Chapter 2

Neuroscience and Behavior

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Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior

Learning Outcomes
Explain the structure of a neuron Describe how neurons fire Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another Identify neurotransmitters

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 These lectures are concerned with explaining the structure of a neuron, describing how neurons fire, summarizing how messages travel from one neuron to another, and identifying neurotransmitters.

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Behavioral Neuroscientists
Behavioral neuroscientists, also called biopsychologists, study the ways in which biological functions of the body affect behavior. They seek to answer several key questions:
1. How does the brain control the voluntary and involuntary functioning of the body? 2. How does the brain communicate with other parts of the body? 3. What is the physical structure of the brain, and how does this structure affect behavior? 4. Are psychological disorders caused by biological factors, and how can such disorders be treated?

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 Biological factors are central to our sensory experiences, states of consciousness, motivation and emotion, development throughout the life span, and physical and psychological health. Furthermore, advances in behavioral neuroscience have led to the creation of drugs and other treatments for psychological and physical disorders. In short, we cannot understand behavior without understanding our biological makeup

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The Structure of the Neuron

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic elements of the nervous system. They carry messages back and forth that enable people to think, remember, and experience emotion. People have as many as 1 trillion neurons throughout the body, all of which control behavior (Boahen, 2005).

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 For the muscles in our bodies to produce the complex movements that make up any meaningful physical activity, the brain has to provide the right messages to them and coordinate those messages.

Such messages, as well as those which enable us to think, remember, and experience emotion, are passed through specialized cells called neurons. Perhaps as many as one trillion neurons throughout the body are involved in the control of behavior.
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Neurons: Parts
Neurons have a cell body and a nucleus, and they contain structures that carry and receive messages. They have the ability to communicate with other cells and transmit information across relatively long distances. Dendrites receive incoming messages, while axons carry outgoing messages to other neurons.

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How Neurons Fire

All-or-none law The rule that neurons are either on or off. Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a trigger, changing the neurons charge from negative to positive. Mirror neurons Neurons that fire when a person enacts a particular behavior and also when a person views others behavior.
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 Like a gun, neurons either fire or dont fire. In other words, either they transmit an electrical impulse along the axon or they dont. There is no in-between stage, just as pulling harder on a gun trigger doesnt make the bullet travel faster. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none law. They are either on or off, with nothing in between the on state and the off state. Once there is enough force to pull the trigger, a neuron fires.

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All-or-none law
Before a neuron is triggered it is in a resting state. During this state it has a negative electrical charge. When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along the cell membrane open briefly to allow positively-charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions per second.

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 The sudden arrival of these positive ions causes the charge within the nearby part of the cell to change momentarily from negative to positive. When the positive charge reaches a critical level, the trigger is pulled, and an electrical impulse, known as an action potential, travels along the axon of the neuron.
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 Resting state - The state when a neuron is off and has a negative electrical charge of about 270 millivolts. Action potential - An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a trigger, changing the neurons charge from negative to positive.
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 Immediately after the action potential has passed through a section of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that section to negative. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse. Just after an action potential has occurred, a neuron cannot fire again immediately no matter how much stimulation it receives. It is just like a gun that has to be reloaded after each shot. Eventually, though, the neuron is ready to fire once again.
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 Neurons differ not only in terms of how quickly an impulse moves along the axon, but also in their potential rate of firing. Some neurons are capable of firing as many as a thousand times per second; others fire at much slower rates. The intensity of a stimulus determines how much of a neurons potential firing rate is reached. A strong stimulus, such as a bright light or a loud sound, leads to a higher rate of firing than a less intense stimulus does. So, even though all impulses move at the same strength or speed through a particular axon, there is variation in the number of impulses. This is how we can distinguish different sensations like the tickle of a feather compared to the weight of someone standing on our toes.
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Mirror Neurons
There is significant specialization among different types of neurons. During the last decade, neuroscientists have discovered the existence of mirror neurons, that fire both when a person enacts a particular behavior and when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior (Falck-Ytter, 2006; Lepage & Theoret, 2007; Schulte-Ruther et al., 2007). Mirror neurons may help explain how and why humans have the capacity to understand the intentions of other people.
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 In a computer, each part is physically connected to the other part. In contrast, evolution has produced a neural transmission system that at some points has no need for structural connections between components. Instead, a synapse, a chemical connection, bridges the gap between two neurons. Neurotransmitters are important for maintaining vital brain and body functions. As well, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders. More than 100 chemicals have been found to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified.
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Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap

Neurons in your brain connect to each other through a chemical connection called a synapse. Synapse - the space between the axon of a sending neuron and the dendrite of a receiving neuron. The gap between the axon and the dendrite is bridged by chemical messengers called neurotransmitters (Mader, 2000). Each neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor cell. Think of neurotransmitters as jigsaw-puzzle pieces that only fit in one specific location in a puzzle.

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 The nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon (the part of the neuron that sends messages) and reaches a terminal button. The terminal button then releases a neurotransmitter, which carries the message across the synapse to the dendrite of another neuron (the part of the neuron that receives messages).
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to a dendrite of a receiving neuron. Inside a neuron, messages travel in electrical form. Between neurons, messages travel through a chemical transmission system.

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 There are several types of neurotransmitters, and not all neurons are capable of receiving the chemical message carried by a particular neurotransmitter. Each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor site on the receiving neuron. It is only when a neurotransmitter fits precisely into a receptor site that successful chemical communication is possible.
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 If a neurotransmitter does fit into a site on the receiving neuron, the chemical message it delivers is basically one of two types: excitatory or inhibitory.
Excitatory messages make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory messages do just the opposite; they provide chemical information that prevents or decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire.

The dendrites of a neuron receive both excitatory and inhibitory messages at the same time. If the neuron receives more excitatory messages, it fires. If the neuron receives more inhibitory messages, it does not fire.
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 If neurotransmitters remain at the site of the synapse, they clog it with constant stimulation or constant inhibition, so effective communication across the synapse is no longer possible. To solve this problem, neurotransmitters are either deactivated by enzymes or reabsorbed by the terminal button. This reabsorption is a form of chemical recycling referred to as reuptake. The terminal button operates like a vacuum and sucks up the unused neurotransmitters. McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Reuptake
Reuptake The re-absorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button. Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior. They are important for maintaining vital brain and body functions. A deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders. More than a hundred chemicals have been found to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified (Penney, 2000; Schmidt, 2006).
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Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers

There are more than a hundred chemicals that act as neurotransmitters; however, we are only going to highlight a few of them.
1. Acetylcholine (ACh) is found throughout the nervous system and transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles and memory capabilities. A diminished production of ACh may be related to Alzheimers disease (Mohapel et al., 2005; Bazalakova et al., 2007). 2. Dopamine (DA) is involved in movement, attention, and learning. Certain drugs have a significant effect on the release of dopamine, which has led to the development of effective treatments for may physical and mental ailments.

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 For instance, Parkinsons disease is caused by a deficiency of dopamine in the brain. Michael J. Fox and Muhammad Ali are two well-known people who suffer from Parkinsons disease. Techniques for increasing the production of dopamine in Parkinsons patients have been proven effective. In other instances, an overproduction of dopamine produces negative consequences. Researchers hypothesize that schizophrenia and some other severe mental disturbances are affected or even caused by the presence of unusually high levels of dopamine. Drugs that block the reception of dopamine reduce the symptoms displayed by some people diagnosed with schizophrenia.

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 3. Glutamate a common neurotransmitter that plays a role in metabolism. 4. Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) moderates behaviors from eating to aggression. It acts as a natural calming and anti-epileptic agent in the brain. 5. Serotonin is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain. It is most noted for its impact on mood and the sleep/wake cycle. Serotonin plays a key role in the treatment of depression. 6. Endorphins are involved in the brains effort to deal with pain and elevate mood.
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The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communicating within the Body
Learning Outcomes
Explain how the structures of the nervous system are linked together Describe the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior

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 Scientists estimate that there are about 10 quadrillion connections between neurons within the brain. These connections provide communication within the body that influence behavior and biological functioning The nervous system is divided into two main parts:

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The Nervous System

Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
Reflex: automatic response to a stimulus; controlled by the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system: all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord

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The Nervous System (cont.)

Somatic division: voluntary movements & communication with sense organs Autonomic division: involuntary functions of the body that keep you alive
Sympathetic Parasympathetic

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The Central Nervous System

The spinal cord contains a bundle of neurons that leave the brain and run down the back. The spinal cord is the primary means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body. The spinal cord also controls some simple behaviors on its own such as reflexes without any help from the brain.
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Reflexes
Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to incoming stimuli such as your knee jerking when it is hit with a rubber hammer or your eye blinking when air is blown into it. Three kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes:
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. 2. Motor (efferent) neurons communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. 3. Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons and carry messages between the two.

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The Peripheral Nervous System

The PNS branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. It is made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites. Two major divisions connect the CNS with the sense organs, muscles, glands, and other organs.

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PNS Divisions
1. Somatic division specializes in the control of voluntary movements like the motion of the eyes to read this sentence and the communication of information to and from the sense organs. 2. Autonomic division controls the parts of the body that keep us alive the heart, blood vessels, glands, lungs, and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness. It also plays a crucial role during emergencies. The autonomic division of the nervous system contains two parts that work together to regulate many functions in the body:
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Autonomic
1. The Sympathetic Division - The part of the ANS that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organisms resources to respond to a threat. This response is often called the fight-or-flight response. 2. The Parasympathetic Division The part of the ANS that acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended. It also directs the body to store energy for emergencies.

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Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Behavioral genetics researchers are finding increasing evidence that cognitive abilities, personality traits, sexual orientation, and psychological disorders are determined to some extent by genetic factors (Reif & Lesch, 2003; Viding et al., 2005; Ilies, Arvey, & Bouchard, 2006).
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 Behavioral genetics lies at the heart of the nature-nurture question, one of the key issues in the study of psychology. Behavioral geneticists have evidence that suggests our genetic inheritance predisposes us to respond in particular ways to our environment, and even to seek out particular kinds of environments. For instance, research indicates that genetic factors may be related to such diverse behaviors as level of family conflict, schizophrenia, learning disabilities, and general sociability (Harlaar et al., 2005; Moffitt & Caspi, 2007). Certain human characteristics and behaviors are related to the presence or absence of particular genes.
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 Genes the inherited material that controls the transmission of traits. Chromosomes rod-shaped structure that transmits genetic information across generations. DNA chemical pairs that are the basic component of genes Genome the total genetic makeup or map of humans.
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 Studies involving behavioral genetics are focused on developing new diagnostic and treatment techniques for genetic deficiencies that can lead to physical and psychological difficulties. Advances in behavioral genetics also have led to the development of genetic counselors that help people deal with issues related to inherited disorders. For example, genetic counselors provide advice to prospective parents about the potential risks in a future pregnancy, based on their family history of birth defects and hereditary illnesses.
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The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands

Endocrine system: chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body through hormones in the bloodstream
Hormones Pituitary gland

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 Another of the bodys communication systems, the endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to secrete hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. It also influencesand is influenced bythe functioning of the nervous system. Pituitary gland The major component of the endocrine system, or master gland, which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system.

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 Other endocrine glands affect emotional reactions, sexual urges, and energy levels. Hormones are produced naturally by the endocrine system, but artificial hormones are many times used to treat certain illnesses. This is referred to as hormone replacement therapy (HRT). One example of HRT is to prescribe hormones to older women experiencing menopause. As the body stops producing hormones, the HRT replaces them and minimizes the effects of diminishing hormones.

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 Artificial hormones can also be dangerous. Some athletes use testosterone, a male hormone, and steroids, which act like testosterone, to enhance performance. Steroids cause increased muscle weight and strength; however, they can lead to heart attacks, strokes, cancer and even violent behavior.
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The Brain
Learning Outcomes
Illustrate how researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain Describe the central core of the brain Describe the limbic system of the brain Describe the cerebral cortex of the brain Recognize neuroplasticity and its implications Explain how the two hemispheres of the brain operate interdependently and the implications for human behavior

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 Billions of neurons make up the human brain. It weighs about three pounds in the average adult. The brain is responsible for guiding our behavior and thoughts. Our behavior, emotions, thoughts, hopes, and dreams are produced by complex interconnections among sets of neurons in the brain.

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 Modern brain-scanning techniques provide a window into the living brain. Using these techniques, investigators can take a snapshot of the internal workings of the brain without having to cut open a persons skull. The most important scanning techniques are as follows:
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Studying the Brains Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain

Electroencephalogram (EEG) Positron emission tomography (PET) scan Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

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 The electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. Although traditionally the EEG could produce only a graph of electrical wave patterns, new techniques are now used to transform the brains electrical activity into a pictorial representation of the brain that allows more precise diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy and learning disabilities.
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 Positron emission tomography (PET) scans show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment. PET scans begin with the injection of a radioactive (but safe) liquid into the bloodstream, which makes its way to the brain. By locating radiation within the brain, a computer can determine which are the more active regions, providing a striking picture of the brain at work.
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 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans provide a detailed, threedimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body. With fMRI scanning, it is possible to produce vivid, detailed images of the functioning of the brain.

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 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is one of the newest types of scan. By exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field, TMS causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity. Researchers then are able to note the effects of this interruption on normal brain functioning. The procedure is sometimes called a virtual lesion because it produces effects analogous to what would occur if areas of the brain were physically cut. The enormous advantage of TMS, of course, is that the virtual cut is only temporary.
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The Central Core: Our Old Brain

Central core: controls basic functioning
Hindbrain: medulla (breathing and heartbeat), pons (integrates movement between right and left side of the body, regulates sleep), and cerebellum (controls bodily balance) Midbrain into forebrain: reticular formation (can immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce arousal), thalamus (relay station for information about the senses), and hypothalamus (maintains homeostasis and regulates vital, survival behavior)

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The Central Core: Our Old Brain

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The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core

The limbic system is the part of the brain consisting of a series of doughnut-shaped structures. Limbic system: control a variety of basic functions relating to emotion, learning, memory, pleasure, and self-preservation (ex., eating, aggression, reproduction); includes the amygdala and hippocampus
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 When you hear the word amygdala, think fear. When you hear the word hippocampus, think memory. The limbic system is sometimes referred to as the animal brain because its structures and functions are so similar to those of other mammals. Injury to the limbic system can cause marked changes in behavior. An animal that once was docile can turn into a savage. An animal that once was savage can become completely gentle.
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The Cerebral Cortex: Our New Brain

The cerebral cortex is referred to as the new brain because of its relatively recent evolution. It consists of a mass of deeply folded, rippled, convoluted tissue. Although only about onetwelfth of an inch thick, it would, if flattened out, cover an area more than 2 feet square.
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 This configuration allows the surface area of the cortex to be considerably greater than it would be if it were smoother and more uniformly packed into the skull. The uneven shape also permits a high level of integration of neurons, allowing sophisticated information processing.

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The Cerebral Cortex: Our New Brain

Cerebral cortex: responsible for sophisticated, uniquely human information processing
Frontal lobes Parietal lobes Temporal lobes Occipital lobes

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The cortex has four major sections called lobes.

1. The frontal lobe located in the front center of the cortex concerned with reasoning, planning, parts of speech and movement (motor cortex), emotions and problem-solving. 2. The parietal lobe located behind the frontal lobe concerned with perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature and pain.
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 3. The temporal lobe - located below the frontal and parietal lobe at the center portion of the cortex - concerned with perception and recognition of hearing (auditory stimuli) and memory. 4. The occipital lobe located at the back of the brain behind the parietal and temporal lobes - concerned with vision.
These four sets of lobes are physically separated by deep grooves called sulci.

The Cerebral Cortex: Our New Brain (cont.)

The brain can also be described in terms of functions associated with a particular area. Three major areas are known:
Motor area Sensory area Association areas

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 Motor area The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the bodys voluntary movement. Sensory area The site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of tissue allocated to that sense. Association areas One of the major regions of the cerebral cortex; the site of the higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech.
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Neuroplasticity and the Brain

Neuroplasticity refers to changes in the brain that occur throughout the life span relating to the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas.

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 Interconnections between neurons become more complex throughout life, and it now appears that new neurons are also created in certain areas of the brain during adulthood. This process is called neurogenesis. In fact, new neurons may become integrated with existing neural connections after some kinds of brain injury during adulthood (Bhardwaj et al., 2006; Jang, You, & Ahn, 2007; Poo & Isaacson, 2007).

The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?

The ability of neurons to renew themselves during adulthood has significant implications for the potential treatment of disorders of the nervous system. For example, drugs that trigger the development of new neurons might be used to counter diseases like Alzheimers that are produced when neurons die (Steiner, Wolf, & Kempermann, 2006; Tsai, Tsai, & Shen, 2007).

The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?

The brain is divided into two halves, referred to as the left and right brain. Because of the way nerves in the brain are connected to the rest of the body, these symmetrical left and right halves, called hemispheres, control motion and receive sensation from the opposite side of the body. The left hemisphere of the brain generally controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. Thus, damage to the right side of the brain is typically indicated by functional difficulties in the left side of the body.

The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?

The two hemispheres of the brain seem similar, but they are somewhat different in the functions they control and in the ways they control them. Certain behaviors are more likely to reflect activity in one hemisphere than in the other. This is referred to as lateralization.

The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?

Left hemisphere: Controls muscles on the right side of the body and concentrates more on tasks that require verbal competence, such as speaking, reading, thinking, and reasoning. In addition, the left hemisphere tends to process information sequentially, one bit at a time (Turkewitz, 1993; Banich & Heller, 1998; Hines, 2004). Right hemisphere: Controls muscles on the left side of the body and affects nonverbal areas such as the understanding of spatial relationships, recognition of patterns and drawings, music, and emotional expression. The right hemisphere tends to process information globally, considering it as a whole (Ansaldo, Arguin, & Roch-Locours, 2002; Holowka & Petitto,

The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?

The differences in specialization between the hemispheres are not great, and the degree and nature of lateralization vary from one person to another. If you are right-handed, the control of language is probably concentrated more in your left hemisphere. If you are among the ten percent of people who are lefthanded or are ambidextrous (you use both hands interchangeably), it is much more likely that the language centers of your brain are located more in the right hemisphere or are divided equally between the left and right hemispheres.