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Valencia, Patio, Tenoso, De Gorostiza, Battung, Magsanay, Nicdao, Cruz

The Integumentary System

The integument (L.integumentum, cover) is the external covering of an animal. The skin and its accessory organs, such as the hair, nails, glands, and several specialized receptors, constitute the integumentary system of the animal. The main function of the system is to protect the animal from mechanical and chemical injury and invasion by microorganisms. Another is to keep the body together.

Skin
Skin is the vertebrate integument. It is the largest organ (with respect to surface area and weight) of the vertebrate body and grows with the animal. In adults, it covers an area of about 2 square meters or 22 square feet. The skin has specific functions, these include the following:

Regulation of Body Temperature. In response to high environmental temperature or strenuous

activity, the evaporation of sweat from the skin surface helps lower an elevated body temperature. Changes in the flow of blood in the skin also help regulate body temperature. Protection. The skin covers the body and provides a physical barrier that protects underlying tissues from physical abrasion, bacterial invasion, dehydration, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Sensation. The skin contains abundant nerve endings and receptors that detect stimuli related to temperature, touch, pressure, and pain. Excretion. Small amounts of water, salts, and several organic compounds (components of perspiration) are excreted by sweat glands. Immunity. Certain cells of the epidermis (Langerhans cells) are important components of the immune system, which fends off foreign invaders of the body. Synthesis of vitamin D3. Exposure of the skin to ultraviolet (UV) radiation helps with the production f vitamin D3, a substance that aids in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the digestive system in the blood.

Structurally, the skin consists of three principal parts: the epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis (subcutaneous layer or subQ layer). EPIDERMIS (Gr. epi, upon + derm, skin) - composed keratinized squamous epithelium and contains four types of cells: - keratinocytes (kerato, horny)-cell formed in the basal layers are pushed to the surface and forms keratin (a protein which helps protect the skin and underlying tissues) - melanocyte (melan, black)- produces melanin which is responsible for skin color and absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation - Langerhans cells function in immune responses and can be easily damaged by ultraviolet (UV) radiation - Merkel cells- located in the deepest layer of the epidermis of hairless skin and functions in the sensation of touch

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about 1 to 2 mm thick has five layers (strata): - stratum basale (L. basale, base)- single layer of cuboidal to columnar cells capable of continuous cell division; contains melanocytes and Merkel cells - stratum spinosum (L. spinosum, thorn like or prickly)- ten rows (sheets) of polyhedral cells with spine like projections; contain melanin - stratum granulosum (L. granulum, little grains) consists of five rows of flattened cells with darkly straining granules - stratum lucidum (L. lucidum, clear)- consists of about five rows of clear, flat, dead cells - stratum corneum (L. corneum, horny)- consists of 30 five rows of flat, dead cells completely filled with keratin **stratum lucidum and stratum corneum is collectively known as stratum germinativum (L. germinativum , to germinate)- responsible for the generation of new cells

DERMIS (Gr. derma, hide or skin) connective tissue meshwork of collagenous, reticular, and elastic fibers beneath the epidermis the combination of fibers gives the skin its strength, extensibility (ability to stretch), and elasticity (ability to return to original shape after extension) contains few fibroblasts, macrophages, and adipocytes upper region consists of the areolar connective tissue and is greatly increased by small fingerlike projections called dermal papillae (L. papilla, nipple), one which is responsible for the ridges in the epidermis that produces fingerprints and help us to grip objects. It may or may not contain Meissners corpuscles or corpuscles of touch (nerve endings sensitive to touch) which contains blood capillaries lower region consists of dense, irregular connective tissue, adipose tissues, hair follicles, nerves, oil glands, and the ducts of sweat glands

HYPODERMIS (Gr. hypo, below + derm, skin) - consists of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, and nerve endings - separates the skin from deeper tissues - contains nerve endings (lamellated or Pacinian corpuscles) which are sensitive to pressure

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Accessory Organs of the Skin Hair Hairs are growths of the epidermis that are variously distributed over the body Their primary function is for protection o hair on the head guards the scalp from injury and the Suns rays o eyebrows and eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign particles o Hair in the nostrils protects against inhaling insects and foreign particles. Each hair follicle goes through a growth cycle which consists of a growth stage and resting stage. During the growth stage, a hair si formed by cells of the matrix that differentiate, become keratinized, and die. As new cells are added at the base of the hair root, the hair grows longer. In time the growth of hair stops and resting stage begins. After the resting stage, a new growth cycle begins in which a new hair replaces the old hair and the old hair is pushed out of the hair follicle The color of the hair is due to melanin. It is synthesized by melaocytes in the matrix of the bulb and passes into cells and the shaft. o o o o Dark-colored hair contains mostly trace melanin Blond and red hair contains variants of melanin which there is more iron than sulfur Gray hairs occur with the decline in the synthesis of the melanin White hairs result from accumulation of air bubbles in the air shaft

Glands There are three kinds of glands associated with the skin namely sebaceous, sudoriferous and ceruminous. Sebaceous (Oil) Glands They are connected to the hair follicles; secreting portions of the glands lie in the dermis and open in the necks of hair follicle or directly onto a skin surface. Sebaceous gland secretes an oily substance called sebum. Sebum keeps the hair from drying out, prevents excessive evaporation of water from the skin, keeps the skin soft and inhibits growth of certain bacteria. Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands Sudoriferous sweat glands are divided into 2 types, o Apocrine sweat glands o Eccrine sweat glands Apocrine sweat glands are found in the skin of the axilla (armpit), pubic region and pigmented areas of the breast. Their ducts open into hair follicles. They begin to function at puberty and produce a viscous secretion. They are stimulated during emotional stresses and sexual excitement ant the secretions are commonly known as cold sweat. Eccrine sweat glands are distributed throughout the skin except for areas such as margin of lips, nail beds of the fingers and toes, and eardrums. They terminate at a pore at the surface of the epidermis and function throughout life.

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Perspiration or sweat is the substance produced by sudoriferous glands. Its principal function is to help regulate body temperature and help eliminate waste.

Ceruminous Glands They are present in the external auditory meatus (canal), and the outer ear canal. Their ducts open either directly onto the surface of external auditory meatus or into the ducts of sebaceous glands.Cerumen and the hairs in the external auditory meatus provide a sticky barrier against foreign bodies. Nails Plates of tightly packed, hard, keratinized cells of the epidermis. Nails help us to grasp and manipulate small objects, provide protection to the ends of our fingertips, and allow us to scratch various parts of the body.

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The Skeletal System

The skeletal system is the framework of the bones and cartilage that protects our organs and allows us to move. Functions

Support. The bones of the lower limbs support the entire body when we are standing; pelvic girdle
abdominal cavity.

Protection. Skull brain, rib cage heart and lungs. Movement. Site of Blood Cell Production. All bones in the fetus have red bone marrow and produce blood
cells. In adults, only certain bones produce blood cells.

Mineral Storage and Homeostasis. All bones have a matrix that contains calcium phosphate, a

source of calcium ions and phosphate ions in the blood. Fat is stored in the yellow bone marrow. Types of Bones Based on Shape Long bones have greater length than width and consist of (1) a main, cylindrical, central portion called shaft or body and (2) extremities (ends). Long bones include bones of the thighs, legs, toes, arms, forearms, and fingers. Short bones Cube-shaped and nearly equal in length and width. Short bones include the wrist and ankle bones. Flat bones generally thin and are composed of two or more or less parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone. Flat bones include the cranial bones, sternum (breastbones), ribs, and scapulas (shoulder blades). Irregular bones have complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any of the three categories just described. Such bones include the vertebrae (backbones) and certain facial bones.

Types of Bones Based on Location Sutural / Wormian Bones small bones between the joints of certain cranial bones. Sesamoid Bones small bones in the tendons where considerable pressure develops like in the wrist.

Divisions of the Skeletal System Axial Skeleton consists of bones arranged along the longitudinal axis. Its parts are: skull (cranium- 8 bones; face-14 bones) hyoid bones (1 bone) auditory ossicles (6 bones) vertebral column (26 bones) sternum (1 bone) ribs (24 bones).

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Appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the girdles and upper and lower limbs / extremities. Its parts: Pectoral/Shoulder girdles (clavicle 2 bones; scapula- 2 bones) Bones of the Upper Limbs (Humerus 2 bones; ulna- 2 bones; radius-2 bones; carpals-16 bones; metacarpals-10 bones; phalanges-28 bones) Pelvic/Hip Girdle (Hip/Pelvic/Coxal Bone-2 bones) Bones of the Lower Limbs (femur 2 bones; fibula-2 bones; tibia-2 bones; patella-2 bones; tarsals-14 bones; metatarsals-10 bones; phalanges-28 bones)

There are 80 bones in the axial skeleton and 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton for a total of

206 bones.

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Body Cavities
Spaces within the body that contain internal organs. Formed during embryonic development.

Viscera - collective name of the organs inside the body cavities. Serous Membrane Membranes that line these cavities; secrete a fluid that has just about the same composition as serum(a component of blood); reduces friction as the viscera rub against each other or against the body wall. Spinal Meningitis serious condition; inflammation of the meninges usually caused by an infection.

Principal Body Cavities

Dorsal Body Cavity (Posterior) located near the posterior or dorsal (back) surface of the body. Parts: Cranial Cavity formed by the cranial (skull) bones and contains the brain and its covering called meninges* Vertebral Canal formed by the vertebrae (individual bones) of the vertebral column (backbone); spinal cord and its covering also called meninges; beginnings (roots) of spinal nerves.

Ventral Body Cavity (Anterior) located on the anterior or ventral (front) aspect of the body; divided by the diaphragm (a dome-shaped sheet of muscle) into thoracic and abdominopelvic. Parts: Thoracic Cavity chest cavity; contains two pleural cavities around each lung: pericardial cavity, a space around the heart; contains a mass of tissues between the lungs that extends from the breastbone to the backbone called mediastinum. Abdominopelvic Cavity subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities.

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SUMMARY: Body Cavities. Cavity DORSAL Cranial Vertebral VENTRAL Thoracic Pleural Pericardial Mediastinum Chest cavity; separated from abdominal cavity by diaphragm. Contains lungs. Contains heart. Region between the lungs from the breastbone to backbone that contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea, bronchi, and many large blood and lymphatic vessels. Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities. Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, and most of large intestine. Contains urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal female and male reproductive organs. Formed by cranial bones and contains brain and its covering. Formed by vertebral column and contains spinal cord and beginnings of spinal nerves. Contents

Abdominopelvic Abdominal

Pelvic