ABSTRACT

Power is an essential requirement for all facets of our life and has been recognized as a basic human need. It is the critical infrastructure on which the socio economic development of the country depends. the growth of the economy and its global competitiveness hinges on the availability of reliable and quality power at competitive rates. The demand power is enormous and is growing steadily. In order to meet this demand, the power generating stations have to transmit the power, which are located at hundreds of kilometers from the load centers and due to these long distances we have to place the intermediate substation in order to reduce the losses and to increase maximum power transfer in the lines. The generation for electricity in power generating station is done in faraway places from consumers & load centers for various reasons reasons. The generated voltage is stepped up at some places and stepped down at some places i.e. at 11kv, 33kv it is stepped up to 132, 220, 400kv and transmitted to various loads. at load centers the high voltage is stepped down to 11kv or 440 / 220v and distributed to consumer. These voltage transformations are carried out at sub stations. The main equipment in substation is transformer, bus section, circuit breaker, line going out of the substation. The protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical substation and no part of the substation is left
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unprotected. The choice of protection depends on different aspects such as type, rating and protection equipment, location and cost. The protection relaying scheme senses the abnormal condition of the substation. Transient stability can be improved by means of protective relaying. Faults cannot be avoided completely but they can be minimized. Hence relays can play an important role in minimizing the faults. In this project, we give an insight o the substation. it consists of various fields which have been elaborated in a detailed manner. The necessity of a substation, its features, classifications, specifications are dealt. The various equipments used in a substation are explained.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

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Andhra Pradesh Transmission Corporation Ltd., has a great significance of transmitting bulk power from four decades for which they have constructed number of substations. Transmission substation is located between generating power station and distribution substations. Visakhapatnam consists of National thermal power corporation Ltd., Known as Simhadhri power plant. The plant generates 2*500MW power. This total power is utilized in Andhra Pradesh only. So, AP TRANSCO established a 400 / 200kv transmission substation at KALAPAKA near NTPC. This substation has been inaugurated by Honorable Former chief minister Shri Nara Chandrababu Naidu in 2002. The substation is in collaboration with J.B.I.C a Japanese company. The substation is spread over vast area of about 70 acres and the yard length is 900mts. According to area the substation is the second largest in ASIA. The equipment in this substation like transformers are manufactured by CROMPTON GREAVES, Circuit breakers and Relays are manufactured by ASIA BROWN BOVERI LTD.

It is feeded from NTPC by four incoming lines. The power is transmitted to Vemagiri, Khammam and Power Grid. The 400kv is step down to 220kv and transmits to Visakha dairy farm and Vizag switching station.

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The work presented in this report is organized in the following manner. Chapter 2 deals with the (400/220 KV) substation which includes introduction to substation, its necessity, classifications on various bases, specifications, essential features & necessary structures within the substation. The layout of 400/200KV Kalapaka substation is also presented. Chapter 3 deals with various elements that are used in the substation. The substation equipment comprises of transformers, circuit breakers, relays, lightning arresters, isolators, reactors, current transformers, capacitor voltage transformers, wave trap, earthing system etc., the ratings & specifications of the equipment used in Kalapaka substation are also mentioned. Chapter 4 deals with various protection schemes employed for the protection of transformers & bus bars. The protection schemes for the transformers includes buchholz relay, differential protection, over fluxing protection, breaker failure relay protection & restricted earth fault protection. The bus bar arrangements & protection schemes includes back up protection & differential over current protection. Chapter 5 deals with the various auxiliary equipments used in the kalapaka substation. The auxiliary equipment includes battery operation and maintenance, disturbance recorded & event logger.

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CHAPTER 2

400 / 220 KV SUBSTATION

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2.1

INTRODUCTION

The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristics (i.e., voltage A.C. to D.C., frequency, power factor) of electric supply is called a substation. An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of a electricity generation, transmission and distribution system where voltage is transformed from high to low or the reverser using transformers. Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plant and consumer, and may be changed in voltage in several steps. There are several substations between generating station and final load points Electrical substation receives power from the incoming lines and the power is transferred at desired voltage by the transformer and is then supplied to the outgoing lines. The electrical sub stations at the various locations in network differ greatly in their sizes, design, configuration and appearance. There are different works done in a substation. Switching Operation Voltage Transformation Operation Power Converting Operation Power Factor Correction Operation.

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2.2

NECESSITY:

Between the generation of power and consumer point, transmission and distribution exists. Generating stations are designed for generating bulk amount of power and the Transmission takes place at high voltages to reduce the line losses, where as consumer points are at low voltage. This high voltage is stepped down to a lower voltage at different stages with the help of transformer and switchgear in the substation. 2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION. The substation may be classified in numerous ways on the basis of Nature of Duties Service Rendered Operating Voltage Importance Design

BASED ON THE NATURE OF DUTIES: The substation based on the nature of duties may be classified into three types. Step Up or Primary Substations Primary Grid Substations Step Down or Distribution Substations

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BASED ON THE NATURE OF OPERATING VOLTAGES: High voltage Substation Extra High Voltage Substation Ultra High Voltage Substation
BASED ON SERVICE RENDERED:

Transformer Substation Switching Substation Converting Substation BASED ON DESIGN: Indoor Type Substation Out Door Type Substation. 2.4 SPECIFICATIONS:

Specifications of substation denote the design requirement rating, technical aspects regarding the substation and its associated electrical, mechanical, civil and auxiliary sub system. The sub stations are planned on the basis of economic, electrical and local conditions at the project planning stage. The substation requirements are influenced by network requirement in several aspects including the following. 1. 2. 3. 4.
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Insulation levels and insulation coordination Fault levels and their coordination Voltage control requirement of the network Clearance and creep age distances
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5.

Network monitoring and data communication between substation and load dispatch centers.

6. 7.

Back up protection main protection zones maintenance zones Switching sequence during normal emergency and post fault conditions.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES: An AC substation has following parts. AC switch yard Control building Low voltage and medium voltage AC system for auxiliaries DC battery system and low voltage distribution system Station mechanical, electrical and other auxiliaries Civil work. 2.5 LAYOUT OF KALAPAKA SUBSTATION:

The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a one line diagram which shows in simplified from the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the incoming supply lines and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. It is a usual practice by many electrical utilities to prepare one line diagrams with principal elements (lines, switches, circuit breakers, and transformers) arranged on the page similarly to the way the apparatus would be laid out in the actual station.

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2.6

NECESSARY STRUCTURES :

The following structures are necessary in a conventional open terminal outdoor substation. Towers of incoming and outgoing transmission lines : These are generally located outside the substation boundary adjacent to the substation. Tower and gantries for supporting strain insulators and flexible bus bar : These are used for mounting isolator, surge arrester and other equipment suitable. Towers and gaintries for supporting rigid tabular bus bar mounted on post insulator. The insulators are supported on horizontal beams. Supporting structures of post insulator also support the tubular rigid bus bar, CTs, VTs, insulators, CB and lime traps etc.,

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CHAPTER 3
ELEMENTS OF SUBSTATION

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3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment and one or more transformers. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short-circuits or overload currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use recloser circuit breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits. Substations do not usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby. Other devices such as power factor correction capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation. Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in special-purpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several

indoor substations. Indoor substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from the transformers, for reasons of appearance, or to protect switchgear from extreme climate or pollution conditions. Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded to protect people from high voltages that may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can cause a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earths surface during a fault can cause metal objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground under a persons feet; this tough potential presents a hazard of electrocution.

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3.2. TRANSFORMER:
A Transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is transferred to another circuit without change in frequency.

The Transformer works on the principle of mutual inductance between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. Basically Transformers are of two types : -- Core type Shell type CORE TYPE: The winding surrounds a considerable part of the core. SHELL TYPE: The core surrounds a considerable portion of the winding.

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RATING OF A TRANSFORMER :
The mostly used power transformers in A.P. Region are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 400/220 KV 316 MVA Auto transformer 220/132 KV 100 MVA Auto transformer 220/33 KV 50 & 31.5 MVA transformer 132/66 KV 40 & 27.5 MVA transformer 132/33 KV 50, 31.5, 25, 16, 15 MVA transformers 132/11 IV 16, 15 & 7.5 MVA transformers 33/11 KV 8, 5, 3, 15 MVA transformers. Most of the Power Transformer are of 132/11 KV and above are of starstar vector grouping with the neutral solidly earthern. In substation Auto transformers are preferred over two winding transformer.

AUTO TRANSFORMER:
A transformer, in which a part of the winding is common to both the primary and secondary circuits, is called an auto-transformer. In a two winding transformer, primary and secondary windings are electrically isolated, but in an auto-transformer the two windings are not electrically isolated.

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RATINGS OF AUTO-TRANSFORMER:
MAKE CAPACITY RATING WEIGHT WEIGHT OF OIL : M/s. CROMPTION GREAVES LIMITED, MUMBAI : 315 MVA : 400/220/33 KV : 273000 Kg. : 80,600 Lit.

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ADVANTAGES OF AUTO TRANSFORMER:

1. The weight of the (copper and aluminums) for any winding depends Upon the cross sectional area and length of the conductor. Hence for an auto transformer the weight and cost of the conductor required is less compared to two winding transformer. 2. Owing to the reduction in conductor and core materials, the ohmic losses in conductor and the core losses re lowered. Therefore, an auto transformer has higher efficiency than a two winding transformer of the same output. 3. Reduction in the conductor material means lower value of ohmic resistance. A part of the winding being common, leakage flux and therefore, leakage reactance is less. In other words, an auto

transformer has lower value of leakage impedance and has superior voltage regulation then a two-winding transformer of the same output.

3.3 RELAYS:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an

electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Solid state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to
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protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called protection relays Transistor relays are the most widely use static relays. In fact, when we talk of static relay we generally mean transistor relays. The fact that the

transistor can be used both as an amplifying device and a switching device makes this component suitable for achieving any functional characteristics. The advantages of transistor relays can be summarized as follows: 1. The power consumption is low and hence provides less burden on CT and PT as compare to the conventional electromechanical relays. 2. The relays are fast in operation. 3. No moving parts hence friction or contact troubles are absent and as a result minimum maintenance is required. 4. The relays have greater sensitivity as amplication of signals can be obtain very easily. 5. The relays has a high reset to pick up and the reset is very quick. 6. The use of printed circuits avoids wiring error and facilitates rationalization of batch production. 7. It is possible to obtain wide range of characteristics approaching more or less to the ideal requirements. OPERATION: When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The

movement either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position.
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Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing. If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. If the coil is designed to reenergized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This shading ring creates a small out of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC Cycle. By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid stage relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-stage switching device. To achieve electrical isolation, a light emitting diode (LED) is used with a photo transistor. The type of relays used in Kalapaka substation is distance relays (REL 316 and REL 100). DISTANCE RELAY The impedance relays also called distance relays are employed to provide protection to transmission lines connected in a network as they are economic and possess several technical advantages. They are comparatively simple to apply. Operate with extremely high speed and both primary and backup protection features are inherent in them with power line carrier facilities and are suitable for high sped re-closing. The impedance relay is made to respond to the impedance

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between the relay location and the point where fault is incident. The impedance is proportional to the fault, and is therefore independent of the fault current levels. DISTANCE RELAYING PRINCIPLE A distance relay compares the currents and voltages at the relaying points with current providing the operating torque and the voltage provides the restraining torque. In other words an impedance relay is a voltage restrained over current relay. Since the operating characteristics of the relay depend upon the ratio of voltage and current and the phase angle between them their characteristics can be best represented on an R-X Diagram where both V/I ratio and phase angle can be plotted in terms of an impedance R + JX. Future the power system impedance, loads, power swings etc., can also be plotted on the same R- X diagram. Therefore response of a particular relay during power swing faults and other system disturbances can easily be assessed.

TYPES OF DISTANCE RELAY: 1. Impedance relay 2. Reactance relay 3. Mho relay 4. Modified impedance relay

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IMPEDANCE RELAY:

Operation of the impedance relay is independent of the phase angle between V and I the operating characteristics is a circle with its center at the origin and hence the relay is non-direction.

THE REACTANCE RELAY

Reactance relay measures V/I sin O whenever the reactance measured by the relay is less than the set value the relay operates.
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The resistance component of impedance has no effect on the operation of the reactance relay. The relay responds solely to reactance component of impedance. This relay is inherently non-directional. The relay is most suitable to detect earth faults where the effect of are resistance is applicable.

MHO RELAY:

This is a directional impedance relay, also known as admittance relay. Its characteristics on R-X diagram is a circle whose circumference passes through the origin. This relay is inherently directional and it only operates for fault in the forward direction.

MODIFIED IMPEDANCE RELAY:

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This is also known as mho relay whose characteristics enclose the origin on R-X. This off set mho relay has three main applications: Bus-bar zone Carrier starting unit in distance/carrier blocking schemes Power swing blocking 3.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER The function of the circuit breaker is to isolate the faulty part of the power system in case of abnormal conditions. A circuit breaker has two contacts, a fixed contact and a moving contact. Under normal conditions these two contacts remain in closed position. When the circuit breaker is required to isolate the faulty part, the moving contact moves away to interrupt the circuit by separating the contacts. The flow of current is interrupted results in the formation of arc between the contacts. The contacts are placed in a closed chamber containing some insulation medium which extinguishes the arc.

ARC INTERRUPTION: These are two methods of arc interruption: 1. High resistance interruption. 2. Current zero interruption

HIGH RESISTANCE INTERRUPTION:

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In this method of arc interruption its resistance is increased so as to reduce the current to a value in sufficient to maintain the arc. The arc resistance can be increased by cooling, lengthening, constraining and splitting the arc. method is not suitable for large current interruption. This

CURRENT ZERO INTERRUPTION: In case of AC supply the current passes through a zero point 100 times per sec at the supply frequency of 50 Hz. This feature of arc is utilized for arc interruption. The current is not interrupted at any point other than the zero current instant, otherwise a high transient voltage will occur across the contact gap.

RESTRIKING VOLTAGE AND RECOVERY VOLTAGES After the arc has extinguished the voltage across the breaker terminals do not normalize instantaneously but it oscillates and there is a transient condition. The transient voltage which appears across the breaker contact at the instant of arc being extinguished is known as restriking voltage. The power frequency runs voltage which appears across the arc is finally extinguished and transient oscillations die out is called recovery voltage.

CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKER:

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Depending on the arc quenching medium employed the following are important types of circuit breaker. 1. Oil circuit breaker 2. Air blast circuit breaker 3. Sulphur hexa fluoride circuit breaker 4. Vacuum circuit breaker

RATING OF CIRCUIT BREAKER Circuit breakers have the following important ratings. 1. Breaking capacity 2. Making capacity 3. Short time capacity

BREAKING CAPACITY The braking capacity of the circuit breaker is of two types 1. Symmetrical breaking capacity 2. Asymmetrical breaking capacity

SYMMETRICAL BREAKING CAPACITY It is the rms value of the AC component of the fault current, the breaker is capable of breaking under specified condition of recovery voltage.

ASYMMETRICAL BREAKING CAPACITY:

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It is the rms value of the total current comprising of both AC and DC components of the fault current that the circuit breaker can break under specified condition of recovery voltage. MAKING CAPACITY The rated making current is defined as the peak value of the current including the DC component in the first cycle at which a CB can be closed on to a short circuit.

SHORT TIME CURRENT RATING: The circuit breaker must be capable of carrying short circuit current for a short period while another circuit breaker is clearing the fault. The rated short time current is the rms value of the current that the circuit breaker can carry safely for a specified short period.

RATED CURRENT AND FREQUENCY: The rated current is the rms value of the current that the circuit breaker can carry continuously without any temperature rise in excess of its specified limit.

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The rated frequency is also mentioned by the manufacture. It is the frequency at which the circuit breaker has been designed to be operated. The standard frequency is 50 Hz. If a circuit breaker is to be used at a frequency other than its rated frequency its effect should be taken into consideration.

OPENING AND CLOSING TIME: Closing and opening time measurement of circuit breaker is done by using digital time internal meter.

SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT BREAKER: The type of circuit breaker being used in the substation is ASIAN BROWN BOVERI made sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breaker.

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EXPLANATION: Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) is an inert, heavy gas having good dielectric and arc extinguishing properties. The dielectric strength of the gas increases with

pressure and is more than of dielectric strength of oil at 3 kg/cm2 SF6 is being widely used in electrical equipment like high voltage metal enclosed cables; high voltage metal clad switchgear, capacitors, circuit breakers, current transformers, brushings etc., The gas is liquefied at certain low temperature, liquefaction temperature increases with pressure.

Sulphur Hexafluoride gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur in the fluorine gas, in a steel box, provided with staggered horizontal shelves, each
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bearing about 4 Kg of sulphur. The steel box is made gas tight. The gas thus obtained contains other fluorides such as S2F10, SF4 and must be purified Further SF6 gas generally supplier by chemical low if manufactured in large scale. SF6 circuit breakers operate to switch electric circuits and equipment in and out of the system. These circuit breakers are filled with compressed Sulphur firms. The cost of the gas is

Hexafluoride gas which acts to open and close the switch contacts. The gas also interrupts the current flow when the contacts are open. During the arcing period SF6 gas is blown axially the arc. The gas removes the heat from the arc by axial convection and radial dissipation. As a result, the arc diameter reduces small during the decreasing mode of the current wave. The diameter becomes small during the current zero and the arc is extinguished. Due to its electro-negativity and low are timely constant, the SF6 gas regains its dielectric strength is very high and the time constant is very small.

3.5 ISOLATOR Isolating switches are employed only for isolating circuits. They ensure that the current is not switched into the circuit until everything is in order. Isolators or disconnecting switches are designed to operate under no load condition. Isolators are employed in addition to circuit breaker and are provided on each side of every CB to provide isolation. While opening a circuit the CB is opened first, then the isolator. If an isolator is opened carelessly, when carrying a heavy current, the resulting are could easily cause a flash over to ground. This

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may shatter the supporting insulator and may even cause a fatal accident to the operator particularly in HV circuit. While closing a circuit the isolator is first closed then circuit breaker. Isolators are necessary on the supply side of the CB in order to ensure isolation of the CB from the live parts. Isolators employed in power system are usually three pole isolator each having three identical poles. Each pole consists of two or three insulators posts mounted on a fabricated support. The fixed end has moving conducting rods which swing apart and isolation is obtained. The simulataneous operation of three poles is obtained by mechanical inter locking of the three poles. There are two types of isolators which are used in this substation. They are Horizontal break center rotating double break isolator Pantograph isolator.

HORIZONTAL CENTER BREAK ISOLATOR

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In this type of construction there are two insulator stacks per pole. The two on each side are fixed and one at the centre is rotating type. The center stacks can swing about its vertical axis through about 90 degrees. The fixed contacts are provided on the top of each of the insulator stacks on the side. In closed position the contact shaft connects the two fixed contacts. While opening the central stack rotates through 90 degrees.

PANTOGRAPH ISOLATOR: While closing the pantograph the linkages are brought nearer by rotating the insulator column. In closed position the upper two arms of the pantograph close on the Over head station bus bar giving a grip. The current is carried by the

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upper bus bar to the lower bus bar thought he conducting arms of the pantograph isolators. While opening, the rotating insulator columns are rotated about their axes, thereby the pantograph blades, collapse in vertical plane and vertical isolation is obtained between the lime terminals. And pantographs isolator

covers less area. Each pole can be located at a suitable point and the three poles need not be in one line and can be located in a line at desired angle with the bus axis.

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3.6

REACTORS:

Under light load or no load conditions the receiving end voltage is greater than the sending end voltage due to capacitance effect, this is known as Ferranti effect. To reduce this capacitance effect shunt reactors (Inductors) are placed at the sending and receiving end terminals to absorb leading vars.

RATINGS OF 400 KV LINE REACTORS: MAKE CAPACITY RATING WEIGHT

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: BHEL, BHOPAL : 63 Mvar : : 420 Kv 87 A 121970 Kg.

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WEIGHT OF OIL

39,730 Lit

3.7

LIGHTNING ARRESTERS: Lightning arrester is a surge diverter and is used for the protection of

power system against the high voltage surges. It is connected between the line and earth and so diverts the incoming high voltage wave to the earth. Lightning arresters act as safely valves designed to discharge electric surges resulting from lightning strokes, switching or other disturbances, which would otherwise flash over the insulators or puncture insulation, resulting in a line outage and possible failure of equipment. They are designed to absorb enough transient energy to prevent dangerous reflections and to cut off the flow of power frequency Follow current at the first current zero. After the discharge of the transient energy, arresters have the insulation that can break down the voltage being independent of the steepness of the wave form. Lightning protection by means of lightning arresters and gaps and over head ground wire is a means of reducing outage and preventing damage to the substation equipment from lightning disturbance. protection vary in different applications. The amount and kind of

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The type of lightning arresters used in Kalpaka substation is HORN GAP lightning arrester. The horn gap consists of two horn shaped rods separated by a small distance. One end of this connected to the line and the other to the earth with or without a series resistance. The choke connected between the equipment to be protected and the horn gap serves two purposes: 1. The steepness of the wave incident on the equipment to be protected is reduced. 2. It reflects the voltage surge back on to the horn.
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Whenever the surge voltage exceeds the breakdown value of the gap a discharge takes place and the energy content in the rest part of the wave is by-past to the ground. An arc is setup between the gap, which acts like a flexible conductor and raises upwards under the influence of the electromagnetic forces, thus increasing the length of the arc which eventually blows out. 3.8 CURRENT TRANSFORMER: Protective relays in AC power system are connected in the secondary circuit of current transformer and potential transformer. The design and use of these transformers is quite different from that of well known transformer. In current transformer primary current is not controlled by condition of the secondary circuit. Hence primary current is a dominant factor. The current transformers are classified into two groups depending on the usage of secondary.

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Protective current transformer used in association with relay trip coil, pilot wire etc.,

Measuring current transformer used in connection with ammeter, wattmeter etc., as a rule, the ratio error is very important in protective current

transformer and phase angle error may be less. But current transformer and voltage transformer comes under the INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS. 3.9 CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER: Capacitor voltage transformer is used for line voltmeter, protective relays, tariff meter etc, The performance of capacitor voltage transformer is inferior to that of electromagnetic voltage transformer. Its performance is affected by the supply frequency, switching transient, magnitude of connected burden etc., the capacitor

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voltage transformer is more economical than an electromagnetic voltage transformer when the nominal system voltage increases above 66 kV. The carrier current equipment can be connected via the capacitor of the capacitor voltage transformers. Thereby there is no need of separate coupling capacitors.

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Capacitor type PT is used for voltages 66 kV and above. At such voltages cost of electromagnetic type PTs tends to be too high. The capacitors connected in series act like potential dividers provided the current taken by the burden is negligible compared with the current passing through the series connected capacitors. However, the burden current becomes relatively larger and ratio error and phase error is introduced. Compensation is carried out by tuning the reactor connected in series with the burden is adjustable to such a value that at supply frequency it resonates with the sum of two capacitors. This eliminates the error. The construction of capacitor type PT depends on the form of capacitor voltage divider. Generally HV capacitor is enclosed in the porcelain housing. A large sheet box at the base encloses the tuning coil intermediate transformer.

3.10 WAVE TRAP: Wave traps are used in power line communication. One of the devices employed in power line carrier is the line trap, sometimes called a wave trap. A wave trap is a parallel resonant circuit installed on the power line at a specific frequency or frequencies. Properly tuned, the line trap shows its highest

magnitude of impedance, power frequency to pass. It is generally represented as an inductor with a capacitor in parallel. Wave trap should be connected in series.

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RATINGS OF WAVE TRAP: MANUFACTURER INDUCTANCE FREQUENCY WEIGHT ISC IR : : : : : : AREVA Transformers Pvt. Ltd., 1mH 50 Hz 195 Kg 20 KA/Sec 800 A

3.11 EARTHING SYSTEM: The purpose of earthing is to safe guard against dangers of shock and fire etc., It is essential to have good and effective earthing or grounding. Station earthing system comprises of: Ground mat risers, earthing strips, earthing spikes. Over head earth wires for shielding against lightning strokes or lightning masts.
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 Galvanized steel structures or towers and gantries for support. PLCC equipment including wave trap and tuning unit, coupling capacitor etc., Power cables Control cables for protection and control Station lightning system.

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PURPOSE OF EARTHING: An electric iron is connected to supply through 3-wire cable. The line and neutral are connected to heating element where as the earth wire is connected to the metal frame iron. The earth terminal is connected to the neutral earthing at substation through mass of earth. Due to insulation damage or otherwise, the line wire touches the metal frame of the iron is effectively gets connected to the earth, if the person holds the iron the current will not pass through his body because the resistance of the earth wire will be les than the human body resistance. Hence the person will be protected from electric shock. Mean while the current will pass through the low resistance path of the earth wire is not provided then if the live wire accidentally makes contact with the iron frame the latter will be at the same potential as the live wire. If a person holds the iron unknowingly, the current flows through the body of the person which is very dangerous to life. The non-current carrying metallic parts in the neighborhood of electrical circuits must be earthed, which ensures safety to human life. The non-current carrying parts include the following: 1. Motor body, switch gear metal enclosure, transformer bank, conduits of Wiring etc. 2. Supporting structures, towers, poles etc., 3. Sheaths of cables 4. Body of portable equipment such as iron, oven, heater, kettle etc.,

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CHAPTER - 4

PROTECTION SCHEMES

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DIFFERENT PROTECTION SCHEMES

4.1 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION The transformer is the main equipment which has to be protected mainly in the power system. Types of faults subjected to transformer. 1. Through Faults: These are due to over load condition and external short circuits. Time graded overloaded and earth fault relays are provided for external short circuit conditions. 2. Internal Faults: a. Electrical Faults: The faults which causes immediate serious damage such as line to ground faults, Line to Line fault or short circuits between transformers HV and LV Windings. b. Incipient Faults: Which are initially minor faults, causing slowly developing such as poor electrical connection of conductors or breakdown of insulation. The following are the types of relays that employed for transformer protection: a. Buchholz relay b. Over fluxing relay c. Differential relay d. Breaker failure relay e. Restricted earth fault relay

A) BUCHHOLZ RELAY:
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It is placed in between transformer of tank and conservator tank. Whenever the fault on a transformer develops slowly, heat is produced locally, which begins to decompose solid of liquid insulating materials and then to produce inflammable gas and oil flow. Initially it sends an alarm signal

whenever a fault is detected; if the fault is left unaffected then it sends a trip signal to the CB which opens the circuit.

SILICAGEL BREATHER:
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Expansion and contraction of oil cause breathing action. Any humidity in the air is absorbed by the silica get dehydrating breather. An oil seal in the air intake prevents the external moisture being absorbed when no breathing occurs. The breather container is filled with silica gel crystals. It is arranged such that the air breathed must pass through it.

The desiccant is impregnated with cobalt chloride and when those Silica gel crystals are fully active, they have deep blue colour. If colour changes to a whitish pink, they are then saturated with moisture and the charge contained should be replaced by a new reactivated one. (B) DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION:
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The differential protection used for transformer is based on the principle of current circulation. This type of protection is mostly used for transformers as this respond not only to inter turn fault but also provide protection against phaseto-phase fault. If the current circulation principle is applied to transformer great care is to be taken because of unequal voltage and different types of connections on the primary and secondary sides of transformer resulting into different phase angles and currents on both sides. The relay use for differential protection must have time delay characteristics in order to neutralize the unbalancing currents caused by the switching surge of the magnetizing current. When transformer is energized that is when the transformer is switched to supply the magnetizing currents may assume very high values momentarily and may cause operation of relay, but such peaks are generally transient. The two basic requirements of differential relay connections must satisfy. a. It must not be operated for external or load faults. b. It must operate for internal faults. c. The current flowing through operating coil of relay should be zero during Normal operating condition and for external short circuit.

C. BREAKER FAILURE RELAY:

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Main protective schemes provided for lines, transformers, generators are required to operate and clear the fault immediately, isolating the faulty section of the system. It is then important than the circuit breaker operates correctly, clearing the fault quickly by tripping. However there is risk that breaker may not trip (either due to mechanical sluggishness or due to inability to interrupt heavy fault current) then the fault gets cleared by backup relays at remote sections.

Increase in power system complexity demands shorter faults clearing times. It is therefore necessary to provide breaker failure relay. This scheme will isolate the bus to which the local breaker backup relay (LBB) is connected faster. It comprises of over load and earth load relays with a timer. The LBB relay is energized by trip command of main protection schemes and thus initiates master trip relay of the bus-bar protection scheme after elapsing of defined time. Then the entire breakers connected to the bus get tripped, thus isolating faulty element. (D) RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION: This relay is operative only for the internal faults of the transformer and thus fast operating time can be achieved. 1. An external fault on the star side will result in current flowing in line current transformer of the effected phase and balancing current in the neutral CT and current in the relay is zero and hence relay is stable. During an internal fault, the line current on the line CT gets reversed and hence relay operates.

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2. The arrangement of residually connected CTs on the delta side of transformer is only sensitive to earth faults on the delta side because the delta winding blocks zero sequence currents. (E) OVER FLUXING PROTECTION: 1. Over fluxing condition in a transformer can occur during system over voltage and/or under frequency conditions (V/F). 2. The over fluxing condition does not call for high sped tripping. The tripping can be delayed depending on the over flux withstand capability of transformer. 3. Relays with definite time delay (Nearly 30 sec.) and inverse characteristics are being employed.

4.2

BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS

In order to maintain system stability and minimize fault damage due to high fault levels, instantaneous tripping for bus bar faults is necessary. Bus bar protection scheme should be: 1. Completely reliable. 2. Absolutely stable for high faults 3. Selective 4. Accurate and fast operating.

GENERAL BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS: a. SINGLE BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS:

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This has only single bus bar to which all lines transformers generators etc., are connected. In the event of the fault on the bus bar entire bus has to be deenergized and a major outage occurs. b. SINGLE SECTIONALISED BUS BAR SCHEME In this, main bus is divided into two sections with a circuit breaker. One complete section can be taken out for maintenance or for break down works without distribution continuity of other sections. c. MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS BAR SCHEME: With this arrangement, any line breaker (one at a tie) requiring maintenance can be transferred to transfer bus. The feeder protection thus gets transferred to trip bus couple breaker. On fault occurrence or maintenance, entire bus becomes reenergized. d. DOUBLE BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT: It has the flexibility of transferring any line to any of the buses. On fault occurrences or maintenance only one bus becomes dead. remains in service. e. DOUBLE BUS & TRANSFER BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT: Combination of main, transfer bus and double buses arrangement While other bus

4.3 BUS BAR PROTECTION SCHEMES Back up protection

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 Differential over current protection All the protection schemes must also be provided with a check system to ensure that the protection responds only to earth faults occurring within the bus zone not extraneous earth faults. 1) BACK UP PROTECTION In principle it is a simplest of all to protect the buses with the aid of back up protections of the connected supplying elements which should respond to any fault appearing on the buses, when no separate bus protection is provided but distance protection is provided for the feeders connected to the bus. It is possible to cover the bus bars within zone to reach distance relays. Distance protection is widely employed for the protection of transmission lines. Hence it is quite economical to use the same for bus protection the draw backs of this protection are : firstly delayed action, secondly disconnection of more circuits in case there are two or more incoming lines and thirdly exact discrimination not possible. Bus back up protection may also mean that in case the breaker fails to operate for a fault on the outgoing feeder, then it must be regarded as a bus fault. It should then open all breakers on that bus such a backup protection can be provided with appropriate time delay through a timer.

(2)

DIFFERENTIAL OVER CURRENT PROTECTION

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It is based on the fact that any fault within electrical equipment would cause the current entering it to be different from the current leaving it. By comparing the two currents either in magnitude or in phase or in both, fault can be determined. It is an attractive option if both the ends of the apparatus are located hears each other.

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CHAPTER 5 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

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5.1

BATTERY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE:

In case of failure of the supply, as a backup protection for the control room a battery room is provided within the substation for its functioning.

At KALAPAKA substation 106 batteries with 1000ampere hour rating and 220volts and it have two types of charging. 1. 2. Boost charge Float charging.

Boost charging: When there is a sudden drop in the voltage / also when there is considerable fall in voltage the charger with automatically switch on to boost charging mode from float charging mode.

Float charging: This is a constant charging mode means these batteries will be constantly being charged. When there is no load it takes less current. And these cells have to be charged continuously so that they will not get discharged. As these has to supply DC supply when there is a fail in AC supply. There are two sources of batteries SOURCE I and SOURCE II for safety and reliability that is if one of the sources fails then immediately source II will be connected to I and this is called DC change over contractor.

5.2
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Behavior during recording: The inducted 650 fault recorder continuously monitors all signals for trigger conditions. The input values are continuously stores in a memory with the capacity which equals the pre event history setting. Recording starts as soon as a trigger condition exists. The even is then stored along with its pre event and post event history. This relay recorder is a fully electronics, digital, data acquisition module for decentralized fault monitoring in electricity supply networks.

The indactic 650 fault recorders can either be used as a single acquisition unit with 9 analog and 16 digital inputs, or several units may be combined possibly in a decentralized set up, to form a logical acquisition station with a corresponding larger number of inputs. Furthermore several such stations can be combined to form an interconnected system. The acquisition units or stations communicate among themselves via fast bus connections using co axial cables or fiber optic cables.

5.3
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EVENT LOGGER:
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Function:
The sequential events recorder is a versatile high speed distributed microprocessor based data acquisition system design to monitor and record in real time changes of state of customer supplied field inputs with an accuracy of one millisecond.

The event information includes alarm and return to normal status; time in hours, minutes, seconds and milliseconds. Input address and up to 60 characters of descriptive legends. Even t information can be recorded on a printer or printer terminal, displayed on a CRT monitor or transmitted to a remote computer or distributed control system via RS 232 ASC II data links. The SER is designed for optimum versatility and flexibility and flexibility with minimum user hardware adjustments. The equipment operating configuration is accomplished by means of key board entries employing user friendly software commands. In addition, the operator can print various operating and configuration states reports and initiate a system functional test.

CONCLUSION
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Electrical sub station consists of Transformers, bus bars, circuit breakers, isolators, relays instrumental transformers and other equipments. The Protection of a system is required when the short circuits and abnormal conditions often occur on a power system.

If a fault occurs in an element of a power system an automatic protective devices are needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy section of system in normal operation.

The substation can be used for Switching Operation, Voltage Transformation Operation, Power Converting Operation, and Power Factor Correction Operation. The consumers can require different range of voltages for utilization, so to achieve this sub stations are used. The basis electrical quantities which are likely to change during the abnormal conditions are current, voltage, phase angle and frequency. The protective relays utilize one or more of these quantities to detect the abnormal conditions on a power system. Different types of protection schemes were employed for protection of transformers, bus bars and equipment in substation. All schemes must to used different types of protective relays.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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 Text book of power system engineering M.L.Soni Gupta Bhatnagar, TataMc GrawHill publisher Electrical power system J.B. Gupta Khanna Publishers ABB Relays manual Protection system 400kv substation manual http://en.wikipedia.org.

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