. There are in general two instances when you may wish to use quotations from other writers work. o When you wish to cite evidence from text books or secondary sources to support your argument. o When a piece of literature is itself the subject of your essay (say, criticism of a poem or a novel) and you need to refer to it in your discussion. 2. Accuracy. The academic conventions for presenting quotations and references are relatively simple, and they are based on the need for accuracy, consistency, and clarity. Tutors marking your work should if necessary be able to check the accuracy of the quotations you use. They will not normally do this, but they should be able to check when they think you have mis-quoted. Example. In a discussion of the development of Marxs philosophy for example, you might argue that his work was a natural development of his predecessors. You could then support your assertion by quoting David McLellan, who points out that Marx began by paying tribute to the achievements of Feuer-bach, particularly in having shown that Hegels philosophy was no more than a rationalised theology. (1) Endnotes. A bracketed number is added immediately after the quotation, and the source of your quotation is given as a note at the end of your essay.
NOTES

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1.David McLellan, The Thought of Karl Marx, London: Macmillan, 1971, p.26.

6. Publication details. This information should always be given in the following order. Remember to indicate the titles of books by underlining in handwritten scripts, or choosing italics or bold if using a word-processor. Author - Title - Publisher - Date of publication - Page number 6. Footnotes. The information may also be given as a footnote at the bottom of the page, but this is an extremely difficult system of referencing to control and plan. It is also disappearing from common usage in favour of endnotes. These are much easier to control and arrange. Quote marks. The quoted material is placed between two single quotation marks - unless the length of the quotation is more than three lines of your own text. In this case it is indented and no quote marks are necessary:
Marx began by paying tribute to the achievements of Feuerbach, particularly in having shown that Hegels philosophy was no more than a rationalised theology, and having discovered the true materialist approach by starting from the social relationship of man to man. (1)

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Argument. You should keep in mind that it is your own argument which should be offered first, and you then reinforce it with quotation from an authoritative source. You are using this secondary evidence of acknowledged specialists to support your own views.

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Brevity. The quotations you offer should be as brief as possible to make their point. Dont be tempted to offer long quotations from other peoples work in the hope that this will act as a substitute for your own argument. Nor should you stitch together a patchwork of quotations from disparate sources with a few words of your own. This creates the impression that you are relying too heavily on other peoples work. Long quotes. Sometimes in more advanced essays it is necessary to quote longer passages. You may be going on to discuss the authors argument in some detail and at greater length. This is permissible, but it should not be done too frequently, otherwise it creates a bad impression. Paragraphs. Each main point of your own argument should normally be made, explained, and developed in its own separate paragraph. This should not normally need more than one brief quotation from a secondary source to support it. Literary texts. When the subject matter of your essay is the discussion of a literary text (say, criticism of a novel or a poem) you should follow the same principle. Directly after the first use of a quotation you should give a full bibliographic description of the text as an endnote. This will accurately identify the text with which you are dealing. Conventions. This information may be given within brackets in the body of your essay, but you will be developing good academic habits if you place the information as a note at the end of the essay. This will also help you to create an essay which is less cluttered and easier to read. Single text. If your essay is exclusively concerned with this one text, all subsequent quotations from it may simply be followed by page references. Just add an explanation to the endnote - all subsequent page references are to this edition. Multiple texts. If you will be quoting from a variety of other sources in the same essay, you should number the quotations and give the sources accurately. These will be given as a series of endnotes. Whatever system of notation you adopt, a reader should be able to follow the connexion between the quotation and its source as easily as possible. Mixed systems. It is also permissible to mix these two forms of referencing, so long as the distinctions are made clear. If your piece of work was a long essay on Bleak House for instance, it would be acceptable to identify all your quotations from the novel with page references. Immediately following your first quotation you would give full details of the edition you were using. Subsequent quotations from other critics or sources would be identified as separate endnotes. Bracketed notes. It is also quite acceptable to give the sources of your quotations within the text of your argument as bracketed notes. This clutters the appearance of the argument somewhat, but at least it demonstrates the rigour of your approach.
Paradoxically, it may be argued that this freedom from verification allows the literary text to engage more closely with history. Walter Benjamins view that only literature can deal

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unequivocally with historical reality can be illuminated by Primo Levis The Juggler (Prose Anthology, p.158). Levi, who was an Italian Jew in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz, writes from his experience but makes no claim to objective historiography. In the preface to The Drowned and the Saved (Sphere 1989, trans. Raymond Rosenthal) Levi says It is natural and obvious that the most substantial material for the reconstruction of truth about the camps is constituted by the memories of the survivors ... But I do not intend to do a historians work (p.9, my emphasis).

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Continuity. There must be grammatical continuity and sense maintained between any quotation and your own argument. To arrange this it may be necessary to add or delete words from the material quoted, or to change the tense of the original. Whenever you do this, any changes should be very small and they must be properly acknowledged.
[It was] as if she were loved by him ... but notwithstanding this strange circumstance, she regarded the man as no more than a casual acquaintance who occasionally made her laugh (p.7)

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Additions. Square brackets are used to indicate any words of your own which you have added to make the quotation fit within your own argument, grammatically or otherwise. Sometimes, one or two words are added in this way to provide a brief context for the quotation. Emphasis. If you wish to draw attention to a particular word or some part of the quotation, you should provide the emphasis. Do this by underlining (or using italics) and then immediately admitting the fact as if she were loved by him (p.7 - my emphasis) and then carrying on with what you wish to say in the remainder of your argument. Ellipsis. To shorten a quotation or remove some part of it that is not relevant to your argument, you may wish to omit a number of words. To denote this omission (which is called an ellipsis) you should use the convention of the three dots ... in the space which is left. Remember that three dots alone are enough: you do not need several scattered across the page.
He had a kind of assurance on his face ... the assurance of a common man who is filled with pride. (p.17)

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Meaning. This device should not be used to change the sense of the original in any way, or to misrepresent its spirit. Such practices are generally regarded as illegitimate and academically fraudulent. Selection. The three dots denoting ellipsis do not need to be placed at the beginning or the end of your quotation. Even if you are quoting just a few words from within a sentence, the quote may stand on its own. Speech. The general convention for indicating quotation from a text is to use single quote marks (unmitigated) and to reserve double quotes marks for indicating speech ("Good gracious!" cried the duchess.) Changing quotes. When quoting conversation from a literary text, continue to follow these rules. However, if it makes things easier, put the

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words spoken within double quote marks even if they were in single quote marks in the original:
Kayerts is being doubly hypocritical and self-deceiving when following this he observe[s] with a sigh: "It had to be done" (p.39)

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Reference systems. If you are quoting more than once from a number of works in an essay, you might wish to save yourself the trouble of giving a full reference each time by using either the op. cit./ibid. or the short title convention. Different subjects have their own general practices in this respect - but the short title system is probably the more widely used and easier to follow. Make yourself acquainted with the conventions of your own subject. (See Abbreviations) Tradition. Even if you are not going to use the system of Latin abbreviations, it is a good idea to understand the meaning of op. cit. and ibid. and such terms. Many of the academic books in libraries have their notes set out in this way. Knowing the system will help you find information more efficiently. Op. cit. To use the system of Latin abbreviations, the first quotation from a text is referenced fully with an endnote. In any references which follow, just give the authors name followed by op. cit. (which means in the work already quoted) and then the page number - as follows:
11. J.D. Bryant, The Origins of Mythology, London: Carfax Press, 1971, p.234. 12. History Today, Vol XXXIV, No 18, p.123. 13. Bryant, op. cit., p. 387.

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Ibid. If the very next quotation is again from the same work, the abbreviation ibid. (which means in the same place) is followed by a page reference. The sequence just given would therefore be extended as follows:
11. J.D. Bryant, The Origins of Mythology, London: Carfax Press, 1971, p.234. 12. History Today, Vol XXXIV, No 18, p.123. 13. Bryant, op. cit., p. 387. 14. ibid., p. 388.

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Short title. The short title system is particularly useful for longer essays which deal with a number of texts or different books by the same author. The principle is the same one of giving full bibliographical details in the first reference. Subsequent quotations are given a reference composed of the authors surname, a shortened form of the book title, and the page number. The examples shown above would therefore appear as follows:
11. J.D. Bryant, The Origins of Mythology, London: Carfax Press, 1971, p.234. 12. History Today, Vol XXXIV, No 18, p.123. 13. Bryant, Mythology, p. 387.

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Author-date system. In some subjects (such as history and sociology) the convention is to use a system which combines the authors surname with the date of publication. Each note in the text is given as a bracketed reference. Note 11 in the example above would appear as (Bryant,

1971:234). At the end of the essay an alphabetical list of authors would be given (as in a bibliography) but with the date of publication moved forward to follow the authors name. The source of note 11 would therefore be listed as: Bryant, J.D. (1971), The Origins of Mythology, London: Carfax Press. 32. Literary texts. The conventions of quoting from long poems and plays are exactly the same. For the convenience of the reader however, line numbers are usually given. However, this is not necessary if the poem is less than fifty lines long. Misunderstandings. There are a number of widespread misunderstandings about the use of quotation and systems of bibliographic referencing. o You should not put page references before a quotation: they are placed immediately after the quotation, within your text. o References and note numbers should not be added to the essay after the essay has been produced and written into the margins or squeezed above the text as superscripts. o You should not locate references as part of your own argument with expression such as and we see this on page 27 where he collapses slowly ... then later in the paragraph where he recovers. o Ellipses are shown by three dots only - not a random number scattered across the page. 34. Conventions. It is worth taking the trouble to follow the conventions outlined above. Once you have brought simplicity and clarity to the presentation of your quotations, it will help to improve the appearance and credibility of your work.

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Bibliography
1. Bibliography. This is normally given as the last item in an essay. It appears as a list on the last (separate) page giving details of the books which have been consulted during the composition of the essay. The purpose of the list is to reveal to your tutor that you have considered materials appropriate to the essay assignment. The list. You will be listing sources from which you have quoted, but you should also include any which may have formed part of your background reading. Do not be tempted to note books you have not read just for the sake of creating a long list. You will not be given any extra credit, and doing this can easily appear pretentious. Order. The details of the texts are given in the standard form of bibliographic information: Author - Title - Publisher - Publication date. The authors name is usually given with the surname first.

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Sample bibliography Beeton, I., Beetons Book of Household Management, Chancellor Press, 1991. Best, G., Mid-Victorian Britain 1851-75, Fontana, 1979. Branca, P., Silent Sisterhood, Croom Helm, 1975. Burman, S. (ed), Fit Work for Women, Croom Helm, 1979. Burnett, J., Useful Toil, Allen Lane, 1974. Darwin, E., Domestic Service, The Nineteenth Century, Vol.28, August 1890. Davidoff, L., The Best Circles, Croom Helm, 1973. Davidoff, L., Mastered for Life: Servant and Wife in Victorian and Edwardian England, Journal of Economic and Social History, Vol.7, 1974.

Presentation of essays
1. Clarity. It is very important that you present your finished work as clearly and as neatly as possible. Try to observe the following general guidelines to create an attractive page layout. You may not necessarily gain marks for good presentation, but you are likely to loose them for work which is untidy. Paper. Use A4 size paper - lined if you are writing and plain if you are typing. This is now accepted as the international standard for most printed and written materials in the fields of education and commerce. If you are using a printer which has paper on a continuous roll, remove the strips at each edge which have sprocket holes. Detach the pages from each other across the perforations before submitting your work. Dont forget to number the separate pages. Writing. Word-processed or typewritten work is preferable, but if this is not possible write as clearly and neatly as possible, using a pen which writes with black ink. Remember that standards of presentation are being driven up all the time. Some tutors may deduct marks for untidy work. Margins. Leave margins of at least one-and-a-half inches at each edge of your text and at least one inch at the top and bottom of each page. This may seem rather a lot at first, but it will almost certainly enhance the appearance of what you produce. White space. The purpose of all this white space is to leave plenty of room in which your tutor can write detailed comments or corrections, so as to offer you direct guidance on what you have written. (See Tutor comments) Line spacing. If the document is a normal essay, use one-and-a-half or double line spacing. This too creates space for tutor comment. If the document is one which will be read at greater length, such as a report or a dissertation, use normal single line spacing. The comments on such work are usually made on separate sheets.

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Paragraphs. Leave extra space between paragraphs. If you follow this rule you do not need to indent the first line of the paragraph. This enhances layout, and it will also help you to organise the structure of your argument. Pages. Write on one side of a page only. Leave the other side blank. Remember to number each of the pages. This will lessen the chance of your work becoming disordered. The blank pages are available for additional comments if necessary. Headings. Headings or question titles should be separated from the body of the essay text. For those using typewriters or word-processors, emphasis should be given by using BOLD or (less desirable) ITALICS. There is no need to underline titles or headings, and do not create them in continuous capitals. Titles. Remember to underline the titles of book-length publications in handwritten essays. If you are using a word-processor, use italics or bold to indicate the titles of books - but remember to be consistent throughout your document. Security. When submitting the essay, keeping the pages secured by one staple in the top left-hand corner is acceptable. Better still, use one of the transparent plastic document holders which are now increasingly popular. Do not fasten pages together with pins. These are a nuisance and a health hazard. Postage. If you need to post work back to your tutor, use large A4 or A5 size envelopes. Try to avoid folding any of your written work, and do not use small sized envelopes which are designed for letters. Copies. If you are a distance learning student using the post, or if you have a particularly long or valuable essay on which you have spent a lot of time then you might wish to take a photocopy of your work as a precaution against loss. If you are using a word-processor, keep a copy of your work on disk.

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Abbreviations
1. The following is a short list of terms you will frequently encounter in the text, the index, or the bibliography of many books designed for an academic audience. They are almost all brief or abbreviated forms of expressions in Latin. You may wish to make use of them in your own notes or references, but in general you should not use the abbreviations in the body of an essay. If you wish to use these terms, they should be written out in full. That is, dont put eg, but write out for example. Notice that a full stop is placed after an abbreviation, but not when the full word is used. This is correct usage, but sometimes the full stop is omitted in order to avoid double punctuation. In printed books, these terms are normally set in italics. If you are using a word-processor, you might wish to do the same.

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app. appendix. c. (circa) about: usually with a date, to show that it is only approximate. For example: c.1830. cf. (confer) compare. ch. chapter (plural chaps.) col. column (plural cols.) do. (ditto) the same. e.g. (exempli gratia) for example. ed. edition; edited by; editor (plural eds.) esp. especially. et al. (et alii, aliae, or alia) and others: to save writing out a whole list of names. Eg: Harkinson et al. et seq. (et sequens) and the following. Eg: p.36 et seq. etc. (et cetera) and so forth. [An over-used term. Worth avoiding if possible.] fig. figure (plural figs.) f./ff. following. Eg: 8f. = page 8 and the following page. 8ff. = page 8 and the following pages. ibid.( ibidem) in the same place: used in an index to show that the reference in question comes from the book or article previously mentioned. i.e. (id est) that is. inf. (infra) below: refers to a section still to come. l.line (plural ll.) [Use with care. These can easily be mistaken for numbers One and Eleven.] loc. cit. (loco citato) at the place quoted: used in an index to show that the reference in question comes from the same place in a book or article as the one previously quoted. n. note, footnote (plural nn.) op. cit. (opere citato) from the work already quoted. p. page (plural pp.) [Always precedes the number.] para. paragraph (plural paras.) passim in many places: often found in an index to indicate that there are many references to a particular person or topic, perhaps too many to list. q.v. (quod vide) literally which see, or look up this point or topic somewhere else in this book. For example: q.v. p.32.

sic thus. Used when you wish to quote a word or extract, usually written by somebody else, which contains a mistake or an inaccuracy. It is a way of indicating that it is not your mistake. For example: The parents wrote a note saying that the boy was now too fritened (sic) to come to school. Supra above: in that part of the book or the article which has already been dealt with. trans. translator, translated by. viz. (videlicet) namely, that is to say. Used following words which promise or clearly require further explanation. For example: Under certain conditions, viz. that .... vol. volume (plural vols.)

Revision and examinations

1. Regular practice. All the academic research shows that regular revision will improve your learning performance. Revision is not something that should be left until the last minute - just before an examination. If possible, you should revise your work to date every four to six weeks throughout a course of study. Remove strain. This technique will remove some of the strain of trying to revise your work in the last few days before an examination. It spreads the learning process more evenly throughout your studies. It will also give you the chance to develop confidence that you have understood its concepts, materials and issues. Realism. However, though such a technique is strongly recommended, it may not always be possible. People who are learning whilst leading busy lives or studying more than a single course may need to compromise. Being realistic, the time for revision for many people will normally come towards the end of a course. Timetable. The most useful technique for revising successfully is to create a timetable. This should set out the time(s) you have available and the topics you need to cover in the run-up period to the examination(s). Allow six to eight weeks minimum if possible, and allocate regular slots of time to cover all topics. (See Time management) Strategy. You may wish to put the emphasis on revising the topics you know best in order to score with maximum effect. Alternatively you might give more time to your weaker subjects, because you have not covered them quite so thoroughly on the course. In some subjects, it might be necessary to revise the whole of the course. Best work. You are likely to remember best those subjects into which you have put most effort during the course. In this respect, coursework essays and projects make useful revision materials because you will have concentrated on them during the course. Re-read the work you have produced during a course, and take note of your tutors comments. Extra marks. Keep in mind that marks are more easily gained at the lower end of the marking scale than at the higher. It is easier to score the first forty percent which will gain a pass than the last forty which would take you from the second class into the distinction category. In revising therefore, you might gain more marks putting effort into your weaker topics, rather than over-concentrating on your stronger. New topics. Dont make the mistake of trying to learn something completely new immediately before the examination. It is very unlikely that you will be able to successfully integrate this topic with what you know already.

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Revision techniques
1. Timetable. Plan your revision well in advance, and try to think of it as an integral part of the course. Whatever you do, never try to cram the revision of an entire course into the last few days before an examination. Just because other students may be doing this, dont imagine that it is good practice. Time management. Arrange your sessions of revision in manageable blocks of time so that you will be working in shorter rather than longer periods. If necessary, intersperse these with short breaks. This will help you to remember your material more efficiently. Concentration. Dont try to revise too many subjects at the same time. Too much topic-switching may cause confusion. One subject on a given day may be enough. Variety. If you start to feel very jaded, it may perk up your feelings to approach a second subject just for variety. However, do not use this as an excuse to escape topics which you find difficult. This too will lead to fragmentation. Timing. Most people work better in the earlier part of the day because they feel more mentally alert. Others may prefer to work in the evenings because it is the only part of the day when they can arrange the necessary peace and quiet. Choose whichever suits your purposes and your temperament, but try to be disciplined about deciding on your routine and then sticking to it. Excess. Dont drive yourself to the point of exhaustion or go on revising until late into the night. You are not likely to retain a firm grasp of material you have studied when feeling tired. A well planned timetable should help you to avoid this danger. Repetition. It is possible to use quite short periods of just a few minutes for rehearsing chronological lists, foreign language vocabulary, and scientific formulae. On topics such as these, five or ten minutes rehearsal several times a day is probably better than one block of an hour. Prompt cards. Carry round prompt cards or short lists for revising in brief periods of available time. These are normally constructed by making a digest of your notes on index cards. (See Note taking)

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Revision conditions
1. Best conditions. You should try to arrange the best possible conditions for efficient revision. These should include being on your own, free from distractions, and having all your study materials easily to hand. Materials. Sit at a desk or a table if possible, with your work spread out before you. Text books, course notes, reference works, and writing materials should all be within reach. Do not invent for yourself the excuse of having to go to another room to find that important book. Arrangements. Your working conditions should be comfortable - but not too much so. The room should be warm and well ventilated. If it becomes too warm or stuffy however, it will be sure to induce drowsiness.

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Lighting. Lighting is very important. Unless your materials are well illuminated your reading will be less efficient, you will strain your eyes, and you will tend to become drowsy. Work in good natural light if possible, or if not, use a strong lamp directed onto materials. Background. Most people should avoid background music. If you find it soothing however, make sure it is not loud and does not include lyrics. Avoid speech broadcasts as background. Television should be completely prohibited. You should not even be in the same room as a television set which is switched on.

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Revision materials and topics

1. Coursework notes. Read through your coursework or lecture notes. This should give you a comprehensive overview of the course, its topics and themes. If any notes are missing, borrow some from a fellow student and copy them out. Avoid leaving gaps in your knowledge. Even if you do not revise every topic with equal thoroughness, an awareness of the whole course will help you make connexions between its parts. Essays. Read through your coursework essays as a good form of revision. This is the work you probably know best, since you probably spent most time on it. You will be building on an existing body of knowledge and experience which is directly related to the course. Tutor comment. Make sure that you understand any of the tutors comments on your work and their relevance to the subject. If there is anything which is not clear ask for advice or guidance wherever this is possible. Vocabulary. Rehearse the technical vocabulary of your subject. Make sure that you know the meaning of its technical terms and how they are normally applied. Dont just look them up in a glossary: try to see them being used in a specific context. Handouts. Check through any notes or handouts from lectures or seminars. They should help you to develop a rounded picture of the course as a whole, even if they are not directly relevant to the topics on which you feel most confident. Exam papers. Make a study of past papers, analysing the rubrics carefully, and checking on their instructions. Practise analysing past questions, looking out for types of question which commonly occur. This will be far more useful than trying to guess which specific questions are going to appear.

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The examination
1. Time. During most examinations you will probably have to produce written responses to a number of questions in a very limited time. This may mean writing as many as three complete essays in rapid succession, each one in as little as forty-five minutes or an hour. The question. Because of this time limitation in exams, you do not need to write out the essay question in full on your script. To do this would be using

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up valuable time. But you should indicate clearly on the paper which question you have chosen to answer. 3. Read carefully. Read each of your chosen questions in scrupulously close detail. Pay attention to their principal topic(s) and check for such things as any either/or instruction terms. Make a note of the number of examples it requires you to consider in your answer. Plan. Write a very brief plan or a list of the topics you will cover on the left-hand page of the examination booklet. This will indicate to the examiner what you are setting out to consider. Such a layout has the advantage that you can change it or make additions whilst you are actually writing the essay. In the event of your not completing your answer you may be given some credit for your plan. Layout. Write your answers to the questions on the right-hand pages of the booklet only (unless you are instructed to do otherwise). Leave the left-hand pages blank. These blank pages can be used for making any later additions or alterations to your answer if necessary. Quality. Keep in mind that you will not be expected to produce work of the depth or quality required in the case of a normal course work essay. However, you should make every effort to write clearly and concisely, and if possible to give your answer a firm structure. Memory. You will probably not be expected to quote from memory extensive details of the texts and teaching materials you have been studying. Nevertheless, you should try to be as precise as possible and avoid any impression of sloppiness or uncertainty. Mistakes. If you make any mistakes of fact, spelling, or syntax, do not be afraid to correct them - but do so as neatly and clearly as possible. If you find that you have wandered from the point of the argument for instance, it is quite acceptable to cross out a whole paragraph. Corrections. If you discover that you have missed out a vital earlier part of your argument, it is possible to go back and insert the additional material. Write out the missing part on a left-hand page, and indicate with an arrow where it belongs in the argument. Open book exams. In open book exams you are allowed to take texts or teaching materials with you into the examination room. Do not be tempted to spend too much time searching for information or suitable quotations. Quite apart from the valuable time this may consume, it is far more important that you construct your own argument, using this secondary material as supportive evidence or illustration. Quotations. If you do locate suitable quotations, you should avoid quoting them at too great a length. Although they may seem very relevant as a support for your case, remember that the requirement of most examinations is that you should produce your own argument in response to a question.

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Check your work. When you have finished answering the questions, avoid the temptation just to hand in your work and leave the examination, even if there is time to spare. Such time is much better used in checking through your work. Correct any factual errors or grammatical slips.

Using computers
1. Advantages. There is now increasing use made of computers [that is, word-processors] for academic writing. The advantages they offer for the presentation of finished work are fairly obvious, but amongst their features they have many other powerful writing tools. Once most people have experienced their facilities for editing, rewriting, and general manipulation of text, they often wonder how they ever managed without them. Handwriting. Those people who are still constrained to writing their essays by hand need not feel disadvantaged. However, they should keep in mind that as presentation standards are forced up by the use of word-processors, tutors are likely to become less and less tolerant of untidy work. Legitimacy. Do not imagine that in using a computer you are somehow cheating. You should make use of any methods available to present your work as neatly and attractively as possible. Your tutors will welcome work that is well presented, and may quite rightly give you some extra credit for it. Editing. The main advantage of the computer for all writing tasks is that you are allowed unlimited scope for rewriting and editing what you produce. You may start out with just a sketchy outline, but to this you can add extra examples anywhere in the text, building up to the finished product in a number of separate stages. You can easily delete mistakes, move paragraphs around, import new material, and create the work in as many versions as you wish. Drafts. At first you may wish to continue the practice of producing a first draft in handwritten form, then typing it into your computers memory or onto disk. You can then edit what you have produced - either on screen or by printing out what you have produced. This is a common practice amongst those making the transition from handwriting to computer use. WYSIWYG. [Pronounced Whizzy-wig] In the initial stages you will probably feel a strong desire to see what you write printed out as soon as possible. With further experience however, you will probably edit on screen and only print out the finished version. More and more WYSIWYG word-processors (What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get) allow you to see a fairly accurate picture of what the finished document will look like. Layout. Before you print out your finished documents, leave plenty of blank space around the text so that your tutor can write detailed comments on what you have produced. Take the trouble to set wide margins, and follow the same guidelines for good presentation as you would for good handwritten work. Spacing. The processor will produce your work very neatly, but it will probably do so using single line-spacing. Even though you are likely to be very pleased by the neatness, it will be an advantage if you learn how to control your settings to create double spacing. Dont try to imitate the appearance of a printed book, but leave room so that your tutor can add comments and corrections between the lines of your text.

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Spell-checkers. If your word-processor has a spell-checking facility, then use it before you print out your documents. Remember however that it is unlikely to recognise specialist terms and unusual proper nouns - names such as Schlumberg, Dupont, or Nekrassov. These will not be in the processors memory. You will have to check the correct spelling of these yourself, as you will any other unusual words. Caution. Remember too that a spell-checker will not alert you to the fact that you have written They washed there own clothes instead of They washed their own clothes. This is because the word there is spelt correctly even though it is being used ungrammatically in this sentence. The same would be true of It is over hare instead of It is over here, because hare exists in its own right as a correctly spelt word. Titles. Use the italics or the bold facilities of a word-processor to indicate the titles of books - but remember to be consistent throughout your document. A.J.P. Taylors The Origins of the Second World War is just as acceptable as Margaret Meads Coming of Age in Samoa - though personally I prefer the former. If you do not have access to italics or bold, you should underline the title. Indenting. Take full advantage of any facilities for indenting to regularise the presentation of your quotations. Do not use the space bar to create indentation: this is likely to cause page layout problems. Use the tab key or the indent function key.
Double indentation is for those longer quotations which would otherwise occupy more than two or three lines of the text in your essay. Try to be consistent throughout your document.

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Notes. Advanced users may be tempted to take advantage of automatic footnoting facilities. Word-processors can certainly remove all the headaches from this procedure, but do not clutter the text with them just for the sake of showing off your command of technology. In a lot of books published recently for an academic audience, footnotes are being dropped in favour of endnotes. This is partly a matter of expense, but its also a reflection of changing notions of good taste. Paper. If your printer uses paper on a continuous roll, you should nevertheless present your work as separate pages. Take the trouble to number the pages, and detach them from each other before handing in the essay to your tutor. You should also remove any side-strips containing sprocket holes. Fonts. If your equipment offers you a variety of fonts (typefaces) and special effects, you should observe the following guidelines in making your selection. Many people wish to make use of these devices, but your finished documents will have a better appearance for restraint rather than flamboyance. Sans-serif. Avoid using sans-serif fonts such as Helvetica, Arial, or Geneva when printing out long documents and essays. These fonts may be suitable for titles, headings, signs, and advertising, but they make continuous reading very difficult.

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Readability. Choose a font with serifs (such as Garamond, or Times Roman) precisely because they are designed to make continuous reading easy. This is the purpose of the serifs - to lead the eye easily from one letter to the next. They also have a more elegant appearance on the page. .Display. Even if you have access to them, do not be tempted to use display or decorative fonts in your work (such as Showtime, or Burlesque). These are designed for advertising materials and fancy display. They are not at all suitable for academic writing. The same is true for those fonts which offer an imitation of handwriting (such as Pageant or Script). These can make reading almost impossible. .Special effects. Avoid the use of any special effects which might be available in your software. Do not use outlining, shadows, background effects, or reverse printing to produce decorative headings. These are designed for use in advertising and display materials. .Font-size. For most work such as essays, dissertations, or reports, the size of font chosen should be eleven or twelve points. This should be used for the main body of your writing. It will be easy to read, and will appear proportionate to its use, when printed out on A4 paper. Quotations. Long quotations (where necessary) should normally be set in the same font as the body of the text, but the size may be reduced by one or two points. This draws attention to the fact that it is a quotation from a secondary source. Remember that long and indented quotations do not need to be set in quote marks. Hyphenation. If your word-processor automatically hyphenates words at the end of a line, take care to read through the work before printing and eliminate any howlers such as the-rapist and thin-king. Just because the computer works automatically, dont think that it can make judgements of this kind for you. [I have deliberately left an example of bad hyphenation in this paragraph.] Widows and orphans. In laying out your pages, avoid creating paragraphs which start on the last line of a page or which finish on the first. (These are called, in the jargon of word-processing, Widows and Orphans). The solution to this problem is to reduce the number of lines on a page. Push the text forward if necessary. A larger margin than usual looks much better than a line left on its own. Headings. Titles, main headings, or essay questions may be presented in a slightly larger font size than the body of the text. They may be given emphasis by using italics or bold, or both these devices may be used. Emphasis. There is no need to use continuous capital letters in a title, heading, or question. There is also no need at all to underline. If something is a title, heading or a question at the head of an essay, then a larger font or the use of bold will be enough to give it emphasis and importance. Saving. One final rule which might save you many days of lost time and hours of carpet-biting rage. You should get into the habit of regularly saving your work. This is particularly true if you are sharing a machine or are networked with other people.

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Library and research skills

1. Libraries. If you are undertaking serious study, one skill which you should try to acquire is the ability to find information from beyond the confines of your study materials. This will usually involve using libraries or may require the skills of gathering information from historical sources or public records. Selection. Do not imagine that the secret of academic success lies in spending hours and hours rummaging in dusty archives. Nor does it necessarily involve borrowing ten books at a time from the library. It may well be that your questions can be answered and your tasks performed with reference to just one or two carefully selected texts. Basics. What is important is that you know how to find information where and when you need it. Knowing the basic principles of how to locate information is a far more valuable skill than simply being in possession of it. Reading lists. The simplest way to start developing these skills is to start out on the trail of Further Reading. This will normally be included towards the end of any of your text books or study materials. These will be books or articles of closely related interest which the author has either consulted or deems noteworthy. Bibliographies. These will usually be presented in standard bibliographic form - Author, Title, Publisher, Date. (Note that the authors name may be given surname or forename first.) If you have not already learned to use your most convenient (and best quality) library, you could use such a list to acquire this skill. Catalogues. Take the list and, looking up an authors surname in the library catalogue, try to locate the title of one of the books you are looking for. The catalogue will usually be on small index cards, on microfiche, or it may be stored in a computer network. If one author is not in the catalogue, try another. The important thing at this stage is that you learn how to use the system. Help. If you are new to using libraries, ask the assistants for any help you might need. They are almost always willing to give advice to readers. This could offer short-cuts and save you time. Details. The catalogue entry should give you details of the book: possibly a brief description of its contents, publication date, editions, number of pages, and any illustrations or tables. It will also assign to it a catalogue number and a location. An example is shown on the page opposite. Editions. From this you know that the second edition (published in 1985) is likely to contain more information than the first. It is therefore the later edition which will probably be of more use to you. The catalogue number (910.17) is the category of environmental studies (geography) in the Dewey catalogue numbering system. The book itself has been given the individual number of H (for Howe) 115.

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HOWE (John) and SMITH (Mary)910.17

H/115 Environmental Medicine ... edited by J. Howe and M. Smith (Second edition) London, Pitman (1985). (Studies in the environment, No. 38) BAS 58 10. Location. The card should also indicate the location in the library where this book might be found. It might say BAS (Basement) or Shelf 58. In larger libraries the location may be given separately. In such a case you find out where books carrying a 910.17 number are located. There will usually be a list somewhere near the catalogue. If in doubt, ask an assistant. Trails. When you have located one or two books on your list, check the bibliographies or suggestions for further reading that they contain. These will offer new recommendations on your topic which can be used to start a further search. In this way you can develop a sense of what is available and how to locate it. Research skills are developed by following up such leads, tracking down information, and making links between one item and another. .Problems. You should also be prepared to be imaginative if you come to a full stop. If a book does not contain all the information you need, look somewhere else for it. Check in subject catalogues for other books on the same topic. At the very least, look at some adjacent books on the same shelves which are concerned with the topic in question. Library record. If you are using a book from the library, keep a full bibliographic record of it. Write out the library catalogue number in full. This is particularly true if you will be taking notes from the book. Put full bibliographic details at the start of your notes. This could save you a lot of time going through the catalogue index for a second time at a later stage. Full record. If the catalogue number (in the Dewey system) is 832.8 M/324, dont just write 832.8. If you do this you will have to look through all the books in that section - which might be quite large when you get to it. With the complete number you can go straight to those authors in the 832.8 section whose surnames begin with M, then locate book number 324. Other systems. If your library does not use the Dewey system but gives its books numbers such as M73/W, you should follow the same principles of trying to locate the whereabouts of M73 and knowing the significance of the suffix /W. Other material. You should also follow the same principles for locating articles in journals, newspapers, or magazines. In most libraries these are likely to be stored in a different part of the building to books, and the quickest way of finding them is likely to be by asking an assistant for help. Some larger university libraries have separate catalogues for this type of information.

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Scanning. As you develop a closer acquaintance with books, you will learn how to assess as rapidly as possible their value for your purposes. Pay close attention to subtitles. These will often explain the contents of a book or indicate at what level it has been written. (See Reading skills)

Recording information
1. Recording. Information and notes gathered during your researches should be recorded as clearly as possible. A scrappy note that you understand now may mean nothing in six months time. Do not make the mistake of jotting down information on the back of an old envelope. Create a neat and orderly system from which information can be efficiently recalled. Systems. There are two simple and popular systems. The first is to record notes on loose-leaf A4 paper which can then be stored in separate files according to their topic(s). They might also be kept alongside lecture and coursework notes. The second system is to use the small index cards which are used by libraries. These are normally kept in separate boxes. In both systems you should only write on one side of the page or card. Notebooks. Some people keep separate notebooks for recording their information searches or notes. These have the virtue of keeping your transcriptions in one place. Write only on one side of each page, and leave wide margins for possible later additions or cross-references. You might also wish to cut up the pages at a later date in order to rearrange the material in preparation for a final project or report. Surveys. At an advanced level in some disciplines you will be required to have a knowledge of the literature of your subject. This means that (within certain limits) you should know all that has been written and published on a given topic. Indeed, some scientific reports require a survey of this literature. (See Projects and dissertations) Selection. Be prepared for the fact that you are likely to take far more notes than you will ever put to use. The proportion used in an essay or report may be as little as one tenth. This is perfectly normal, and you should not regard the unused nine tenths as wasted. You will have been digesting and synthesising this information, and you are putting to use only the most important in relation to your project. Full record. If you are making a note of a particularly useful quotation from an author, write it out accurately and in full at the time you are reading. Even though you may eventually only use a few words from it, there may not be time to check it at a later date. The book may not be available in the library when you need it. Recalling books (especially on inter-library loan schemes) is expensive and slow.

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Reading and research

1. The amount of background reading and research you are required to do in preparation for producing a piece of writing will depend largely upon the level of your studies. Dont imagine that every writing task requires the same approach. In studies leading up to and including GCSE A level, tutors will probably be quite satisfied if you demonstrate close acquaintance with the course materials (the articles, novel, text book, or chapter under consideration). You are not normally expected to deal with much more than this. Signs of intellectual interest beyond this would however be welcomed. In further or higher education, at first year undergraduate level, tutors will be primarily interested in checking that you have grasped the basic essentials of your subject. Most of this subject-matter will come from lectures and text books. The core or set texts will be considered most important, but reading beyond this would be welcomed. You should become accustomed at this point to using the library as a regular source of further information and reference. At second or third year undergraduate level you will be increasingly expected to range beyond course materials as a demonstration of your own intellectual curiosity and your ability to discuss and use the opinions of others. Secondary reading would be considered necessary. At this stage you will certainly need the skills of tracking down materials in the library. You might also need to work with publications such as learned journals, magazines, and newspapers. At third year and particularly beyond into postgraduate studies, your grasp of the subject will probably be closely related to your acquaintance with the literature of your subject. This requires a very wide-ranging reference to secondary and even tertiary work. It is at this stage that you should be prepared to develop serious research skills. However, in almost all subjects, the most important point is that you should be closely acquainted in detail with the basic materials of your subject. This may be texts, the results of experiments, or some body of knowledge. In some subjects you may be required to produce a review of the literature. That is, you are asked to summarise the views of others on a particular topic. However, discussing other peoples arguments is no substitute for your own insightful reading, first hand experience, or fresh, original enquiry. How many books should you choose as background support for your essay or project? Many students make the mistake of equating quantity with quality. The strength of your essay will not be simply proportionate to the number of books you take out of the library. Dont imagine that the answer to an essay question or seminar presentation topic will lie locked away like some secret in a secondary text. Many students are tempted to think that if only they could locate this one piece of information, it would answer all their problems. This is almost certainly not

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true. The vast majority of academic tasks simply require the production of a reasonably well-informed argument, with evidence to support your claims. 10 .Similarly, dont think that success will rest on your locating the most recent, fashionable, or obscure item from the short loan collection in the library. Unless the question specifically calls for a discussion of the most up-to-date research, this will probably not be the case. Most essay questions and seminar tasks can be answered using standard text books and traditional course material. With the exception of those subjects which call for a review of current research, you should avoid turning your essay into a catalogue or summary of the views of others. An essay which is essentially X says this ... whereas Y claims that ... and Z points out that ... creates a bad impression on two counts. It reads like intellectual name-dropping, and it suggests that you cant be bothered generating an argument of your own. Remember that the research or opinions of others should be used to reinforce your own argument - not the other way round. You should present your own case first. After that, you should explain your argument, set out your evidence, and discuss the issues involved. Only when you have finished doing this should you bring in the evidence of others to support your case. Some students imagine that the solution to any academic problem is to borrow as many books as possible from the library. This is probably not a good idea - because you burden yourself with too much material. Select only those books which are appropriate to your task. Take a few moments to survey any book before you go to the trouble of borrowing it. If it is not directly relevant - leave it on the shelf. You are likely to benefit more by reading and digesting two or three relevant texts, rather than by skimming through several in a superficial manner. This will be more profitable both intellectually and in terms of producing good work. In most subjects you should make a clear distinction between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. For instance in literary studies Jane Austens Manselfid Park would be a primary text. A critical work by A B Smith called Jane Austens Heroines would be a secondary text because it represents Smiths opinions. A book of critical theory by C D Jones called The Ideas of A B Smith would be a tertiary text because it deals with Joness opinions of Smiths opinions of Jane Austen. You can see that each of these texts takes you one step further away from the primary source - which is Mansfield Park. This would be equally true in other disciplines. When you are given suggestions for further reading by your tutors, these lists represent possible avenues of exploration related to the topic. These bibliographies should save you time hunting for relevant material. However, dont imagine that it is necessary to read every one of the suggested titles. Browse through the texts in the library if possible, but select just those which you think will be most helpful.

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Making these distinctions calls for good reading skills. You should be able to look through a book quickly, making an assessment of its value to your purpose. Take note of what level it is aimed at, how wide or narrow its scope, and what is its relevance to your task.

Tutorials and seminars

1. Discussion. Tutorials and seminars present an opportunity to discuss with both your colleagues and tutors some of the concepts and issues of the course you are following. They should not be regarded as a form of minilecture. If these events are well organised and if the participants engage actively with each other, the results can be intellectually very stimulating. Numbers. The distinction between a tutorial and a seminar is that tutorials are sometimes conducted in very small groups. At the most extreme in the old Oxford and Cambridge system (which continues in those places!) this may be just the tutor and one student. Most other institutions however normally have groups of around half a dozen. Seminars on the other hand may have a dozen or more participants. Tutorials attempt to produce a close dialogue, whereas seminars are often led formally with the presentation of papers. Communication skills. Both these forms of learning are designed to supplement the presentation of information in formal lectures and give students an opportunity to inspect and debate the issues raised. They are also seen as a forum in which people can explore ideas and submit themselves to challenge from their peers. In addition, they are increasingly used as a means of developing information-gathering and communication skills. Debate. Students may sometimes be puzzled by the fact that tutors seem to adopt provocative or contradictory positions on the subject of discussion. This is usually a device to promote differences of opinion, which will cause students to explore and defend a particular line of argument. Remember that the purpose of these occasions is to hone your skills of reasoning and debate, as well as exploring differences of interpretation and opinion on your subject of inquiry. Discussion. Remember that the issues in your course of study are likely to have been discussed many times before. The tutorial may not be seeking some universal truth. It is designed primarily to lead students into sharpening their intellectual wits, developing their powers of argument, and subjecting their views to the scrutiny of others. Preparation. You will profit from these discussions in proportion to what you put into them. The tutor will expect you to have read the texts which are pertinent to the course. You should also have absorbed the substance of the lectures, and you will normally be expected to have done some preliminary preparation using articles or reading lists. Rehearsal. If you have missed a lecture or been unable to obtain a particular text, you should nevertheless make some effort to prepare yourself for the discussion. Your tutor (and your colleagues) will not be pleased if you sit there saying nothing. Borrow a friends lecture notes, select some closely related reading material, or at least try to rehearse for yourself the issues which will be discussed.

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Discussion. If your course of study does not have formal tutorials or seminars these principles will still obtain for discussion in the classroom. They also apply to debate amongst fellow students, or any other engagement with the materials of the course. Teaching methods. In higher education today increasing use is being made of the seminar as a teaching strategy. Class and group sizes are rising, staff numbers are decreasing, and the result is that students are being forced to be far more self-reliant and self-motivated. You may not agree with the political reasons for these changes, but you will help yourself if you develop those skills which help you to take charge of your own learning. Training. There is also a general feeling that the educational process should provide students with more than just writing skills and the ability to do research. This is another reason for encouraging the development of communication skills. It is assumed that these proficiencies help to produce more fully rounded (and employable) people. Assessment. In many universities, attendance at lectures is an optional requirement. Students may go to lectures if they wish, but will not be penalised for absence. Increasingly however, an active participation in tutorials and seminars is being made an integral part of course requirements. You may even be given marks for your performance at these events. Examples. The first of the seminar papers which follow is an outline guide presented to students of history in their second and third year. It steers their preparation for the seminar by suggesting a digest of arguments and issues for discussion. Numbers in the group would normally be between eight and twelve. The second example is from a seminar on environmental economics. This is a much bigger group of up to fifty-five students at postgraduate level, many of them from foreign countries. Both are genuine examples from one of the old universities.

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History Seminar Papers

LengthTwo - four sides of A4 Form Numbered paragraphs (not pages of prose) Abbreviations acceptable where commonly understood (eg: 19C) or where repetition leaves no doubt (eg: YP for Younger Pit) or where the context leaves no doubt Typing or Printing helpful if writing is difficult to read Better still - use a word-processor ObjectiveShould answer the question(s) posed or implied Should indicate the students opinion(s) of the question or topic concerned and, perhaps, of the literature (or parts) Should raise problems, issues, queries for the seminar in its conclusion Under no circumstances should a seminar paper Summarise factual information Summarise particular books or articles Procedure Presenting the Paper A brief (five minutes) verbal introduction will be helpful, relating the material to other parts of the course/year, discussing the literature, clarifying concepts and definitions, and stressing particular areas which deserve discussion Receiving the Paper All students are expected to participate in the discussion and ought to arrive at the seminar with a prepared list of comments, questions, and disagreements Circulation Presenter will have copies of their papers circulated to each member of the group in an envelope to the appropriate racks in the History Undergraduate Common Room as follows: For discussion on Monday/Tuesday morning

Environmental Economics Seminar

(Thursday 25 November 1993) 1. What are the principal features of your preferred method for estimating, in monetary units, the damage caused by pollution to one of the following: a) a commercial forest (Group 1); b) people living in domestic properties (Group 2 and Group 3); c) human health (Group 4 and Group 5); d) a recreational amenity (Group 6 and Group 7); e) a nature reserve of special scientific interest (Group 8 and Group 9); f) a famous landscape (Group 10 and Group 11)? 2. In relation to the method you have chosen:

a) What are its principal strengths or advantages (if any)? b) What are its principal weaknesses or disadvantages (if any)? c) On balance, do you think it is desirable to use this method in helping to make public policy decisions (for instance, in deciding the best level of pollution control)? d) If not, what alternate approach would you recommend to be used when deciding the best level of control? Preparation Each student should prepare, before the seminar, a short answer to the relevant part of question 1 (according to the group to which you belong) and a list of the points in answer to question 2 a) - d). Bring these notes with you to the seminar. Group Discussion Within each group, a collective answer should be prepared, through group discussion, to the relevant parts of question 1 and to question 2. Forty-five minutes are available for this purpose. Of this, spend no more than ten minutes on question 1. (That is, the major part of the discussion should relate to question 2). Each group should have a chair and rapporteur - both of which should be different to those in the previous seminar. Plenary Session: reporting back and discussion Brief reports from each of the rapporteurs, mainly listing their groups key points in answer to question 2. Forty-five minutes approximately.

Projects and dissertations

1. Length. If your course of study involves producing a longer piece of work such as a project or a dissertation, you may be confronted with a task much bigger than a standard essay of 1500 to 3000 words. A project could be 5000 words minimum and might involve gathering information or making a report or an investigation. A dissertation can be a piece of detailed academic analysis 10,000 words long or over. Production. The principal worry for most students is likely to be in producing such a long piece of work. Not many people will have written so extensively before, nor will they have gathered in so much material. Then after that there is the secondary problem of controlling the material and giving it some shape and coherence. Many students find such tasks quite difficult at first, and you should not feel at all surprised if initially you find the prospect daunting. Planning. This is where essay planning skills will help. If you have already developed the habit of making plans, then shaping and reshaping your work, you are less likely to be overwhelmed by the volume of this work. This is because you have practised the basic principles which can be applied to any amount of it. Persistence. Many people feel disheartened at the prospect of just producing so many words - enough to fill twenty or fifty pages! But there are reasons for optimism. After all, you will not be generating this work all at one sitting. Your task is likely to be spread out over a number of weeks. If you wrote only 500 words every day (thats two A4 sheets) you would produce 14,000 words in four weeks. Knowledge. When you reach the stage of writing projects and dissertations you are also likely to know quite a lot about your subject. Such exercises are not set for beginners. You will be accustomed to the language and conventions of your subject and you will be aware of its principal concepts. By this stage you should also have all the basic skills you will need. The project is an academic exercise which will give you the opportunity to put them to work. Form. The project could take a number of different forms, depending on your subject. It could be the review and analysis of the literature of one aspect of your subject. It might be the writing up of a particular case study or experiment. Some reports offer the results of surveys or interviews, and others may be the records of scientific laboratory experiments. In some cases the shape your material must take is decided for you by the conventions of the subject. Selection. The subject of your project may be chosen for you, but it is much more likely that you will choose it yourself - probably in consultation with your tutor. It is important that you select a topic in which you are genuinely interested. This interest will be helpful in sustaining your commitment throughout the research and writing of the project. The difficulties of completing a longer piece of work will seem even more severe if you are working on a topic in which you have little interest.

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Topic. The best topics might come from something you already know or some topic of interest which has arisen during your coursework. Do some preparatory work in narrowing down the subject to a precise focus. Dont take on something too large or poorly defined. A project which successfully deals with a specific and limited issue will gain far more credit than one which flounders amidst over-ambition. Examples. The easiest way to see what might be involved is to look at examples of other peoples successful projects. Copies of previous years work are usually kept in departmental libraries. Check what other topics have been covered in your subject area. Discuss the possibilities with your tutor, and with other students - particularly those who have experience of writing longer pieces of work. Conventions. The project or the dissertation is principally an exercise in your ability to undertake a larger piece of work and to present your results in a well ordered manner. You are not usually expected to be dazzlingly original or to discover some secret of the universe. It is safest to follow the conventions of your subject discipline and to show that you have understood and can use its protocols. Originality. Some very original insight or research would normally be commended and recognised in the grade awarded, but do not feel that you have to strive for this. Remember that thousands of students before you have had to undertake such tasks. Keep in mind the watchwords Academic Modesty. The hypothesis. Some projects may begin with a definite idea, and evidence will be sought to demonstrate its validity. Others start the other way round: a body of work is investigated until a particular idea or a set of conclusions begin to emerge from it. You may also begin from an intermediate position: a vague hunch is pursued and possibly revised in the light of your investigations. Each one of these approaches can be equally valid. The important thing is that you should be aware of which one you have chosen. The worst position is to be floundering and uncertain, between all three. The method. Whatever your starting point, you should be prepared to change and renegotiate your hypothesis in the light of the evidence if this becomes necessary. Keep relating your hypothesis to the evidence, and vice versa. Do not be tempted to distort the evidence to prove your point. Starting. A common problem is knowing where to start writing. This often arises because people mistakenly imagine that their work has to be written in the same order that it will eventually appear. This is simply not true. You can start writing anywhere, then just work outwards in any direction. Start from whichever point strikes you as most interesting. You can determine its position in the general structure later. Evidence. Dont imagine that you must have all your evidence assembled before you begin writing. This can often become a subtle form of procrastination. You may need to do some preliminary writing before you can assess the true extent of all the evidence you will need. The writing and

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the research often form a dialectical process in which one element acts on and influences the other. 16. Editing. Once under way with the writing, many people discover that the problem is not one of under-production but of over-production. They produce so much material on the subject that they find they have to cut it down to stay inside the word limit. If this happens, dont feel despondent: its perfectly normal. The process then becomes one of selecting the best and most relevant parts of your work. More planning. Many people experience difficulty in selecting the best structure or shape for their work. If you are covering a number of different topics or several aspects of the same issue, it isnt always obvious in which order they should best be arranged. Be prepared to make several attempts at this. Start with a trial plan. If you discover that the parts of it are not fitting together properly, rearrange them into a different sequence or pattern. Keep doing this until the best order emerges. Use plenty of paper. Growth. Many pieces of work start from a small idea or observation, and then they grow as more work and thought is expended on the topic of the project. Sometimes they also grow in a direction which was not foreseen. If this happens, be prepared to shift your original plans, especially if something more fruitful emerges during the process of your research and writing. However, you should try to maintain a firm idea of your overall scheme at any given stage. Problems. Sometimes an idea starts out well enough, is developed, and then after a lot of work has been produced, suddenly appears to be unsound. It may seem incorrect, or just plain fruitless when inspected closely. In this case you have some tough decisions to make. You may have to choose between starting all over again and making a different use of your existing material. Starting again. If you have only recently started, you might abandon your idea, scrap the materials you have produced, and start afresh on something new. This might sound rather drastic, but you should give it consideration. It might be better to cut your losses, rather than carry on working and eventually submit a piece of work whose fundamental thesis you know to be flawed. Your decision in a case of this kind is entirely dependent upon how much time you have before you. Experience. The work you have done to date may not be entirely wasted. It will have given you the experience of tackling a longer project, and you will no doubt have learned something about handling more material than usual. In addition, it will form background information for your next choice of topic, which is likely to be in the same field of enquiry. New ideas. Starting anew leaves you with the problem of coming up with a fresh idea or topic on which to work. This may not be quite so difficult as you imagine, since you have been giving considerable thought to your subject, even though your first specific project has been dropped. Reworking the material. If you do not have time and feel that you are somehow committed to the material you have produced - then you must

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find a new use for it. This may involve a fresh approach or a new analysis of your information from a different point of view. On the other hand it could be that you will have to chop out parts of your work and replace them with new material. Dont feel guilty about any of this. The final result might even be improved for this process of drastic renewal and reworking. 24. Getting bogged down. One common complaint of those undertaking a longer piece of work for the first time is that they start writing enthusiastically enough, but then they gradually become bogged down. What initially seemed an interesting project now leaves them feeling unenthusiastic about the task in hand. Some people come to think that they have embarked upon the wrong project, that it is no longer of any interest, or an idea that once seemed full of possibilities now looks like a one-way street with a dead end. Interest. This is one reason why you should choose at the outset a topic or subject in which you are truly interested. If on the other hand the subject has been chosen for you, then you must get yourself out of the low patch. If you have time, take a short break and start again, using a new strategy. If it is necessary to press on, try approaching the materials from a different angle or start working on a different part of the task. Remember that a project does not have to be written in the same order as the items will appear on its contents page. Timetable. Another difficulty many people experience in tackling a project is completing it on time. It is rare for completion dates to be made absolute, and students often drift beyond them. This makes them feel guilty (or worse). The answer to this problem is in creating a realistic timetable or a schedule of work - and sticking to it. (See Time management) Pedagogy. The project, rather like the seminar paper, is being used to an increasing extent in further and higher education. It is quite a convenient teaching method for institutions because students learn new skills through their practical engagement with the materials and the topic they choose. In one sense, they teach themselves.

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The form of reports and research papers

1. Form. Each subject has its own conventions on the form and structure required for work which is to be submitted. Check previous examples in your own field of study to see what is required. Following the required format as accurately as possible is often regarded as an important part of the exercise. The following notes give brief details under commonly used headings. You should note that these may appear in different orders according to your subject. Title page. This will include the official title of the project, your name, and the date. The title should be brief, and it should accurately describe the exact nature of your study. A subtitle may be added if it helps to clarify the point. Acknowledgements. You may wish to acknowledge the help given to you by other individuals or organisations in completing your project. Be honest

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about this matter, but dont use it as a form of academic name dropping. 4. Contents. This page will list the contents of the report or the project. It may include the names or titles of chapters or subsections. It might normally include all the items of the list given here, with the exception of the title page. Abstract. This is usually a one-paragraph description of around 200 words which defines the project, its aims and objectives, and its results. Technically, it is used by librarians for classifying the work. [Not an easy thing to produce, it is probably best written when the project is finished.] Aims and purpose. This will be a statement giving details of the purpose of your research and why it was carried out. You would mention any hypothesis being tested and perhaps why this was considered of interest. You should also state here the limits or scope of the investigation. Review of the literature. This is a critical examination of the findings of other people working on the topic in question. It offers a report on the context and background of the study. You will normally be expected to produce more than just a summary or paraphrase. Methodology. This will describe the methods and practices used in your investigation. You would give details of your procedures, methods of selection, and tests of measurement and analysis. You might also include a description of any apparatus, experimental methods, and procedures used. It might also be necessary to define terms precisely. Statement of results. This is the body of work you have produced, whose contents will depend upon your subject. The information may be in the form of statistical tables or graphs, the report of an investigation, an extended survey, or a body of scientific data. Analysis and discussion. In this section you are subjecting your information to scrutiny, passing comment on your findings, and relating the results to existing knowledge. You might restate the original problem and say in what way your hypothesis has been successfully proven. Summary and conclusions. This section offers a succinct account of the report and the conclusions which can be drawn from it. You are offering your results and their implications in summary form. List of references. This is a bibliography of works consulted during the course of making the report. It must contain any which have been directly quoted, and it might also include those which have merely formed background reading. Appendices. This might contain copies of any tables, maps, or statistics which have been used in the report. It could also contain examples of interview forms.

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Further reading
Judith Bell, Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-Time Researchers in Education and Social Science, 2nd edition, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1987.
This is a source of reference and a guide to good research practice. Separate chapters deal with each stage of undertaking a project in a way which clarifies what is required. Topics covered include the selection of a research topic, data collection and keeping records, reviewing the literature, designing questionnaires, and interpreting evidence and presenting the findings. Each chapter has a summary checklist and its own suggestions for further reading. Full bibliography and index.

C.V. Carey, Mind the Stop: A brief guide to punctuation and a note on proof-correction, Penguin Reference, 1993.
A short but sane guide to punctuation. It is written in a rather compressed manner which might deter beginners, but it is full of good examples. Carey aims for clarity and common sense, and his approach is surprisingly modern, considering that the book is now more than fifty years old.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1990.

Choosing a dictionary can be very much a matter of personal taste, but the Concise Oxford has several features which have always made it a favourite with writers. It is based upon the monumental Oxford English Dictionary and its latest supplements. Each word is defined in all the senses in which it may be used. Illustrative examples are given showing the word in context. Full explanations of pronunciation, inflexion, and historical derivation are offered in a systematic manner.

Chris Cooke, (ed), Pears Cyclopaedia, Pelham Books, 1994.

If you don't have your own copy of Encyclopedia Britannica, this is a very compact and easily available one volume reference work which contains all sorts of unusual and interesting information: a chronicle of historical events; potted biographies of the famous; explanations of law and scientific phenomena; Greek myths and legends; lists of Nobel prizewinners; a dictionary of art; maps; the rules of games; and in my ageing edition even hints on modern gardening methods [for which I have not yet found a need].

Roy Johnson, Revision and Examinations: Guidance notes for students, Manchester: Clifton Press, 1993.
These are details of study skills on preparing for exams and passing them successfully. The notes outline revision techniques, and they provide suggestions for coping with a variety of examinations. There are strategies for improving self-confidence and overcoming nerves and anxiety. They deal with the problems of analysing exam question papers; and they contain suggestions on how to guarantee your best performance in exams. There are a number of specimen papers, useful hints from tutors, and explanations of what examiners are looking for.

Roy Johnson, Writing Essays: Guidance notes for students, 6th edition, Manchester: Clifton Press, 1996.
This is a combination of guidance notes on all aspects of essay writing and a selection of sample essays from G.C.S.E. A level through to third year undergraduate studies. Topics

covered include overcoming writers block, note-taking, understanding questions, essay planning, punctuation and grammar, conventions of quotation, notes and references, editing, and presentation.

Bill Jones and Roy Johnson, Making the Grade, Manchester University Press, 1990. Volume I: Reading and Learning, Volume II: Thinking and Writing.
A two volume compendium and a self-contained programme of instruction covering all aspects of study skills. It includes advice on organising your time, concentration and memory, efficient reading, note-taking, generating ideas, clear thinking, planning and writing essays, grammar and punctuation, and preparing for examinations. May be used as a course of instruction or as a source of reference.

John McIlroy and Bill Jones, Going to University: The Student Guide, Manchester University Press, 1993.
This is a comprehensive life skills guide to students new to undergraduate existence which deals with applications to and surviving in universities. It also includes basic advice on study skills: reading, note-taking, essay-writing, examinations, projects, and career advice for what happens after graduation.

Andrew Northedge, The Good Study Guide, Buckingham: The Open University, 1990.
A set text on one of the Open Universitys social science foundation courses. It can be used as either an introductory workbook or as a source of reference. It deals with reading and note-taking, essay writing, working with numbers, and preparing for examinations. Realistic examples, well written, and very good value at the price.

B.A. Phythian, Teach Yourself Correct English, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1990.
A first rate and good value paperback which has advice on everything from punctuation to the techniques of report and essay writing. Good on common errors, words which are used wrongly or frequently confused, tired and unnecessary words, and the cultivation of good style. It is laid out in a very straightforward manner (one chapter to each topic) which makes it easy to use as either instruction or a source of reference.

Roget's Thesaurus, Longman or Penguin, 1991.

This is the classic and much-loved compilation of synonyms and antonyms. Editions vary slightly, but words may be arranged under headings of what now seem rather quaint abstract concepts such as Intersocial Volition (obedience/freedom/restraint). You look up your starting word in an index which takes up half the book. Older editions also include interestingly genteel and now-obscure items of vocabulary. A boon to the insecure. Easy to pick up second hand copies.

Gordon Taylor, The Students Writing Guide for the arts and social sciences, Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Intelligent and useful advice for undergraduates, but pitched at a fairly advanced level. Goes into detail on the theory and practice of academic argument, as well as making distinctions between opinion, argument, facts, and proof. Includes tips on presentation, book reviewing, and an example of a revised essay manuscript.

Kate L Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
This is based on The Chicago Manual of Style, and offers a comprehensive and very detailed guide to the (American) conventions of layout and presentation in academic writing. It covers everything from spelling, punctuation, and abbreviations to quotation, referencing, and the use of tables and diagrams. Includes some useful sample pages, a recent addition on computers and word-processing (which already needs updating) and an excellent index.

G.H. Vallins, Spelling, Andr Deutsch, 1954 (revised by D.G. Scragg, 1965)
A scholarly but very readable account of the history and development of spelling in English. It deals with all the common rules and irregularities, explaining some of the interesting reasons why there are so many oddities and exceptions to the rule. To these it takes a very tolerant approach. Chapters on spelling reform, dictionary makers, house style, and American spelling. Packed with good illustrative examples. Worth seeking if it's out of print.

Keith Waterhouse, Waterhouse on Newspaper Style, Penguin Books, 1993.

Waterhouse offers an A to Z guide to the production of clear, comprehensible English. This started life as advice on prose style for Fleet Street, but it has become famous for its good sense and incisive attacks on sloppy writing. Examples taken straight from the pages of the popular press, and turned into advice on adjectives and alliteration through to tautology and which and that. A very readable and amusing critique of tabloid journalism.