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Saudi Arabia
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
al-Mamlakah al-Arabyah as-Sudyah
Motto:" , "
[1]
"There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." (Shahada)
Anthem:"as-Salm al-Malakiyy""Long live the King"
Capital
(and largest city)
Riyadh
2439N 4646E
[2]
Official language(s)
Arabic
Demonym
Government
Unitary Islamic
absolute monarchy
King
Crown Prince
Legislature
Kingdom founded
23 September 1932
[3]
Area
-
Total
2250000km2(12th)
870,000sqmi
Water(%)
0.7
Saudi Arabia
2
Population
[4]
2010estimate
27,136,977
Density
12/km2(216th)
31/sqmi
GDP(PPP)
(46th)
2012estimate
[5]
Total
$733.143 billion
Per capita
$25,465.97
GDP (nominal)
[5]
2012estimate
[5]
Total
$651.652 billion
Per capita
$22,635.35
HDI(2011)
0.770
[5]
[6]
(high)(56th)
Currency
Time zone
AST (UTC+3)
Summer(DST)
(not observed)(UTC+3)
Drives on the
Right
ISO3166code
SA
Internet TLD
.sa, .
Calling code
+966
Saudi Arabia
Etymology
Following the unification of the Kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-Arabyah
as-Sudyah (a transliteration of in Arabic) by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder,
King Abdul Aziz Al Saud. This is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,[10] although it
literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom".[11]
The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Sudyah in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of
adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of Al Saud () . Its inclusion indicated that the
country's ruler viewed it as the personal possession of the royal family.[12][13] Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by
adding the word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of",[14] to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of the Al
Saud, this is the father of the dynasty's 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud (Muhammad, son of Saud).[15]
For the etymology of Arabia, see Arabian Peninsula and Arab (etymology).
History
From the earliest times to the foundation of Saudi Arabia
Apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as
Mecca and Medina, located in the Hejaz in the west of the Arabian
Peninsula, most of what was to become Saudi Arabia was
populated by nomadic tribal societies in the uninhabitable
desert.[16] The Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, was born in Mecca
in about 571. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the
various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic
religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly
expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia,
conquering huge swathes of territory (from the Iberian Peninsula
in west to modern day Pakistan in east) in a matter of decades. In
so doing, Arabia soon became a politically peripheral region of the
Muslim world as the focus shifted to the more developed
conquered lands.[17] From the 10th century to the early 20th
century Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab
ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif
owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires
based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of
what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[18][19]
In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Hasa) to their
Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. The degree of control over these lands varied over the next four
centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority.[20][21] The emergence of what
was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Nejd in central Arabia in 1744, when
Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd
al-Wahhab,[22] founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.[23] This alliance formed
in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian
dynastic rule today.[24] The first 'Saudi State' established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and
briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[25] but was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman
viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha.[26] A much smaller second Saudi state, located mainly in Nejd, was
established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what
Saudi Arabia
was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were
victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile.[18]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have suzerainty (albeit nominal)
over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers[27][28]
(including the House of Saud who had returned from exile in 1902[18]) with the Sharif of Mecca having
pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.[29] In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting
the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman
Empire to create a united Arab state.[30] Although the Arab Revolt of 1916 to 1918 failed in its objective, Arabia was
freed from Ottoman suzerainty and control by the latter's defeat in World War I.[31]
In 1902, Abdul-Aziz bin Saud, leader of the
House of Saud, had seized Riyadh in Nejd
from the Al Rashid the first of a series of
conquests ultimately leading to the creation
of the modern state of Saudi Arabia in
1932.[18] The main weapon for achieving
these conquests was the Ikhwan, the
Wahhabist-Bedouin tribal army led by
Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish.[32]
From the Saudi core in Nejd, and aided by
the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after
World War I, the Ikhwan had completed the
conquest of the territory that was to become
Saudi Arabia by the end of 1925.[33] On 10
Arabia about 1923. Expandable map: Abdul Aziz's domain is in blue with dates of
conquest. The Kingdom of the Hejaz, conquered in 1925, is in light green. (The
January 1926 Abdul-Aziz declared himself
other Hashemite kingdoms of Iraq and Transjordan are also in shades of green)
King of the Hejaz and, then, on 27 January
1927 he took the title of King of Nejd (his
[18]
previous title having been 'Sultan').
After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leaders wanted to continue the
expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding
those territories. Abdul-Aziz, however, refused to agree to this, recognizing the danger of a direct conflict with the
British. The Ikhwan therefore revolted but were defeated in the Battle of Sabilla in 1930, where the Ikhwan
leadership were massacred.[34]
In 1932, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[18]
Saudi Arabia
King Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. However,
an intense rivalry between the King and his half-brother, Prince Faisal
emerged, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. As
a consequence, Saud was deposed in favor of Faisal in 1964. The major
event of King Faisal's reign was the 1973 oil crisis, when Saudi Arabia,
and the other Arab oil producers, tried to put pressure on the US to
withdraw support from Israel through an oil embargo.[18] Faisal was
assassinated in 1975 by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid.[36]
Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid during whose reign
economic and social development progressed at an extremely rapid rate,
transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;[18]
in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.[36] In 1979, two
events occurred which greatly concerned the Al Saud regime,[37] and had a
Abdul Aziz bin Saud first king of Saudi
long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was
Arabia
the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'ite
minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their
Iranian co-religionists. In fact, there were several anti-government uprisings in the region in 1979 and 1980. The
second event, was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in
part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi regime.[38] Part of the
response of the royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the
country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the Ulema a greater role in government.[39] Neither
entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.[40]
Saudi Arabia
terrorists were deeply unhappy with the government stance.[45]
Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the regime. Although now extremely wealthy, the country's economy
was near stagnant, which, combined with high taxes and a growth in unemployment, contributed to disquiet in the
country, and was reflected in a subsequent rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a
number of limited 'reforms' were initiated (such as the Basic Law). However, the royal family's intent was to respond
to dissent while making as few actual changes in the status quo as possible. Fahd made it clear that he did not have
democracy in mind: A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of]
government by consultation [shr].[18]
In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke and the Crown Prince, Prince Abdullah assumed the role of acting King,
albeit his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven").[46]
Abdullah continued the policy of mild reform and greater openness,[47] but in addition, adopted a foreign policy
distancing the kingdom from the US. In 2003, Saudi Arabia refused to support the US and its allies in the invasion of
Iraq.[18] However, terrorist activity increased dramatically in 2003, with the Riyadh compound bombings and other
attacks, which prompted the government to take much more stringent action against terrorism.[48]
In 2005, King Fahd died and his half-brother, Abdullah ascended to the throne. The king subsequently introduced a
new program of moderate reform which included a number of economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's
reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. He has taken
much more vigorous action to deal with the origins of Islamic terrorism, and has ordered the use of force for the first
time by the security services against some extremists. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of
governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including
the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate
indiviuals and the appointment of the countrys first female deputy minister.[18]
In early 2011, King Abdullah indicated his opposition to the protests and revolutions affecting the Arab world by
giving asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and by telephoning President Hosni
Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[49] Saudi Arabia has also been affected by its own
protests.[50] In response, King Abdullah announced a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $10.7 billion. These
included funding to offset high inflation and to aid young unemployed people and Saudi citizens studying abroad, as
well as the writing off of some loans. State employees will see their incomes increase by 15 per cent, and additional
cash has also been made available for housing loans. No political reforms were announced as part of the package,
though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.[51]
Politics
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy,[52] although, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal
decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (that is, Islamic law) and the Quran. The Quran and the Sunnah
(the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution, but no written modern constitution has
ever been written for Saudi Arabia, and Saudi Arabia remains the only Arab Nation where no national elections have
ever taken place, since its creation.[53] No political parties or national elections are permitted[52] and according to
The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, the Saudi government is the seventh most authoritarian regime from among
the 167 countries rated.[54]
On 25 September 2011, Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah has announced that women will have the right to stand and
vote in future local elections and join the advisory Shura council as full member and be able to run as candidates in
the municipal election.[55]
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[90] the country's leading religious family.[85] The Al
ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of
Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.[91] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the
royal family)[92] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[93] and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300
years ago.[83] The pact, which persists to this day,[93] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's
authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support
the Al Saud's political authority[94] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[95]
Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,[96] they still hold the most
important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[85]
Saudi Arabia
city's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city, killing eleven people.[103] Police stopped the
demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.[104] As part of the wave of protests and
revolutions affecting the Middle East and North Africa in early 2011, a number of incidents and protests occurred in
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
Foreign relations
Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945[10][128] and is a founder member of the Arab League, Persian Gulf Cooperation
Council, Muslim World League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation).[129] It plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005
joined the World Trade Organization.[10] Saudi Arabia supports the intended formation of the Arab Customs Union
in 2015 and an Arab common market[130] by 2020, as announced at the 2009 Arab League summit.[131] As a
founding member of OPEC, its oil pricing policy has been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to
moderate sharp price movements so as to not jeopardise the Western economies.[10]
10
Saudi Arabia
11
Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia expended over $70
billion in "overseas development aid".[132] However, there is evidence
that the vast majority was, in fact, spent on propagating and extending
the influence of Wahhabism at the expense of other forms of
Islam.[133] There has been an intense debate over whether Saudi aid
and Wahhabism has fomented extremism in recipient countries.[134]
The two main allegations are that, by its nature, Wahhabism
encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism.[135] Former CIA
director James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda
and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing."[136] However, the
Saudi government strenuously denies these claims or that it exports
Military
Further information: Al-Yamamah arms deal
The Saudi military consists of the Royal Saudi Land Forces, the Royal Saudi Air Force, the Royal Saudi Navy, the
Royal Saudi Air Defense, the Saudi Arabian National Guard the 'SANG' (an independent military force), and
paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000 active-duty personnel. In 2005 the armed forces had the following
personnel: the army, 75,000; Royal Saudi Air Force, 18,000; air defense, 16,000; Royal Saudi Navy, 15,500
(including 3,000 marines); and the SANG had 75,000 active soldiers and 25,000 tribal levies. And Saudi Special
Forces. [149] In addition, there is a Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah military intelligence service.
The SANG is not a reserve but a fully operational front-line force, and
originated out of Abdul Azizs tribal military-religious force, the
Ikhwan. Its modern existence, however, is attributable to it being
effectively Abdullahs private army since the 1960s and, unlike the rest
of the armed forces, is independent of the Ministry of Defense and
Aviation. The SANG has been a counter-balance to the Sudairi faction
HMS Makkah, an Al Riyadh class frigate.
Saudi Arabia
12
in the royal family: Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, is one of the so-called Sudairi Seven and
controls the remainder of the armed forces.[150]
Spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-90s and was about US$25.4 billion in
2005. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top 10 in the world in government spending for its military, representing about
7 percent of gross domestic product in 2005. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the
worlds most densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, France and
Britain.[149] The United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi
military.[151] On 20 October 2010, U.S. State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms
sale in American history an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package
represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces.[152] The UK has also
been a major supplier of military equipment to Saudi Arabia since 1965.[153] Since 1985, the UK has supplied
military aircraft notably the Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft and other equipment as part of
the long-term Al-Yamamah arms deal estimated to have been worth 43 billion by 2006 and thought to be worth a
further 40 billion.[154]
In May 2012, British defence giant BAE signed a 1.9bn ($3bn) deal to supply Hawk trainer jets to Saudi
Arabia.[155]
Geography
Saudi Arabia occupies about 80 percent of the Arabian
peninsula,[157] lying between latitudes 16 and 33 N,
and longitudes 34 and 56 E. Because the country's
southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and
Oman are not precisely defined or marked, the exact
size of the country remains unknown.[157] The CIA
World Factbook's estimate is 2250000 km2 (unknown
operator: u'strong' sqmi) and lists Saudi Arabia as
the world's 13th largest state.[158]
Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian
Desert and associated semi-desert and shrubland (see
satellite image to right). It is, in fact, a number of
linked deserts and includes the 647500 km2 (unknown
operator: u'strong' sqmi) Rub' al Khali (Empty
Quarter) in the southern part of the country, the
worlds largest contiguous sand desert.[56][159] There
are virtually no rivers or lakes in the country, but wadis
are numerous. The few fertile areas are to be found in
the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.[56] The
main topographical feature is the central plateau which
rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends
into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red
Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the
Tihamah parallel to which runs an imposing
escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is
mountainous, and contains the 3133m (unknown
Saudi Arabia
13
operator: u'strong'ft) Mount Sawda, which is the highest point in the country.[56]
Except for the south western province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a
desert climate with extremely high day-time temperatures and a sharp
temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around
45C, but can be as high as 54C. In the winter the temperature rarely
drops below 0C. In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate,
temperatures average around 29C. Annual rainfall is extremely low.
The Asir region differs in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean
monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average
of 300mm of rainfall occurs during this period, that is about 60% of
the annual precipitation.[160]
Administrative divisions
Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces[161] (manatiq idriyya, singular mintaqah idariyya). The regions are
further divided into governorates (Arabic: manatiq idriyya, , ), 118 in total. This number contains the
regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (amanah) headed by mayors (amin). The
governorates are further sudivided into sub-governorates (marakiz, sing. markaz).
Region
Capital
Northern Border
Arar
Sakaka city
Al Madinah
Medina
Al Qasim
Buraidah
Ha'il
Ha'il city
Asir
Abha
Eastern Province
Dammam
Al Riyadh
Riyadh city
Tabuk
Tabuk city
Najran
Najran city
Makkah
Makkah
Jizan
Jizan city
Saudi Arabia
Economy
Saudi Arabia's command economy is
petroleum-based; roughly 75% of budget
revenues and 90% of export earnings come
from the oil industry. The oil industry
comprises about 45% of Saudi Arabia's
gross domestic product, compared with 40%
from the private sector (see below). Saudi
Arabia officially has about 260 billion
barrels
(expected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
operatorexpected
10
3
operator10
m ) of oil reserves,
comprising about one-fifth of the world's
proven total petroleum reserves.[162]
Saudi Arabia is the largest exporter of petroleum in the world
The government is attempting to promote
growth in the private sector by privatizing
industries such as power and telecommunications. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity
companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. Shortages of
water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural
products.
In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of
population growth. Per capita income fell from a high of $11,700 at the height of the oil boom in 1981 to $6,300 in
1998.[163] Increases in oil prices since 2000 have helped boost per capita GDP to $17,000 in 2007 dollars, or about
$7,400 adjusted for inflation.[164]
Oil price increases of 20082009 have triggered a second oil boom, pushing Saudi Arabia's budget surplus to $28
billion (110SR billion) in 2005. Tadawul (the Saudi stock market index) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23% to
close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14% from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion
(589.93SR billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.
OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil production based on their
"proven reserves." The higher their reserves, the more OPEC allows them to produce. Saudi Arabia's published
reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels
(expected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected
operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected
operatorexpected operatorexpected operator1010 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[165] Matthew Simmons has
suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak
oil).[166]
Saudi Arabia is one of only a few fast-growing countries in the world with a relatively high per capita income of
$24,200 (2010). Saudi Arabia will be launching six "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City)[167]
which are planned to be completed by 2020. These six new industrialized cities are intended to diversify the
economy of Saudi Arabia, and are expected to increase the per capita income. The King of Saudi Arabia has
14
Saudi Arabia
announced that the per capita income is forecast to rise from $15,000 in 2006 to $33,500 in 2020.[168] The cities will
be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are
projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP.
However the urban areas of Riyadh and Jeddah are expected to contribute $287 billion dollars by the year 2020.[169]
Demographics
Further information: BedouinandTribes of Arabia
Social issues
Saudi society has a number of issues and tensions. A rare independent opinion poll published in 2010 indicated that
Saudis main social concerns were unemployment (at 10% in 2010[182]), corruption and religious extremism.[183][184]
Crime is not a significant problem.[149] However, Saudi Arabias objective of being both a modern and Islamic
country, coupled with economic difficulties, has created deep social tensions, including the following. Connections
to the West have caused some Saudis to desire the overthrow of the Al Saud. Others want a reformed and more open
government and to have more influence in the political process. On the other hand, juvenile delinquency, drug-use
15
Saudi Arabia
and use of alcohol are getting worse. High unemployment and a generation of young males filled with contempt
toward the Royal Family is a significant threat to Saudi social stability. Some Saudis feel they are entitled to
well-paid government jobs, and the failure of the government to satisfy this sense of entitlement has led to
considerable dissatisfaction.[185][186][187] Additionally, the Shiite minority, located primarily in the Eastern Province,
and who often complain of institutionalized inequality and repression, have created civil disturbances in the past.
Terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia have made it clear that Saudi Arabia does harbor indigenous terrorists.[186]
According to a 2009 U.S. State Department communication by Hillary Clinton, United States Secretary of State,
(disclosed as part of the Wikileaks U.S. 'cables leaks' controversy in 2010) "donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the
most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide".[188] Part of this funding arises through the
zakat (an act of charity dictated by Islam) paid by all Saudis to charities, and amounting to at least 2.5 percent of
their income. Although many charities are genuine, others, it is alleged, serve as fronts for money laundering and
terrorist financing operations. While many Saudis contribute to those charities in good faith believing their money
goes toward good causes, it has been alleged that others know full well the terrorist purposes to which their money
will be applied.[136]
According to a study conducted by Dr. Nura Al-Suwaiyan, director of the family safety program at the National
Guard Hospital, one in four children are abused in Saudi Arabia.[189] The National Society for Human Rights reports
that almost 45% of the country's children are facing some sort of abuse and domestic violence.[190] It has also been
claimed that trafficking of women is a particular problem in Saudi Arabia as the country's large number of female
foreign domestic workers, and loopholes in the system cause many to fall victim to abuse and torture.[191]
Widespread inbreeding in Saudi Arabia, resulting from the traditional practice of encouraging marriage between
close relatives, has produced high levels of several genetic disorders including thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, spinal
muscular atrophy, deafness and muteness.[192][193]
Reporting of poverty remains a state taboo. In December 2011, days after the Arab Spring uprisings, the Saudi
interior ministry detained reporter Feros Boqna and two colleagues and held them for almost two weeks for
questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.[194][195] Statistics on the issue are not available
through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue poverty figures.[196] Observers researching
the issue prefer to stay anonymous[197] because of the risk of being arrested. Three journalists: Feras Boqna, Hussam
al-Drewesh and Khaled al-Rasheed were detained after posting 10-minute film 'Mal3ob 3alena', or 'We are being
cheated'[198] on Saudis living in poverty to YouTube.[199] Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis are
considered to be poor (2009) and 70% of Saudis do not own their houses.[200]
Religion
There are about 25 million people who are Muslim, or 97% of the total
population.[201] Data for Saudi Arabia comes primarily from general
population surveys, which are less reliable than censuses or large-scale
demographic and health surveys for estimating minority-majority
ratios.[201] About 8590% of Saudis are Sunni, while Shias represent
around 1015% of the Muslim population.[202] The official and
dominant form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia is commonly known as
Wahhabism (a name which some of its proponents consider
derogatory, preferring the term Salafism[203]), founded in the Arabian
The tomb of Muhammad in Medina
Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the eighteenth
century, is often described as 'puritanical', 'intolerant' or
'ultra-conservative'. However, proponents consider that its teachings seek to purify the practise of Islam of any
innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and his
companions[204] Approximately 40% of Saudi nationals consider themselves Wahhabis.[205]
16
Saudi Arabia
17
In 2010, the U.S. State Department stated that in Saudi Arabia "freedom of religion is neither recognized nor
protected under the law and is severely restricted in practice" and that "government policies continued to place
severe restrictions on religious freedom".[206] No faith other than Islam is permitted to be practised, although there
are nearly a million Christians nearly all foreign workers in Saudi Arabia.[207] There are no churches or other
non-Muslim houses of worship permitted in the country.[206] Even private prayer services are forbidden in practice
and the Saudi religious police reportedly regularly search the homes of Christians.[207] Foreign workers have to
observe Ramadan but are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or Easter.[207] Conversion by Muslims to another
religion (apostasy) carries the death penalty, although there have been no confirmed reports of executions for
apostasy in recent years.[206] Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal,[206] and the last Christian priest was expelled
from Saudi Arabia in 1985.[207] There are some Hindus in Saudi Arabia. Compensation in court cases discriminates
against non-Muslims: once fault is determined, a Muslim receives all of the amount of compensation determined, a
Jew or Christian half, and all others a sixteenth.[207]
According to Human Rights Watch, the Shia minority face systematic discrimination from the Saudi government in
education, the justice system and especially religious freedom.[208] Restrictions are imposed on the public
celebration of Shia festivals such as Ashura and on the Shia taking part in communal public worship.[209]
Women also face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women, and in
family and inheritance law.[210] Polygamy is permitted for men,[214] and men have a unilateral right to divorce their
wives (talaq) without needing any legal justification.[215] A woman can only obtain a divorce with the consent of her
husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her.[216] In practice, it is very difficult for a Saudi woman to obtain a
judicial divorce.[216] With regard to the law of inheritance, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's
estate must be left to the Qu'ranic heirs.[217] Generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.[217] A
Sunni Muslim can bequeath a maximum of a third of his property to non-Qu'ranic heirs. The residue is divided
between agnatic heirs.[217]
Cultural norms impose restrictions on women when in public,[210] and these are enforced by the religious police, the
mutawa.[218] They include requiring women to sit in separate specially designated family sections in restaurants, to
wear an abaya (a loose-fitting, full-length black cloak covering the entire body) and to conceal their hair.[210] There
is also effectively a ban on women driving.[219]
Saudi Arabia
Men marry girls as young as ten in Saudi Arabia[220][221] Child marriage is believed to hinder the cause of women's
education. The drop-out rate of girls increases around puberty, as they exchange education for marriage. Roughly
25% of college-aged young women do not attend college, and in 20052006, women had a 60% dropout rate.[222]
Female literacy is estimated to be around 70% compared to male literacy of around 85%.[2]
Leading Saudi feminist and journalist, Wajeha al-Huwaider, has said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high
their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone.
The oppression of women and the effacement of their selfhood is a flaw affecting most homes in Saudi Arabia."[223]
Although many Saudis would like more freedom in Saudi Arabia, there is evidence that many women do not want
radical change.[224] Even many advocates of reform reject foreign critics, for "failing to understand the uniqueness of
Saudi society."[225][226] A number of Saudi women have risen to the top of some professions or otherwise achieved
prominence, for example Dr. Ghada Al-Mutairi, heads a medical research center in California[227] and Dr. Salwa
Al-Hazzaa, head of the ophthalmology department at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh and was the late
King Fahads personal ophthalmologist.[228] On 25 September 2011, King Abdullah announced that Saudi women
would gain the right to vote (and to be candidates) in municipal elections, following the next round of these
elections. However, a male guardian's permission is required in order to vote.[229][230]
Education
Education is free at all levels. The school system is composed of elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. A
large part of the curriculum at all levels is devoted to Islam, and, at the secondary level, students are able to follow
either a religious or a technical track. Girls are able to attend school, but fewer girls attend than boys. This
disproportion is reflected in the rate of literacy, which exceeds 85 percent among males and is about 70 percent
among females.[2] Classes are segregated by gender. Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of
Universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000. Institutions of higher education include the
country's first University, King Saud University founded in 1957, the Islamic University at Medina founded in 1961,
and the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah founded in 1967. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula
in sciences and technology, military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in
particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions.[56]
The study of Islam dominates the Saudi educational system. In particular, the memorization by rote of large parts of
the Qu'ran, its interpretation and understanding (Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to everyday life is at
the core of the curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for all University
students.[231] As a consequence, Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and technical skills the private sector
needs" according to the CIA.[2] Similarly, The Chronicle of Higher Education wrote in 2010 that "the country needs
educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not
generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious
instruction."[232]
A further criticism of the religious focus of the Saudi education system is the nature of the Wahhabi-controlled
curriculum. The Islamic aspect of the Saudi national curriculum was examined in a 2006 report by Freedom House
which concluded that "the Saudi public school religious curriculum continues to propagate an ideology of hate
toward the unbeliever, that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni Muslims who do not follow Wahhabi doctrine,
Hindus, atheists and others"[233][234] The Saudi religious studies curriculum is taught outside the Kingdom in
madrasah throughout the world. Critics have described the education system as medieval and that its primary goal
is to maintain the rule of absolute monarchy by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that Islam is at
war with other faiths and cultures.[235]
The approach taken in the Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism, leading to
reform efforts.[236] To tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's
university education for a modern economy, the government is aiming to slowly modernise the education system
18
Saudi Arabia
through the Tatweer reform program.[236] The Tatweer program is reported to have a budget of approximately
US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote
learning towards encouraging students to analyze and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system
which will provide a more secular and vocationally-based training.[232][237]
Culture
Saudi Arabia has centuries-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab tribal civilization. This culture has
been bolstered by the austerely puritanical Wahhabi form of Islam, which arose in the eighteenth century and now
predominates in the country. The many limitations on behaviour and dress are strictly enforced both legally and
socially. Alcoholic beverages are prohibited, for example, and there is no theatre or public exhibition of films.
Nevertheless, as reported by the UK Mail, within the Saudi royal family homosexuality is permitted so long as it is
not the subject of public attention (Daily Mail: "A gay Saudi prince has been jailed for beating and strangling his
servant.").[238] However, the Daily Mail and Wikileaks indicate that the Saudi Royal family applies a different moral
code to itself ("WikiLeaks cables: Saudi princes throw parties boasting drink, drugs and sex. Royals flout puritanical
laws to throw parties for young elite while religious police are forced to turn a blind eye.")[239] Public expression of
opinion about domestic political or social matters is discouraged. There are no organizations such as political parties
or labour unions to provide public forums.
Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets
of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims, the weekend begins on
Thursday.[56][240] In accordance with Wahhabi doctrine, only two religious holidays are publicly recognized, d
al-Fir and d al-A. Celebration of other Islamic holidays, such as the Prophets birthday and shr (an
important holiday for Shites), are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on a small scale. Public observance of
non-Islamic religious holidays is prohibited, with the exception of 23 September, which commemorates the
unification of the kingdom.[56]
19
Saudi Arabia
Critics have described this as "Saudi vandalism" and claim that over the last 50 years 300 historic sites linked to
Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost.[247] It has been reported that there now are fewer than 20
structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.[246]
Dress
Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress).
The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate.
Traditionally, men usually wear an ankle length garmet woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a
keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by a cord coil) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of
finer cotton, also held in place by a cord coil) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair
cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and
appliques. Women are required to wear an abaya or modest clothing when in public.
Ghutrah (Arabic: )is a traditional headdress typically worn by Arab men. It is made of a square of cloth
("scarf"), usually cotton, folded and wrapped in various styles around the head. It is commonly worn in areas with
an arid climate, to provide protection from direct sun exposure, and also protection of the mouth and eyes from
blown dust and sand.
Agal (Arabic: )is an Arab headdress constructed of cord which is fastened around the Ghutrah to hold it in
place. The agal is usually black in colour.
Thawb (Arabic: )is the standard Arabic word for garment. It is ankle length, usually with long sleeves similar
to a robe.
Bisht (Arabic: )is a traditional Arabic mens cloak usually only worn for prestige on special occasions such as
weddings.
Abaya (Arabic: )is a women's garment. It is a black cloak which loosely covers the entire body except the
head. Some women choose to cover their faces with a niqb and some do not.
20
Saudi Arabia
1970s. A stadium in Riyadh holds races in the winter. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the
sports most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry, another
traditional pursuit, is still practiced.[56]
Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding Arab countries in the Persian Gulf, and has been heavily
influenced by Turkish, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not consumed and other
animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. A dish consisting of a stuffed lamb, known as khz, is the
traditional national dish. Kebabs are popular, as is shwarm (shawarma), a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb,
mutton, or chicken. As in other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, machbs (kabsa), a rice dish with fish or shrimp,
is popular. Flat, unleavened bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates and fresh fruit. Coffee, served in
the Turkish style, is the traditional beverage.[56]
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26
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Further reading
Al Farsy, Fouad (2004) Modernity and Tradition: The Saudi Equation: Panarc International Ltd: ISBN
0-9548740-1-3
Gardner, Andrew (2004) The Political Ecology of Bedouin Pastoralism in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In
Political Ecology Across Spaces, Scales, and Social Groups, Lisa Gezon and Susan Paulson, eds. Rutgers:
Rutgers University Press.
Jones, John Paul. If Olaya Street Could Talk: Saudi Arabia- The Heartland of Oil and Islam. The Taza Press
(2007). ISBN 0-9790436-0-3
Lippman, Thomas W. "Inside the Mirage: America's Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia" (Westview 2004)
ISBN 0-8133-4052-7
Mackey, Sandra, The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom (Houghton Mifflin, 1987) ISBN 0-395-41165-3
Matthew R. Simmons, Twilight in the Desert The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy, John Wiley
& Sons, 2005, ISBN 0-471-73876-X
Mnoret, Pascal, The Saudi Enigma: A History (Zed Books, 2005) ISBN 1-84277-605-3
al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge University Press, 2002) ISBN 0-521-64335-X
Robert Lacey, THE KINGDOM: Arabia & The House of Sa'ud, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc, 1981 (Hard
Cover) and Avon Books, 1981 (Soft Cover). Library of Congress: 81-83741 ISBN 0-380-61762-5
Roger Owen, State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East, 3rd Edition (Routledge, 2006)
ISBN 0-415-29713-3
T R McHale, A Prospect of Saudi Arabia, International Affairs Vol. 56 No 4 Autumn 1980 pp622647
Turchin, P. 2007. Scientific Prediction in Historical Sociology: Ibn Khaldun meets Al Saud. History &
Mathematics: Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies. (http://edurss.ru/cgi-bin/db.
pl?cp=&page=Book&id=53185&lang=en&blang=en&list=Found) Moscow: KomKniga, 2007. ISBN
5-484-01002-0
Carmen Bin Laden, Inside the Kingdom: My Life in Saudi Arabia (http://books.google.com/
books?id=9o80JAAACAAJ), Grand Central Publishing, 2005, SBN 0446694886
Robert Lacey, Inside the Kingdom, Hutchinson, 2009.
Weston, Mark, "Prophets and Princes," Wiley, 2008.
Haghshenas, Seyyed Ali, Saudi Arabia social and political structure and religious minorities.Iran, Tehran, Ettelaat
newspaper, June 2010.
External links
Saudi Arabia (http://www.saudi.gov.sa/wps/portal/espp) official government website
Saudi Arabia (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sa.html) entry at The
World Factbook
Saudi Arabia (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Saudi_Arabia/) at the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia travel guide from Wikitravel
Saudi Arabia (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/saudiarabia.htm) web resources provided by
GovPubs at the University of ColoradoBoulder Libraries
Key Development Forecasts for Saudi Arabia (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.
aspx?Country=SA) from International Futures
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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
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