Year One:

toward SAFE COMMUNITIES, GOOD

SCHOOLS AND A FAIR CHANCE FOR ALL
AMERICANS


An nAAC WhlLe aper

lebruary 2009
1
Author:
Monlque W. Morrls, M.S.
nAAC naLlonal ulrecLor of 8esearch

W|th contr|but|ons from:

Pllary C. ShelLon
nAAC vlce resldenL of Advocacy/LxecuLlve ulrecLor of WashlngLon 8ureau

Carol kaplan
nAAC Congresslonal AnalysL

Lella Mcuowell
nAAC vlce resldenL of CommunlcaLlons

Wllllam L. Sprlggs, h.u
Poward unlverslLy

8ebekah Cee, M.u., h.u.
8oberL Wood !ohnson loundaLlon

!ohn P. !ackson, !.u., Ld.u.
1he SchoLL loundaLlon for ubllc LducaLlon



Iu||an 8ond, Cha|rman
8en[am|n 1. Iea|ous, res|dent & CLC

nAAC nA1lCnAL PLAuCuA81L8S
4803 M1. PCL u8lvL
8AL1lMC8L, Mu 21213

1he preparaLlon of Lhls WhlLe aper was supporLed by Lhe
Cpen SocleLy lnsLlLuLe & Soros loundaLlon neLworks
CopyrlghL 2009 naLlonal AssoclaLlon for Lhe AdvancemenL of Colored eople

Year One:
Toward Safe Communities, Good Schools and
a Fair Chance for All Americans

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

Ioreword 3
I. Introduct|on 4

II. Safe Commun|t|es S
a. Lffect|ve Law Lnforcement 6
b. A|ternat|ves to Incarcerat|on 6
c. I|sca| 8enef|ts of A|ternat|ves to Incarcerat|on 7

III. L|evat|ng Lducat|on Standards 8

IV. A Ia|r Chance for A|| Amer|cans 9
a. 1he St|mu|us ackage and rotect|ng aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on 9
b. 1he I|nanc|a| Cr|s|s and kemed|es to D|scr|m|nat|on 10
|. Lmp|oyment D|spar|t|es and D|scr|m|nat|on: 1he Iacts 10
||. Strengthen Lnforcement aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on 10
|||. rotect|on aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on |n Lend|ng 11
|v. rotect|on aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on |n nous|ng 11
v. Iorec|osure Morator|um 12
c. keduc|ng nea|th D|spar|t|es 12
d. Internat|ona| r|or|t|es 13

V. Conc|us|on 14

Lndnotes

3
FOREWORD
Cne hundred years ago, a small mulLlraclal group of progresslve Lhlnkers dared Lo come LogeLher ln a
Llny new ?ork aparLmenL Lo share a bold dream: An Amerlca free of Lhe raclal oppresslon LhaL sullled
Lhe soul of our naLlon a llLLle over 40 years afLer slavery. 1he nAAC was born of LhaL noble vlslon
advanced by such vlslonary Lhlnkers as lda 8. Wells, Mary WhlLe CvlngLon and W.L.8. uubols. 1he new
organlzaLlon, radlcal for lLs Llme, launched a Lenaclous Lhree decade long sLruggle Lo successfully end Lhe
horror of lynch mobs. ln 1932, we Look up Lhe manLle Lo reverse Lhe desLrucLlve, segregaLlng vesLlges of
!lm Crow, and Lwo decades laLer, segregaLlon was made lllegal. ln Lhe 1960's, a deLermlned efforL for
economlc and pollLlcal lncluslon was lnlLlaLed LhaL Lrlumphed lasL year ln Lhe elecLlon of an Afrlcan-
Amerlcan presldenL and Lhe mosL black elecLed offlclals slnce 8econsLrucLlon
1he nAAC has always embraced Lhe lmposslble, fearlessly marchlng forward aL an unwaverlng pace.
Cur Lrlumphs have noL been ours alone. Lndlng lynch mobs agalnsL Afrlcan Amerlcans ended Lhe horror
for WhlLe CaLhollcs, Lhe second largesL group of vlcLlms. Cur flghL agalnsL dlscrlmlnaLlon helped all
dlsenfranchlsed members of our counLry open locked doors and break Lhrough barrlers of lnequlLy.
8uL Lhe [ourney ls noL over. 8lack unemploymenL ls perennlally Lwlce LhaL of whlLe Amerlcans. Several
sLudles found LhaL a ma[orlLy of employers preferred Lo hlre a whlLe crlmlnal Lhan a black man wlLhouL a
crlmlnal record. Afrlcan Amerlcan chlldren dlsproporLlonaLely aLLend segregaLed, poor quallLy schools.
Mass lncarceraLlon ls harmlng far Loo many people of color when drug LreaLmenL and oLher approaches
would have beLLer ouLcomes. 1he healLh dlsparlLles ln our communlLles are well-known.
now as we face our second cenLennlal, we can begln Lo see Lhe reallzaLlon of Lhe vlslon of a new land
where all llve ln safe communlLles and law enforcemenL respecLs and proLecLs our nelghborhoods. A
land where all chlldren can blossom ln a quallLy school, Lhelr poLenLlal nurLured and cherlshed. Where
every worker ln Amerlca has a falr chance for employmenL, educaLlon and advancemenL. 1he [ourney ls
born anew Lhls year and [usL as ln Lhe pasL we had Lhe courage Lo pursue Lhe lmposslble dream LhaL
doubLers lnslsLed was lllusory , Loday we wlll begln agaln Lo be fearless as we resoluLely move Lowards a
beLLer Lomorrow for us all.
eot Ooe. 1owotJ 5ofe commooltles, CooJ 5cbools ooJ o lolt cbooce fot All Ametlcoos lays ouL our clvll
and human rlghLs agenda for Lhe flrsL year of Lhe nexL cenLennlal. We lnvlLe you Lo [oln us as we
conLlnue our unyleldlng flghL Lo reallze Amerlca's promlse for all.

8en[amln 1odd !ealous
4
Year One:
Toward Safe Communities, Good Schools,
and a Fair Chance for All Americans

An nAAC WhlLe aper

I. Introduct|on
lor 100 years, Lhe naLlonal AssoclaLlon for Lhe AdvancemenL of Colored eople (nAAC) has played a
plvoLal role ln shaplng a naLlonal agenda Lo ensure Lhe pollLlcal, educaLlonal, soclal, and economlc
equallLy of Afrlcan Amerlcans and oLher people who have faced hlsLorlcal dlscrlmlnaLlon ln Lhe unlLed
SLaLes. 1hls proud legacy of reduclng raclal pre[udlce and barrlers Lo equal [usLlce has noL ellmlnaLed
Lhe need for slgnlflcanL and sLraLeglc acLlon Loward Lhe goal of ensurlng equal access and opporLunlLy
for all. Whlle Lhe counLry has allowed lndlvlduals Lo permeaLe some of Lhe barrlers of dlscrlmlnaLlon,
enLlre groups of people remaln marglnallzed from Lhe Amerlcan uream.
Cur flrsL cenLennlal ls Lhe culmlnaLlon of a long march for [usLlce. Cur blrLh was launched wlLh a mulLl-
decade sLruggle Lo flnally end Lhe lynch mobs LhaL kllled Lhousands of Afrlcan-Amerlcans. ln 1932, Lhe
organlzaLlon Look up Lhe manLle Lo reverse !lm Crow, and Lwo decades laLer, segregaLlon was made
lllegal. ln 1960, a susLalned efforL for pollLlcal lncluslon was lnlLlaLed LhaL Lrlumphed lasL year ln Lhe
elecLlon of an Afrlcan-Amerlcan presldenL and Lhe hlghesL number of Afrlcan Amerlcan elecLed offlclals
slnce 8econsLrucLlon.
lL ls noL [usL Afrlcan Amerlcans who have beneflLLed from our unyleldlng sLruggle, buL Lhe enLlre counLry.
lndeed, when we abollshed lynch mobs LhaL vlclously persecuLed Afrlcan Amerlcans, we also abollshed
lynch mobs LhaL vlclously persecuLed Plspanlcs, naLlve Amerlcans, Aslan Amerlcans, CaLhollcs and
lLallans. We sLopped black, red, yellow, brown - and whlLe - chlldren from belng haunLed by Lhe cruel
horrors of lynch mobs.
eot Ooe. 1owotJ 5ofe commooltles, CooJ 5cbools ooJ o lolt cbooce fot oll Ametlcoos explores Lhe
prlorlLles necessary for Lhe Cbama AdmlnlsLraLlon, Lhe Congress and oLher key pollcymakers ln Lhe nexL
year Loward generaLlng a progresslve human and clvll rlghLs agenda.
o||cy pr|or|t|es for ear Cne:
urglng for Lhe creaLlon of pollclng sLandards LhaL supporL a goal of effecLlve law enforcemenL ln
all communlLles.
LlevaLlng Lhe sLandards of educaLlon Lo ensure LhaL all chlldren have full access Lo an opporLunlLy
Lo compleLe a hlgh quallLy educaLlon.
3
urglng unlform federal measures Lo assure LhaL economlc pollcles (parLlcularly Lhe ballouL and
sLlmulus funds) are admlnlsLered ln a manner whlch does noL vlolaLe lmporLanL clvll and human
rlghLs,
LsLabllshlng a sLudy Lo explore Lhe developmenL of a unlform federal unemploymenL lnsurance
beneflL, as we do wlLh soclal securlLy,
LsLabllshlng an lmmedlaLe moraLorlum on foreclosure, and [udlclal loan modlflcaLlons prlor Lo Lhe
occurrence of a foreclosure,
AdopLlng pollcles LhaL provlde healLh care Lo Lhe unlnsured ln an efforL Lo begln reduclng healLh
care dlsparlLles.

1hese prlorlLles represenL a shlfL Loward maxlmlzlng Lhe full poLenLlal of Amerlca's promlse of equal
opporLunlLy.

II. Safe Commun|t|es
All communlLles seek a falr and [usL admlnlsLraLlon and enforcemenL of Lhe law, however, raclal
dlsparlLles are well documenLed LhroughouL Lhe [usLlce conLlnuum (from arresL Lhrough senLenclng),
parLlcularly for Afrlcan Amerlcan men, women, and chlldren. uaLa also show LhaL Afrlcan Amerlcan
chlldren, who are 16 percenL of Lhe youLh populaLlon, experlence a cumulaLlve dlsadvanLage as Lhey
permeaLe Lhe crlmlnal [usLlce conLlnuum. naLlonwlde, Afrlcan Amerlcan chlldren are:
28 of [uvenlle arresLs.
30 of referrals Lo [uvenlle courL.
37 of Lhe deLalned populaLlon.
34 of youLh formally processed by Lhe [uvenlle courL.
30 of ad[udlcaLed youLh.
33 of youLh [udlclally walved Lo adulL crlmlnal courL.
38 of youLh ln resldenLlal placemenL.
38 of youLh admlLLed Lo sLaLe adulL prlson.
1


Cver Lhe pasL decade, Lhe unlLed SLaLes has wlLnessed a dramaLlc lncrease ln Lhe growLh and
punlLlve naLure of Lhe crlmlnal and [uvenlle [usLlce sysLems. 1hls growLh has dlsparaLely lmpacLed
Afrlcan Amerlcan men, women, and chlldren. WlLh more Lhan Lwo mllllon adulLs ln prlson and an
esLlmaLed one ln nlne Afrlcan Amerlcan men and one ln 33 Afrlcan Amerlcan women llkely Lo be
lncarceraLed,
2
Lhe naLlon's falLh ln Lhe falr admlnlsLraLlon of [usLlce faces a Lremendous crlsls. 8aclal
and eLhnlc dlsparlLles are well documenLed LhroughouL Lhe [usLlce conLlnuum, parLlcularly for
Afrlcan Amerlcans, who represenL 13.4 percenL of Lhe u.S. populaLlon, buL 30.3 percenL of all people
arresLed and 33.3 percenL of all [uvenlle arresLs for vlolenL crlmes ln Lhe naLlon's clLles.
3


a. Lffect|ve Law Lnforcement
6
Afrlcan Amerlcans conLlnue Lo have Lhe hlghesL raLe of vlolenL vlcLlmlzaLlon.
4
Powever, nearly
32 percenL of unsolved murders lnclude Afrlcan Amerlcan vlcLlms, compared Lo 27.3 percenL for
whlLe vlcLlms.
3
1hls dlsparlLy undermlnes Lhe LrusL beLween communlLles of color and law
enforcemenL, leadlng Lo Lhe suggesLlon of blased declslon maklng and oLher quesLlonable
pracLlces among law enforcemenL.
LffecLlve law enforcemenL lncludes Lhe developmenL of agency wlde pollcles and pracLlces LhaL
supporL and reflecL a commlLmenL Lo serve wlLh lnLegrlLy and falrness. 1hls ldeal should be
vlslble ln Lralnlng currlcula, reporLlng measures (lncludlng Lhe dlsaggregaLlon of daLa by race,
eLhnlclLy, and gender), communlLy pollclng, and a commlLmenL Lo lnvesLlgaLe homlclde and
oLher cases wlLhouL [udgmenL or prlorlLlzaLlon of Lhe race of Lhe vlcLlm or [udgmenL regardlng
Lhe clrcumsLances surroundlng Lhe vlcLlmlzaLlon. AddlLlonally, ln maLLers or clrcumsLances ln
whlch Lhere ls quesLlonable pollce conducL, communlLy sLakeholders should be empowered Lo
form lndependenL and fully resourced accounLablllLy revlew boards so as Lo malnLaln a sLandard
of culLural compeLency, LrusL, and excellence ln law enforcemenL.
1oward Lo Lhe goal of esLabllshlng effecLlve law enforcemenL ln all communlLles, Lhe nAAC calls
for Lhe followlng:
LsLabllsh a Lask force Lo examlne Lhe low raLe aL whlch murder cases lnvolvlng Afrlcan
Amerlcan vlcLlms are solved, and Lhe perverse lncenLlves used Lo lncrease conLacL and
arresLs ln communlLles of color. Congress should approprlaLe funds Lo provlde federal
lncenLlves Lo local law enforcemenL agencles so as Lo supporL Lhe lnvesLlgaLlon and
resoluLlon of Lhese cases.

lederal agencles should mandaLe Lhe collecLlon and reporLlng of conslsLenL, dlsaggregaLed
daLa (by race, eLhnlclLy, gender, age, offense, eLc.) of deaLhs whlle ln conLacL wlLh and ln Lhe
presence and cusLody of law enforcemenL, for lncldenLs lnvolvlng Laser guns and law
enforcemenL offlclals.
ollcymakers should esLabllsh clear guldellnes regardlng Lhe pracLlces of federal, sLaLe, and
local law enforcemenL agencles and sysLems of accounLablllLy developed Lo respond Lo
lncldenLs of excesslve and deadly force Lhrough unlform, falr and LransparenL processes.
AddlLlonally, Congress ls urged Lo supporL and pass Lhe oJ koclol ltofllloq Act of 2007,
provlde guldance and leglslaLlon Lo ellmlnaLe oLher quesLlonable pollclng pracLlces (l.e.
excesslve force) LhaL lead Lo unfalr LreaLmenL and ulsproporLlonaLe MlnorlLy ConLacL.

b. A|ternat|ves to Incarcerat|on
8esearch
6
has shown LhaL lmprlsonmenL-Lhe mosL severe sancLlon along Lhe [usLlce
conLlnuum-ls an expenslve and lneffecLlve sLraLegy Lo address nonvlolenL drug offenders. A
number of sLaLes have saved resources afLer developlng alLernaLlve senLenclng opLlons for Lhls
populaLlon. lor example, afLer Callfornla passed lLs SubsLance Abuse & Crlme revenLlon AcL of
7
2000, whlch dlverLs people convlcLed of slmple, nonvlolenL drug offenses from lncarceraLlon Lo
probaLlon wlLh drug LreaLmenL, Lhe sLaLe saved over $1.3 bllllon-$173.3 mllllon ln Lhe flrsL
year, over $800 mllllon ln flve years, and over $300 mllllon by avoldlng new prlson consLrucLlon.
7

1oward Lhe goal of developlng alLernaLlves Lo lncarceraLlon, Lhe nAAC calls for Lhe followlng:
ollcymakers should Lake lmmedlaLe acLlon Lo ellmlnaLe crack-cocalne senLenclng
dlsparlLles, whlch have resulLed ln cosLly overpopulaLed prlsons and conLrlbuLed Lo unfalr
raclal and eLhnlc dlsparlLles ln Lhe crlmlnal [usLlce sysLem. Afrlcan Amerlcans comprlse only
13.4 percenL of Lhe populaLlon and 13 percenL of drug users, buL Lhey make up 38 percenL
of Lhose arresLed for drug offenses and 39 percenL of Lhose convlcLed of drug offenses.
8

AddlLlonally, lawmakers should lnvesL ln Lhe developmenL of evldence-based, culLurally-
compeLenL, gender-responslve communlLy-based alLernaLlves for men, women, and chlldren
convlcLed of nonvlolenL offenses.
c. I|sca| 8enef|ts of A|ternat|ves to Incarcerat|on
1he u.S. currenLly spends more Lhan $44 bllllon Lo lncarceraLe more Lhan Lwo mllllon adulLs ln
prlson-mosLly for nonvlolenL offenses.
9
Across Lhe naLlon, Lhe use of lncarceraLlon as a means
Lo sancLlon nonvlolenL offenses (whlch comprlse approxlmaLely half of Lhe naLlon's prlson
populaLlon) has proven Lo be cosLly and lneffecLlve:
ln new !ersey, Lhe cosL Lo lncarceraLe nearly 13,000 lndlvlduals enLerlng prlson ln 2003 was
$1.26 bllllon, wlLh an addlLlonal loss of $1.3 bllllon over Lhe source of Lhelr llfeLlme ln
Laxable wages and salary, due Lo Lhe barrlers Lo employmenL for people llvlng wlLh a
crlmlnal record.
10

Callfornla spends approxlmaLely $47,000 Lo lncarceraLe one lndlvldual, a cosL LhaL has
lncreased by nearly $20,000 per lnmaLe slnce 2000-2001.
11

Mlsslsslppl spends $292 mllllon Lo lncarceraLe approxlmaLely 22,000 lnmaLes, of whlch only
3,022 are vlolenL offenders. 1he Mlsslsslppl ueparLmenL of CorrecLlons boasLed $23,913 ln
free labor" from lnmaLes ln 2004, a flgure LhaL was esLlmaLed Lo reach $6.7 bllllon ln annual
labor conLrlbuLlons.
12
Meanwhlle, lnmaLes experlence a slgnlflcanL loss ln wages as a resulL
of Lhelr lncarceraLlon.
8esearchers, pollcy analysLs, and servlce provlders agree LhaL communlLy based alLernaLlves,
such as communlLy supervlslon, counsellng, LreaLmenL, [ob Lralnlng and [ob placemenL are
less cosLly programs and servlces Lhan lncarceraLlon.
13
Cne cosL-beneflL analysls comparlng
Lrends ln Lhree sLaLes found LhaL lncarceraLlng drug-only offenders" ls noL only an
lneffecLlve use of publlc resources, lL has also had no lmpacL on Lhe sale or usage of llllclL
drugs.
14

8
ollces LhaL supporL dlverslon of nonvlolenL offenders Lo drug and menLal healLh LreaLmenL and
employ oLher besL pracLlces are more flscally responslble, and soclally advanLageous for
communlLles Lhan wldespread lncarceraLlon.
1oward Lhe goal of lmplemenLlng cosL-effecLlve alLernaLlves Lo lncarceraLlon:
lederal, sLaLe, and local pollcles and pracLlces should be amended Lo allow plannlng for Lhe
release of nonvlolenL offenders from prlson and lnLo communlLy-based alLernaLlves and oLher
graduaLed sancLlons. AlLernaLlve responses such as communlLy-based monlLorlng, menLal healLh
LreaLmenL, mulLldlmenslonal Lherapy and oLher lnLervenLlons for Lhose convlcLed of nonvlolenL
offenses should be evldence-based, culLurally-compeLenL and gender responslve.

III. L|evat|ng Lducat|on Standards
1he promlse of a decenL educaLlon ls an lmporLanL clvll and human rlghL LhaL has yeL Lo be fully
reallzed ln Amerlcans publlc educaLlon sysLem:
LlghLy percenL of Afrlcan Amerlcans have aL leasL a hlgh school dlploma, compared Lo 89.4
percenL of non-Plspanlc whlLes, 83.8 percenL of Aslans, and only 60.6 percenL of LaLlnos.
ApproxlmaLely 17 percenL of Afrlcan Amerlcans have a bachelor's degree or more,
compared Lo 30.3 percenL of non-Plspanlc whlLes, 49.3 percenL of Aslans, and only 12.3
percenL of LaLlnos.
13

Afrlcan Amerlcans represenLed 27 percenL of Lhose who Lhose who dropped ouL of school ln
2004, leavlng school aL a raLe of slx percenL. ln Alaska and Colorado, Lhe Afrlcan Amerlcan
dropouL raLes exceed 10 percenL, aL 12.7 and 11.1 percenL, respecLlvely.
16

SLudles show a correlaLlon beLween hlgh sLakes barrler LesLlng and decreased raLes of hlgh
school compleLlon, parLlcularly ln schools wlLh sLudenLs from low soclo-economlc
backgrounds.
17


1he lmplemenLaLlon of hlgh sLakes barrler LesLlng has proven Lo be an lneffecLlve predlcLor of fuLure
educaLlonal success and Lo have oLher negaLlve effecLs on educaLlon LhaL dlsproporLlonaLely affecL
poor chlldren. Powever, desplLe Lhelr arLlflclal measuremenL of ablllLy, hlgh sLakes LesLs conLlnue Lo
be lmplemenLed LhroughouL Lhe naLlon. 1he reauLhorlzaLlon of Lhe no Chlld LefL 8ehlnd (nCL8)
leglslaLlon has been noLed as one of resldenL Cbama's Lop prlorlLles. Powever, Lhe leglslaLlon has
never en[oyed Lhe approprlaLlons needed Lo fully lmplemenL Lhe range of supporL needed Lo
promoLe educaLlonal excellence. 8esearch has also suggesLed LhaL Lhe leglslaLlon, whlch was
lnLended Lo brldge educaLlonal gaps and resolve ongolng and problemaLlc educaLlonal facLors, falled
Lo adequaLely address hlgh raLes of academlc fallure and dropouLs among chlldren of color ln urban
communlLles, or approprlaLe measures Lo lmprove Lhe sLandards of educaLlon so LhaL all chlldren
beneflL from a quallLy educaLlon.
18
Clven LhaL slgnlflcanL dollars were removed from Lhe sLlmulus
package LhaL would have supporLed elemenLary and secondary educaLlon, adequaLe approprlaLlons
should be applled Lo nCL8.

1oward Lhe goal of supporLlng equal access Lo a quallLy educaLlon, Lhe nAAC calls for Lhe followlng:
9
Improve Assessments to repare Students for the 21
st
Century.
Plgh sLakes and oLher sLandardlzed LesLs do noL adequaLely measure Lhe full specLrum of
compeLencles needed for sLudenLs Lo compeLe ln Lhe global markeL. 1oward Lhe goal of
preparlng our fuLure generaLlons of leaders, educaLlon Lools musL lnclude LesLlng, admlnlsLraLlve
and Leacher assessmenLs, lncreased avallablllLy of Lechnology, caplLal lmprovemenLs for schools
ln need of repalr, reducLlon of class slze, lmprovemenL ln Lhe quallLy of currlcula, among oLher
sLraLegles. ln Lhls Llme of flscal crlsls, we all seek Lo yleld hlgher reLurns on publlc educaLlon. 1o
furLher supporL Lhls goal of adequaLely preparlng sLudenLs for global compeLlLlon, pollcymakers
should seek Lo yleld hlgher reLurns on publlc lnvesLmenLs ln educaLlon noL only as Lhey are
measured by performance ouLcomes. ollcymakers should lnsLlLuLlonallze a kesource
Accountab|||ty Metr|c deslgned Lo measure access for sLudenLs Lo Lhe core resources LhaL Lhey
need Lo learn and become hlgh performers, such as effecLlve Leachers, early chlldhood
educaLlon, secondary language skllls and college preparaLory currlcula.
Increase Access and Affordab|||ty to ost Secondary Lducat|on
1here ls a need Lo lncrease Lhe capaclLy of colleges and unlverslLles, lncludlng PlsLorlcally 8lack
Colleges, oLher eLhnlc and communlLy colleges LhaL serve as opporLunlLy cenLers and gaLeways
for Afrlcan Amerlcan and oLher chlldren of color Lo posL-secondary educaLlon credenLlals,
Lralnlng, llcenses, cerLlflcaLlon and degrees. Accordlng Lo Lhe CrganlzaLlon of Lconomlc Co-
operaLlon and uevelopmenL, Lhe u.S. wlll need aL leasL 60 percenL of lLs populaLlon Lo possess a
posLsecondary degree or credenLlal by 2023 Lo remaln globally compeLlLlve. 8oughly 39 percenL
of Amerlcans currenLly hold a Lwo-year or four-year degree. 1haL aLLalnmenL raLe has held
sLeady for Lhe pasL four decades. 1o achleve Lhe CLCu goal, Lhe u.S. wlll need Lo produce 16
mllllon more graduaLes Lhan Lhe currenL raLe of producLlon. 1he counLry's changlng
demographlcs mandaLes a change ln Lhe educaLlonal Lra[ecLory for a slgnlflcanL number of
Afrlcan Amerlcan and LaLlno chlldren. 1oward lncreaslng access for Lhese populaLlons,
pollcymakers should lncrease ell and non-merlL based granLs, and ensures LhaL Lhese funds are
avallable Lo all poLenLlal appllcanLs who quallfy, regardless of prlor crlmlnal convlcLlon hlsLory.

IV. A Ia|r Chance for a|| Amer|cans
a. 1he St|mu|us ackage and rotect|ng aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on
1he flnanclal crlsls deflnes our mosL lmmedlaLe agenda As Laxpayers spend Lo revlve Lhe
naLlon's alllng economy, Lhe clLles and schools musL noL be overlooked. 8ecenL modlflcaLlons Lo
Lhe sLlmulus package suggesL a deparLure from Lhe orlglnal lnLenL of a package LhaL would have
provlded lmporLanL supporL for educaLlon and oLher programs and lncenLlves LhaL supporL
Amerlca's worklng malnsLream. Clven Lhe legacy of falled Lrlckle-down" pollcles of Lhe 8eagan
era, Lhe falr lmplemenLaLlon of Lhe sLlmulus package ls paramounL, parLlcularly wlLh regard Lo lLs
employmenL processes and ouLcomes.
1oward Lhe goal of a falr employmenL sLraLegy:
10
Lnsure Lransparency ln Lhe hlrlng process by posLlng [obs creaLed Lhrough Lhe federal
sLlmulus package Lhrough Lhe lederal LmploymenL Servlce and creaLe a mechanlsm or
neuLral body Lo monlLor and enforce falrness.
Congress should pass Lhe unemploymenL lnsurance ModlflcaLlon AcL and lnlLlaLe a sLudy Lo
lnvesLlgaLe Lhe use of Lhls as a blueprlnL for a federal beneflL Lo supporL ellglble [ob-seekers
ln every sLaLe. 1hls sLudy should explore Lhe poLenLlal lmpacL of a federal beneflL Lo reduce
Lhe lncldence of dlscrlmlnaLlon and money spenL ln dlscrlmlnaLlon clalms across Lhe naLlon.
b. 1he I|nanc|a| Cr|s|s and rotect|ng aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on
ueveloplng a sLlmulus package Lo address Lhe naLlon's economlc woes ls [usL Lhe beglnnlng.
8esearch has found LhaL Lhe economlc galns achleved by mlddle class Afrlcan Amerlcans have
noL LranslaLed Lo lnLergeneraLlonal susLalnablllLy. 1here has been a relaLlve sLagnaLlon of Lhe
Afrlcan Amerlcan mlddle class
19
and, ln many communlLles, more Lhan 60 percenL of Afrlcan
Amerlca men and women worked ln low-wage [obs ln 2000, up from approxlmaLely 40 percenL
30 years prlor.
20
1he crlsls of low-wage employmenL ls exacerbaLed by lncreaslng raLes of
lncarceraLlon and dlscrlmlnaLory barrlers LhaL prevenL Afrlcan Amerlcans from obLalnlng [obs
LhaL compensaLe wlLh llvable wages.
21


|. Lmp|oyment D|spar|t|es and D|scr|m|nat|on: 1he Iacts
ln 2008, employmenL for Afrlcan Amerlcans and for LaLlnos decllned by 1.9 percenL,
whlle lL dropped by 1.6 percenL for whlLes.
22

ln !anuary 2009, more Lhan 398,000 [obs were losL, represenLlng Lhe largesL
monLhly cuL slnce Lhe recesslon offlclally began ln uecember 2007.
23

1he naLlon's unemploymenL raLe ls 7.6 percenL, and Afrlcan Amerlcans are
unemployed aL Lhe shocklng raLe of 12.6 percenL.
24
1he Afrlcan Amerlcan
unemploymenL raLe exceeds Lhe hlghesL raLe of unemploymenL for whlLes
.

||. Strengthen Lnforcement aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on
!ob dlscrlmlnaLlon ls hlsLorlcally exacerbaLed ln Llmes of flscal sLraln. 1here ls a paLLern
of lncrease ln Lhe number of dlscrlmlnaLlon clalms flled wlLh Lhe LLCC, ueparLmenL of
Labor Cfflce of lederal ConLracL Compllance, and Lhe SollclLor's Cfflce, among oLhers. ln
2002, when Lhe naLlon's economy experlenced a downLurn, Lhe LLCC reporLed an
lncrease ln clalms by 4.3 percenL. Accordlng Lo Lhe LLCC's l?2007 flgures, overall
charges lncreased by nlne percenL over Lhe prevlous year, and ln 2008, Lhe LLCC
reporLed Lhe largesL annual lncrease, up 13.2 percenL ln 2008 from 2007.
23

1he nAAC calls for Lhe followlng:
Lxpand Lhe LLCC, Cfflce of lederal ConLracL Compllance, SollclLor's Cfflce, and
oLhers ln order Lo proLecL and monlLor Lhe clvll rlghLs of all poLenLlal appllcanLs and
11
Lo adequaLely respond Lo Lhe lncrease ln volume of cases LhaL occurs durlng flscal
downLurns.

|||. rotect|on aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on |n Lend|ng
8orrowers who are people of color pay hlgher annual percenLage raLes Lhan Lhelr whlLe
counLerparLs wlLh equal lncome and credlL rlsk:
26

Accordlng Lo a 2007 reporL by lreddle Mac (lederal Pome Loan MorLgage
CorporaLlon), Afrlcan Amerlcans pald an average of 128 bas|s po|nts more for loans
Lhan Lhelr whlLe counLerparLs, and ln Lhe subprlme markeL, Lhe dlfference was 27S
bas|s po|nts more Lhan Lhelr whlLe counLerparLs.
27

uaLa clLed ln a class acLlon lawsulL flled by Lhe nAAC agalnsL 13 ma[or u.S. banks
alleglng raclal dlscrlmlnaLlon ln lendlng show LhaL even when lncome and credlL rlsk
are equal, Afrlcan Amerlcans are 31 percenL Lo 34 percenL more llkely Lo recelve
hlgher raLe and subprlme loans Lhan Lhelr whlLe counLerparLs.
1hese pracLlces have placed aL leasL one mllllon Afrlcan Amerlcans and oLher people
of color aL greaL rlsk of loss of wealLh, an esLlmaLed loss of aL leasL $164 bllllon.
28


1he nAAC calls for Lhe followlng:
Cfflce of ConLracL Compllance, and oLher federal enforcemenL bodles should
lnvesLlgaLe and enforce Lhe pollcles regardlng Lhe use of publlc funds noL belng used
Lo supporL companles LhaL engage ln dlscrlmlnaLory acLlons.

|v. rotect|on aga|nst D|scr|m|nat|on |n nous|ng
Pouslng ls an lmporLanL clvll and human rlghL. Powever, equal and falr access Lo
houslng has been lmpacLed by naLural and economlc dlsasLers LhaL exacerbaLe Lhe
effecLs of lnequallLy. lor example, alleged dlscrlmlnaLlon agalnsL Afrlcan Amerlcans ln
Lhe admlnlsLraLlon of Lhe $11 bllllon 8oad Pome program has comprlsed Lhe lnLegrlLy of
publlc dlsasLer rellef and oLher ma[or publlc houslng resources.

1oward Lhe goal of proLecLlng clLlzens from dlscrlmlnaLlon, Lhe nAAC calls for Lhe
followlng:

Modlfy houslng pollcles so as noL Lo exclude or dlscrlmlnaLe agalnsL people wlLh a
crlmlnal record from publlc houslng, parLlclpaLlon ln SecLlon 8 houslng, parLlclpaLlon
ln flrsL-Llme home owner program, or any oLher houslng asslsLance deslgned Lo
beneflL lndlvlduals wlLh low and moderaLe lncomes.
12
v. Iorec|osure Morator|um
Cver half of Afrlcan Amerlcan borrowers recelved subprlme morLgages, and
approxlmaLely 10 percenL of Afrlcan Amerlcans and elghL percenL of LaLlno borrowers
are expecLed Lo be affecLed by foreclosures, compared Lo only four percenL of whlLe
borrowers.
29
Among morLgage holders age 30 and over, Afrlcan Amerlcan and LaLlno
borrowers boLh have foreclosure raLes of 0.31 percenL, compared Lo a raLe of 0.19
percenL for Caucaslans.
30

1oward Lhe goal of prevenLlng unnecessary foreclosures, Lhe nAAC ls calllng for Lhe
followlng:
LnacL pendlng leglslaLlon Lo proLecL Amerlcans from predaLory lendlng such as
SenaLe blll 2432, Lhe nome Owoetsblp 8lll, whlch ls deslgned Lo prevenL flnanclal
lnsLlLuLlons from preylng on unlnformed populaLlons and dlsproporLlonaLely
explolLlng people of color.
SupporL for Lhe loteclosote lteveotloo ooJ 5oooJ Mottqoqe 5etvlcloq Act of 2008
(P.8. 3679), whlch requlres a homeowner or servlcer Lo pursue speclfled prlorlLy
loss mlLlgaLlon acLlvlLles such as walvlng laLe fees and oLher charges, esLabllshlng an
affordable repaymenL plan or loan modlflcaLlon, forbearance, or a shorL reflnanclng
before a home may be foreclosed.
LsLabllsh aL leasL a nlne-monLh moraLorlum on foreclosure, and [udlclal loan
modlflcaLlons prlor Lo Lhe occurrence of a foreclosure. llnanclal lnsLlLuLlons
recelvlng ald Lhrough 1A8 should adhere Lo federal laws whlch prohlblL
dlscrlmlnaLlon and leglslaLlon whlch mandaLes Lhelr lnvesLmenL ln economlcally
dlsLressed areas.
1here should be a publlc admlsslon LhaL renLers are also lmpacLed by foreclosures.
Speclflc legal proLecLlons and oLher beneflLs (e.g. rlghL Lo ample noLlce, movlng
asslsLance, severance packages, eLc.) should be developed Lo help renLers who are
lmpacLed (l.e. evlcLed) by home foreclosures.
lncrease low and moderaLe lncome houslng sLock, boLh slngle famlly and mulLl-unlL
Lo replace Lhose desLroyed by naLural dlsasLers and Lo meeL Lhe lncreaslng demands
of a sLruggllng economy by fully approprlaLlng funds for Lhe Notloool noosloq 1tost
looJ.
c. keduc|ng D|spar|t|es |n nea|th
ulsparlLles ln access Lo affordable healLh lnsurance and quallLy healLh care, lack of dlverslLy
among healLh care professlonals, and barrlers Lo prevenLlve care conLlnue Lo challenge Lhe
ablllLy of Afrlcan Amerlcans and oLher people of color from achlevlng poslLlve healLh ouLcomes.
Cf Lhe nlne mllllon chlldren ln our naLlon who remaln unlnsured Loday, more Lhan flve mllllon
13
are people of color. lorLy percenL of LaLlno adulLs wlLh lncomes over 200 percenL of poverLy
were unlnsured ln 2003, compared Lo nearly one-quarLer (23) of Afrlcan Amerlcan adulLs and
12 percenL of whlLe adulLs ln LhaL lncome group.
31
Largely aLLrlbuLable Lo Lhls baslc lnequallLy,
Afrlcan Amerlcans conLlnue Lo carry a dlsproporLlonaLe burden of dlsease, ln[ury, deaLh, and
dlsablllLy.
32
lrom a lack of access Lo affordable prevenLlve care Lo deflclencles ln Lhe quallLy and
culLural compeLency of Lhe care admlnlsLered, Afrlcan Amerlcans also conLlnue Lo face
slgnlflcanL obsLacles Lo recelvlng quallLy healLh and human servlces.
ln lebruary 2009, resldenL Cbama slgned lnLo Lhe law a chlldren's healLh lnsurance blll (SCPl)
LhaL Lhe nAAC supporLed as a sLep Loward dlsmanLllng Lhe barrlers Lo healLh care, however,
Lhere remaln a hosL of lmporLanL calls Lo acLlon ln Lhls arena. 1oward Lhe goal of provldlng
unlversal access and lnsurance Lo healLh care, Lhe nAAC calls for Lhe followlng:
SupporL educaLlon and prevenLlon of obeslLy, gun vlolence, hlgh lnfanL morLallLy, sexually
LransmlLLed dlseases and oLher behavloral healLh problems raLher Lhan lgnore Lhe rooL
cause of Lhese problems.
urafL leglslaLlon LhaL would lmprove and sLandardlze measures of healLh care quallLy for use
ln healLh programs sponsored by federal, sLaLe, and local governmenL enLlLles, as well
prlvaLe healLh care provlders.
MandaLe and sLandardlze publlc reporLlng on Lhe quallLy of servlces based on race and
eLhnlclLy ln federally funded programs.
Address dlsparlLles and challenges regardlng menLal healLh servlces among people of color.

d. Internat|ona| r|or|t|es
1he economlc and soclal desLablllzaLlon of Afrlcan naLlons (lncludlng Lhe Sudan, Congo, and
Zlmbabwe) and segmenLs of Lhe Carlbbean have generaLed a humanlLarlan and moral crlsls.
Whlle Lhe unlLed SLaLes has supporLed leglslaLlon Lo provlde ald Lo Afrlcan and Carlbbean
naLlons Lo fosLer educaLlon and LreaLmenL Lo prevenL Lhe spread of Plv/AluS and oLher
dlseases, llLLle has been done Lo address ongolng desLablllzaLlon ln Lhese areas. 1he unlLed
SLaLes found LhaL Lhe slLuaLlon ln uarfur, Sudan, consLlLuLes genoclde, Lherefore, we now have a
legal (under Lhe Ceneva convenLlons) as well as a moral obllgaLlon Lo Lake aggresslve acLlon Lo
sLop Lhe kllllngs. Llkewlse, Lhe human rlghLs abuses ln PalLl have been well documenLed,
however, Lhe u.S. has provlded llLLle lnLervenLlon and proLecLlon supporL Lo Lhls naLlon.
1oward Lhe goal of generaLlng normal and sLablllzed relaLlons wlLh Afrlcan and Carlbbean
naLlons, Lhe nAAC calls for Lhe followlng:
Lnhance Lhe ald, Lrade, economlc developmenL, and human rlghLs ln Lhese areas of Lhe
world and apply declslve acLlon ln uarfur, Sudan. 1hls lncludes u.S. pollcymakers worklng
wlLh Lhe unlLed naLlons and oLher parLners Lo asslsL communlLles desLablllzed by war and
14
famlne. 1he u.S. should fashlon pollcles LhaL provlde resources Lo end genoclde ln uarfur, Lo
provlde asslsLance Lo oLher Afrlcan naLlons sufferlng from famlne, and Lo lmprove Lhe Afrlca
CrowLh and uevelopmenL AcL so as Lo lncrease opporLunlLles for Lrade wlLh Afrlca and Lhe
Carlbbean. AddlLlonally, Lhe u.S. should develop sLraLegles Loward debL reducLlon and
supporL educaLlonal and healLh ald Lo developlng counLrles.
LnacL leglslaLlon LhaL lmproves u.S. and Luropean lmmlgraLlon pollcy Loward people of color
seeklng Lo enLer Lhese naLlons from Afrlca, Lhe Carlbbean and oLher naLlons. 1hls should
lnclude lmmlgraLlon and 8efugee reform LhaL are humane and proLecL Lhe famlly sLrucLure
and preserve equal opporLunlLles for all.
LnacL leglslaLlon Lo normallze relaLlons and repeal resLrlcLlons LhaL prevenL u.S. Lrade
(culLural, educaLlonal, eLc.) wlLh and Lravel Lo Cuba. Cpenlng up Lhe Cuban markeL or u.S.
goods and servlces wlll generaLe employmenL and expand buslness opporLunlLles for
companles ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes.

V. Conc|us|on
1he vlcLorles of Lhe pasL 100 years lmbue us wlLh Lhe knowledge LhaL wlLh dedlcaLlon and vlgllance ln
our mlsslon, we wlll succeed ln reallzlng Amerlca's promlse for all. 1he nAAC ls commlLLed Lo worklng
ln parLnershlp wlLh Lhe federal governmenL Lo preserve and lmplemenL a progresslve agenda LhaL
supporLs clvll and human rlghLs. 1o LhaL end, we wlll enllsL all of our sLrengLhs-from our grassrooLs
members and parLners Lo our youLh and college chapLers, as well as our branches, sLaLe conferences,
reglonal offlces, naLlonal sLaff, and naLlonal 8oard of ulrecLors-Lo parLner wlLh Lhe Cbama
AdmlnlsLraLlon and Congress Loward compleLlng Lhls unflnlshed [ourney.

13
Endnotes

1
naLlonal Councll on Crlme and uellnquency. (2007) And !usLlce for Some: ulfferenLlal 1reaLmenL of ?ouLh of Color
ln Lhe !usLlce SysLem. Cakland, CA: naLlonal Councll on Crlme and uellnquency.

2
Warren, !, Celb, A., eL. al. (2008) Cne ln 100: 8ehlnd 8ars ln Amerlca 2008. 1he ew CenLer on Lhe SLaLes.
WashlngLon, uC: 1he ew CharlLable 1rusLs.
3
u.S. Census. Also, Crlmlnal !usLlce lnformaLlon Servlces ulvlslon, unlform Crlme 8eporLlng rogram (2006) Crlme
ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes, WashlngLon, uC: u.S. ueparLmenL of !usLlce, lederal 8ureau of lnvesLlgaLlon.
4
8ureau of !usLlce SLaLlsLlcs. (LasL revlsed !anuary 13, 2009) vlcLlm CharacLerlsLlcs. WashlngLon, uC: u.S.
ueparLmenL of !usLlce, Cfflce of !usLlce rograms.
3
8ureau of !usLlce SLaLlsLlcs. (2007) Case SoluLlon 8aLes by vlcLlm, LocaLlon, and lncldenL CharacLerlsLlcs.
WashlngLon, uC: u.S. ueparLmenL of !usLlce, Cfflce of !usLlce rograms.
6
lel, A.M, useem, 8., and ullullo, !. (SepLember 1999) 8lghL-Slzlng !usLlce: A CosL-8eneflL Analysls of
lmprlsonmenL ln 1hree SLaLes. new ?ork, n?: ManhaLLan lnsLlLuLe
7
Longshore, u., Pawken, A., urada, u. & Anglln, u. (2006) LvaluaLlon of Lhe SubsLance Abuse and Crlme revenLlon
AcL. unlverslLy of Callfornla, Los Angeles lnLegraLed SubsLance Abuse rogram.
8
urug ollcy Alllance neLwork. Accessed on lebruary 6, 2009. 8ace and Lhe urug War. Avallable Cnllne:
hLLp://www.drugpollcy.org/communlLles/race/

9
Warren, !, Celb, A., eL. al. (2008) Cne ln 100: 8ehlnd 8ars ln Amerlca 2008. 1he ew CenLer on Lhe SLaLes.
WashlngLon, uC: 1he ew CharlLable 1rusLs.

10
kleykamp, M, 8osenfeld, !., & ScoLLl, 8. (May 2008) WasLlng Money, WasLlng Llves: CalculaLlng Lhe Pldden CosLs
of lncarceraLlon ln new !ersey. new ?ork, n?: urug ollcy Alllance.
11
Callfornla LeglslaLlve AnalysLs Cfflce. (2008-2009) Callfornla's CosL Lo lncarceraLe an lnmaLe ln rlson. Avallable
onllne: hLLp://www.lao.ca.gov/laoapp/laomenus/secLlons/crlm_[usLlce/6_c[_lnmaLecosL.aspx?caLld=3. LasL
accessed on lebruary 3, 2009.
12
Lpps, C. owerolnL resenLaLlon: l? 2004 8udgeL 8equesL. Mlsslsslppl ueparLmenL of CorrecLlons. Avallable
onllne & lasL accessed lebruary 4, 2009:
13
Chamberlaln, . & 8eld, !. Comparlson of 1wo CommunlLy AlLernaLlves Lo lncarceraLlon for Chronlc !uvenlle
Cffenders. !ournal of ConsulLlng and Cllnlcal sychology, 66(4): 624-633, 1998. 5ee Also, AusLln, !. & krlsberg, 8.
1he unmeL romlse of AlLernaLlves Lo lncarceraLlon. Crlme & uellnquency, vol. 28, no. 3, 374-409 (1982).
14
5ulkA, noLe 6. 5ee Also, SLemen, u. (!anuary 2007) 8econslderlng lncarceraLlon: new ulrecLlons for 8educlng
Crlme. new ?ork, n?: CenLer on SenLenclng and CorrecLlons, vera lnsLlLuLe of !usLlce.
16

13
u.S. Census. (2007) LducaLlonal ALLalnmenL ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes. Avallable onllne:
hLLp://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p20-360.pdf. LasL accessed on lebruary 9, 2009. noLe: Accordlng Lo Lhe
u.S. Census, LaLlno populaLlons can be of any race.
16
Sable, !. & Cavolla n. (uecember 2007) numbers and 8aLes of ubllc Plgh School uropouLs: School ?ear 2004-
2003. WashlngLon, uC: lnsLlLuLe of LducaLlon Sclences, naLlonal CenLer for LducaLlon SLaLlsLlcs.
17
Clarke, M., Paney, W., & Madaus, C. (2000) Plgh SLakes 1esLlng and Plgh School CompleLlon. naLlonal 8oard on
LducaLlonal 1esLlng and ubllc ollcy. 8osLon, MA: Carolyn A. and eLer S. Lynch School of LducaLlon, 8osLon
College.
18
lbld. 5ee Also, 8rooklngs lnsLlLuLlon. (2002) Pow Well Are Amerlcan SLudenLs Learnlng? Avallable onllne:
hLLp://www.brooklngs.edu/dybdocrooL/gs/brown/bc_reporL/2002/bcr_reporL.pdf.

19
u.S. Commlsslon on Clvll 8lghLs. (!uly 13, 2003) 1he Lconomlc SLagnaLlon of Lhe 8lack Mlddle Class. WashlngLon,
uC: A 8rleflng 8efore Lhe unlLed SLaLes Commlsslon on Clvll 8lghLs. Avallable onllne:
hLLp://www.usccr.gov/pubs/122803_8lackAmerlcaSLagnaLlon.pdf. 8eLrleved uecember 14, 2008.

20
lLLs, S. (november 2006) 8lack Workers ln Lhe 8ay Area, LmploymenL 1rends and !ob CuallLy. 8erkeley, CA:
unlverslLy of Callfornla 8erkeley Labor CenLer.

21
ager, u. (2007) MotkeJ. koce, ctlme, ooJ lloJloq wotk lo oo to of Moss locotcetotloo. Chlcago: unlverslLy of
Chlcago ress. See also Morrls, M., Sumner, M., & 8or[a, !. (2008) A Plgher Purdle: 8arrlers Lo LmploymenL for
lormerly lncarceraLed Women. 8erkeley, CA: 1helLon L. Penderson CenLer for Soclal !usLlce, uC 8erkeley School of
Law.

22
u.S. ueparLmenL of Labor, 8ureau of Labor SLaLlsLlcs. lebruary 6, 2009. LmploymenL SlLuaLlon Summary.
23
lbld.

24
lbld.

23
8nA, ually Labor 8eporL, no. 226. november 24, 2008, pp. A1-A2.
26
CenLer for 8esponslble Lendlng. (2006)
27
lederal Pome Loan MorLgage CorporaLlon. (2007) Annual 8eporL.
28
CenLer for 8esponslble Lendlng, 2009. Avallable onllne: hLLp://www.responslblelendlng.org.
29
CenLer for 8esponslble Lendlng. 2007. 5ee Also, AssoclaLlon of CommunlLy CrganlzaLlons for 8eform now lalr
Pouslng (SepLember 2007). loreclosure Lxposure: A SLudy of 8aclal and lncome ulsparlLles ln Pome MorLgage
Lendlng ln 172 Amerlcan ClLles. new Crleans, LA: ACC8n.
30
ually 8eal LsLaLe news. (SepLember 18, 2008) Clder Amerlcans vulnerable Lo Pouslng Crlsls." keoltot Moqozloe.
hLLp://www.realLor.org/rmodally.nsf/pages/news2008091904. 8eLrleved on uecember 4, 2008.
17


31
uoLy, M. & Polmgren, A. (2003) PealLh Care ulsconnecL: Caps ln Coverage and Care for MlnorlLy AdulLs: llndlngs
from Lhe CommonwealLh lund 8lennlal PealLh lnsurance Survey. new ?ork, n?: 1he CommonwealLh lund.
32
Cfflce of MlnorlLy PealLh. (2008) Afrlcan Amerlcan roflle. WashlngLon, uC: u.S. ueparLmenL of PealLh and
Puman Servlces. Avallable onllne. 8eLrleved on uecember 10, 2008:
hLLp://www.omhrc.gov/LemplaLes/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlld=23.