Comparative Government Keynote

Introduction to Comparative Politics
H o w d o w e b a l a n c e f r e e d o m a n d e q u a l i t y ?
Tuesday, January 24, 12
Comparison is fundamental to all human thought Comparison is the methodological core of scientic study of politics compare the past and present compare experiences of various nations develop explanation test theories experiments
Why we compare?
What do we compare?
Institutional Approach Cultural Approach Rational Approach
Politics
public decisions within a community political system authoritative Power: ability to get people or groups to do what they otherwise would not do coercive means
Why do we Accept Authority?

Legitimacy - Something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper. What are the sources of legitimacy? Law - built on rules and procedures Tradition - built by habit and custom over time Charisma - build on force of ideas and presence of leadership
There are Five Themes that we will See Throughout this Course
Political Life is filled with conict as states struggle between the proper balance of equality and freedom.
Political Life is filled with conict as states struggle between the proper balance of equality and freedom. There has been a recent significant shift toward democracy as a system of government.
Political Life is filled with conict as states struggle between the proper balance of equality and freedom. There has been a recent significant shift toward democracy as a system of government. Capitalism and market economies have become the preferred method of doing business.
Political Life is filled with conict as states struggle between the proper balance of equality and freedom. There has been a recent significant shift toward democracy as a system of government. Capitalism and market economies have become the preferred method of doing business. Globalization is one of the most important phenomena occurring on the planet today.
Political Life is filled with conict as states struggle between the proper balance of equality and freedom. There has been a recent significant shift toward democracy as a system of government. Capitalism and market economies have become the preferred method of doing business. Globalization is one of the most important phenomena occurring on the planet today. it ever more difcult to develop mutually acceptable and effective policies to cope with their problems, whether domestic or international in origin.
Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

A State exists when four parts come together: territory, population, sovereignty and legitimacy. It is characterized by such institutions as an army, police, taxation, a judiciary, and a social-welfare system. States are what we compare in this class.

A State exists when four parts come together: territory, population, sovereignty and legitimacy. It is characterized by such institutions as an army, police, taxation, a judiciary, and a social-welfare system. States are what we compare in this class. A Nation is a psychological sense of identication with a people, i.e., I am an American. A Nation-State is a state whose territory and identity largely coincide, i.e., Japan.

A State exists when four parts come together: territory, population, sovereignty and legitimacy. It is characterized by such institutions as an army, police, taxation, a judiciary, and a social-welfare system. States are what we compare in this class. A Nation is a psychological sense of identication with a people, i.e., I am an American. A Nation-State is a state whose territory and identity largely coincide, i.e., Japan. A Regime is a set of rules and institutions that control access to, and exercise of, political power and that typically endure from government to government. These rules are often embodied in a constitution. Frances ve different

A State exists when four parts come together: territory, population, sovereignty and legitimacy. It is characterized by such institutions as an army, police, taxation, a judiciary, and a social-welfare system. States are what we compare in this class. A Nation is a psychological sense of identication with a people, i.e., I am an American. A Nation-State is a state whose territory and identity largely coincide, i.e., Japan. A Regime is a set of rules and institutions that control access to, and exercise of, political power and that typically endure from government to government. These rules are often embodied in a constitution. Frances ve different Government is the leadership or elite in charge of running the state.

A State exists when four parts come together: territory, population, sovereignty and legitimacy. It is characterized by such institutions as an army, police, taxation, a judiciary, and a social-welfare system. States are what we compare in this class. A Nation is a psychological sense of identication with a people, i.e., I am an American. A Nation-State is a state whose territory and identity largely coincide, i.e., Japan. A Regime is a set of rules and institutions that control access to, and exercise of, political power and that typically endure from government to government. These rules are often embodied in a constitution. Frances ve different Government is the leadership or elite in charge of running the state. organizations of individuals

A State exists when four parts come together: territory, population, sovereignty and legitimacy. It is characterized by such institutions as an army, police, taxation, a judiciary, and a social-welfare system. States are what we compare in this class. A Nation is a psychological sense of identication with a people, i.e., I am an American. A Nation-State is a state whose territory and identity largely coincide, i.e., Japan. A Regime is a set of rules and institutions that control access to, and exercise of, political power and that typically endure from government to government. These rules are often embodied in a constitution. Frances ve different Government is the leadership or elite in charge of running the state. organizations of individuals authorized by formal documents

A State exists when four parts come together: territory, population, sovereignty and legitimacy. It is characterized by such institutions as an army, police, taxation, a judiciary, and a social-welfare system. States are what we compare in this class. A Nation is a psychological sense of identication with a people, i.e., I am an American. A Nation-State is a state whose territory and identity largely coincide, i.e., Japan. A Regime is a set of rules and institutions that control access to, and exercise of, political power and that typically endure from government to government. These rules are often embodied in a constitution. Frances ve different Government is the leadership or elite in charge of running the state. organizations of individuals authorized by formal documents make binding binding, coercive decisions on behalf of a particular community
How can we break down the tasks that a state normally does?
Political Socialization
Political Socialization Political Recruitment
Political Socialization Political Recruitment Political Communication
Political Socialization Political Recruitment Political Communication Interest Articulation
Political Socialization Political Recruitment Political Communication Interest Articulation Interest Aggregation
Political Socialization Political Recruitment Political Communication Interest Articulation Interest Aggregation Policy Making
Political Socialization Political Recruitment Political Communication Interest Articulation Interest Aggregation Policy Making Policy Implementation
Political Socialization Political Recruitment Political Communication Interest Articulation Interest Aggregation Policy Making Policy Implementation Policy Adjudication
What then, are the good reasons for having governments?
Community and Nation-building Nation Political Culture Political socialization Promoting economic efciency and growth
What are the biggest challenges for governments?

The biggest challenges facing governments include: building a common identity, enhancing a sense of community, and instilling a common purpose among its citizens. Without this community building, states will lose legitimacy in the eyes of their citizens, and thereby become illegitimate.
What are the possible criticisms of government?

Destruction of Community Violations of Basic Rights Economic Inefciency Government for Private Gain Vested Interests and Inertia
Debate
Does humanitarian intervention violate state sovereignty?
The Problem of Cleavages

The population of a state may have cleavages that create problems for its government. For example, religious fundamentalists or ethnic minorities may not recognize the legitimacy of the government operating within a state. This can create cleavages: cumulative cleavages cross-cutting cleavages
How does a government overcome these challenges?
By making political decisions. public decisions within a community (populated territory) authoritative -- ability to get people or groups to do what they otherwise would not do coercive means force and/or monetary resources
The question is how do we achieve the proper balance of freedom and equality?
How do we compare states in this class?

We compare states according to a set of functions which are performed in every political system. These functions are interdependent as well as being interactive across state boundaries: system functions -- (socialization, recruitment, and communication) which maintain the system, keep it stable and running (Chapter 3) process functions -- (interest articulation and aggregation, policy making, and adjudication) which convert the inputs of demands arising out of the society and the international environment into policy outputs (Chapters 4-6) policy functions -- (extraction, regulation, and distribution) which interact with and effect the domestic society and international environment (Chapter 7)
System Functions
P o l i t i c a l S o c i a l i z a t i o n , r e c r u i t m e n t a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n
Political Attitude
What is Political Attitude? How is it different from Political Ideology?

Political Attitudes are concerned with the speed and methods with which political changes regarding freedom and equality should take place in a given society. Political Ideology comprises the basic values held by an individual about the fundamental goals of politics, or the ideal balance between freedom and equality.
How are Political Attitudes Identified?

There are four broad categories of Political Attitudes: Radicals -- a belief in dramatic, often revolutionary change of the existing political, social, or economic order. Radicals believe that the current system is broken. Liberals -- a belief in evolutionary transformation. Conservatives -- a belief that change is harmful, and that things should stay as they are. Reactionaries -- wants to restore political, social, and economic institutions that once existed; want restoration of older values.
Attitude Quiz
Attitude Quiz
Things would be so much better if we could just go back to the values that made this country great.
Attitude Quiz
Things would be so much better if we could just go back to the values that made this country great. If we just take it slow and easy, we can gradually make this a great country.
Attitude Quiz
Things would be so much better if we could just go back to the values that made this country great. If we just take it slow and easy, we can gradually make this a great country. We need to throw this whole system out and just start over.
Attitude Quiz
Things would be so much better if we could just go back to the values that made this country great. If we just take it slow and easy, we can gradually make this a great country. We need to throw this whole system out and just start over. The best thing we can do is just stay the course. Lets not rock the boat.
A Practical Lesson about Political Attitude
What does a radical in the U.S. want?
What does a radical in the U.S. want? What does a radical in China want?
What does a radical in the U.S. want? What does a radical in China want? What you are depends on the political system within which you reside!
Political Ideology
What is Political Ideology? How is it Different from Political Attitude?

Political Ideology comprises the basic values held by an individual about the fundamental goals of politics, or the ideal balance between freedom and equality. Political Attitudes are concerned with the speed and methods with which political changes regarding freedom and equality should take place in a given society.
Can you tell me more about the differences between Political Attitude and Political Ideology?
Rather than being concerned with the pace and scope of change (political attitude), ideologies are concerned with describing the ideal relationship between freedom and equality for all.
Can you describe the major categories of Political Ideology?

1. Liberalism -- high priority on individual economic and social/political freedom. (Warning: liberalism as a political attitude and liberalism as a political ideology are completely different concepts!) Associated with nightwatchman state. 2. Social Democracy (Socialism) -- high priority on individual social/ political freedom, while permitting state control of economic concerns. Associated with the welfare state. 3. Communism -- high priority on state control of economic and social/ political freedom, but sees people as equal, and control as temporary. Associated with police state. 4. Fascism -- high priority on state control of economic and social/political freedom; sees people as unequal. Associated with police state. 5. Anarchy -- high priority on personal control of economic and social/ political freedom; government is harmful.
High Freedom
High Equality
Low Equality
Low Freedom
High Freedom Anarchism
High Equality
Low Equality
Low Freedom
High Freedom Anarchism Liberalism
High Equality
Low Equality
Low Freedom
High Equality
Low Equality
Fascism
Low Freedom
High Equality
Low Equality
Communism
Fascism
Low Freedom
High Equality
Social Democracy
Low Equality
Communism
Fascism
Low Freedom
High Freedom Anarchism Weak State High Equality Social Democracy Low Equality Liberalism
Communism
Fascism
Low Freedom
Strong State Communism Fascism
Low Freedom
Social Democrat
Economic Spectrum
Liberal
Social Democrats favor broad government involvement in economic policymaking and regulation of business
Liberals favor limited government involvement in economic policymaking and regulation of business
Social Democrat
Social/Political Spectrum
Liberal
Social Democrats favor a balance of freedom and equality
Liberals favor a high degree of personal freedom over social equality.
Reactionary
Places fundamental importance on the unity and harmony of government and society and is dened by its opposition to forces that might weaken that collective unity (p. 37) Anti-democratic, top leader is embodiment of national will and individuals must defer Society and government should be unied into single, organic whole
Socialism
Goal is to provide high-quality, relatively equal conditions of life for everyone, with active state assisting in achievement of this goal (p. 31) Humans are social and caring by nature Individual needs are important, but must be subordinated to overall interests of society Commitment of state to increase material, social and political equality of its members
Conservatism
Attempts to prevent or slow the transition away from a society based on traditional values and social hierarchy (p. 28) People are not always rational, they are emotional and unable to reason clearly Basic need for order and stabilityfosters loyalty to God and country Inequality is natural aspect of society; requires hierarchy, with individual liberty of greater importance than equality
Classical Liberalism
Highest value on individual freedom and posits that the role of government should be limited (p.30) People are rational with natural rights to life, liberty and property Individuals contract with limited forms of government promote laissez-faire economy. Equality before law, but no attempt to create material equality
Note: Currently, liberalism infers big government and egalitarianism
Ideology Quiz
Voter A: I worked my way up from poverty to become the successful business owner I am today. I get frustrated when I think that my tax money goes to support people who wont help themselves. I think part of the blame belongs with the media they promote all the wrong values. Voter B: I really dont care what other people do in their free time, as long as they dont bother me. I sure dont like it when the government tells me what to do with my money or in my own home Im certainly not going to turn around and do the same thing to my neighbors. Voter C: I really worry about the state of the world today. It seems like more and more kids are growing up in poverty and theres no one there to help them. I think we need to do more toward providing healthcare and education programs for our young people. Voter D: These days, you cant be too careful. I think we need to spend a lot more money on the national defense. I wish there was a police officer on every corner! The police could search my car all they want, since I dont break the law. I also think the government should crack down on the media their reporting gives our enemies
Political Attitudes
Political Attitudes What is the necessary pace and scope of change?
Political Attitudes What is the necessary pace and scope of change? Radical
Political Attitudes What is the necessary pace and scope of change? Radical Liberal
Political Attitudes What is the necessary pace and scope of change? Radical Liberal Conservative
Political Attitudes What is the necessary pace and scope of change? Radical Liberal Conservative Reactionary
Political Ideology
Political Ideology What are the fundamental
Political Ideology What are the fundamental goals of politics? Think
Political Ideology What are the fundamental goals of politics? Think economic & social/political
Political Ideology What are the fundamental goals of politics? Think economic & social/political Liberal
Political Ideology What are the fundamental goals of politics? Think economic & social/political Liberal Social Democrat
Political Ideology What are the fundamental goals of politics? Think economic & social/political Liberal Social Democrat Fascist
Political Ideology What are the fundamental goals of politics? Think economic & social/political Liberal Social Democrat Fascist Communist
Political Ideology What are the fundamental goals of politics? Think economic & social/political Liberal Social Democrat Fascist Communist Anarchist
So what does this mean in terms of collective state ideology?
And what about this?
Process Functions
I n t e r e s t A R t i c u l a t i o n , I n t e r e s t A g g r e g a t i o n , P o l i c y m a k i n g , P o l i c y I m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d A d j u d i c a t i o n
Three levels of Political Culture

First, the system level: Do citizens identify with the nation and accept the general system of government?

First, the system level: Do citizens identify with the nation and accept the general system of government? What questions would you ask?

First, the system level: Do citizens identify with the nation and accept the general system of government? What questions would you ask? Does education matter?

First, the system level: Do citizens identify with the nation and accept the general system of government? What questions would you ask? Does education matter? Does geography matter

First, the system level: Do citizens identify with the nation and accept the general system of government? What questions would you ask? Does education matter? Does geography matter What effect does culture have?

First, the system level: Do citizens identify with the nation and accept the general system of government? What questions would you ask? Does education matter? Does geography matter What effect does culture have? Does nationalism exist?

First, the system level: Do citizens identify with the nation and accept the general system of government? What questions would you ask? Does education matter? Does geography matter What effect does culture have? Does nationalism exist? Is the government seen as legitimate?
Three levels of Political Culture (continued)
Second, the process level: Is the political process operating properly? Is it hearing and responding to your concerns? Closely related to political attitude. Participants -- People involved in the political process Subjects -- People who passively obey government ofcials but are not actively involved in politics Parochials -- People who are hardly aware of government and politics
Politicalp.Culture (see 46)
How do Individuals articulate their Political Actions?

Political participation is all of the political actions by individuals and groups designed to inuence the actions or selection of political rulers (p. 54) Four broad categories of participation: (Verba, et al)
- Voting
- Campaign activities
- Personalized contacts
- Communal activities
Individual Political Actions (p.55)
Political Participation Studies (p. 61)
Individual Political Beliefs

3 Types of Orientations:
Cognitive orientation - factual knowledge about the political world Affective orientation - feelings or emotions evoked by political phenomena
Evaluative orientation - synthesis of facts and feelings into a judgment
Belief Systems
Beliefs among the mass publics (Converse, 1964)

- Low relative importance of political issues
- Focus on concrete vs. abstract concepts
- Interest in short-term issues
- Volatile opinions
Interest Articulation & Interest Aggregation

Comparison of Interest Articulation & Interest Aggregation

Interest Articulation The act in which citizens and social groups express their needs and demands to the government. (Brainstorming & expressing policy preferences) Interest Aggregation Activity in which the political demands of individuals and groups are combined into policy programs. (Limiting possible policy choices to the few best options)
Comparison of Interest Articulation & Interest Aggregation

Interest Articulation - Policy alternatives are not limited - Political resources are not accumulated - Does not determine policy - Suppression can lead to violence
Interest Aggregation - Converts the desires and demands of citizens into a few policy alternatives. - Accumulates political resources in the hands of relatively few political actors. - In some cases, can determine policy. - No correlation to violence (depends on how it is done)
Interest Articulation as part of Political Systems
Personal (Citizen) Action - Voting - Informal Group/ Social Movement - Personal Interest Contact - Protest Activity
Interest Group Action - Anomic Groups - Nonassociational Groups - Institutional Groups - Associational Groups - Civil Society - Systems of Interest Groups
Who are these interest articulators (groups)?

Individual actors -- inuence when enough with similar demands or when individual has high enough level of inuence Anomic Interest groups -- spontaneous outbursts of longsuppressed discontent Nonassociational Groups -- common interests or continuing economic or cultural ties Institutional Groups -- formal groups such as political parties, business corporations, legislatures, armies, bureaucracies, churches. Associational Groups -- formed explicitly to represent the interests of a particular group, such as trade unions, chambers of commerce, manufacturers associations, ethnic associations, religious associations and civic groups.
Interest Group Systems

Pluralist -- Autonomous associational groups compete with each other to inuence policy makers. United States is prime example. Competitive, not all public interests are represented, public interest is often neglected. Democratic Corporatist -- Interest groups legitimately and systematically involved in making and implementing policy. Austria, Netherlands and Norway are examples. May be compromised due to lack of autonomy. Controlled Interest Group -- Organizations which are penetrated and dominated by political institutions such as parties or bureaucracies.
Questions!
Are interest groups really interested in the quality of the government that they are subject to? Do interest groups really care about how much power the government has?
Why is interest aggregation important? (p103-104)
Stability (vs. Revolution) Participation Welfare Equality Liberty Security
So what is the goal?

The ultimate implication of [democratic] aggregation processes may be in the representativeness and adaptability of the government, and thus its stability. Suppression leads to dissent. In a highly divided and conict-ridden society, authoritarian interest aggregation depolarizes politics and rids the nation of conict it cannot afford. Is this just an appearance?
Constraints on Interest Groups

Lack of political resources (elements that affect the
decisions of political actors)
Compatibility of objectives with existing policy or

objectives are an allocation that system can make
Political environment in which they must operate and the

range of tolerable dissent (repressive governments generally dont allow strong opposition groups)
Competitive Party Systems and Interest Aggregation (p. 90-98)
Competitive party systems try to build support, while authoritarian party systems direct society. Competitive parties develop platforms
How do Governments Gain Power?

More on Interest Aggregation
Political Party Systems

Dominant-party systems - same party continually
captures enough votes to govern (South Africa, Mexico until 1997)
One-party systems - only one legal party, reluctant

to give up power(China, Cuba, North Korea)
No-party systems - political parties banned on
premise that parties divide loyalty to society (Oman and many US local elections)
Single Member Districts (SMDs) vs. Proportional Representation

Single member districts, according to Duvergers Law, result in two party system. Proportional representation results in multiparty systems. Often results in interest aggregation at the government level instead of at the electoral level. consensual party system -- two or more parties work together after the election conictual party system -- parties are antagonistic and dont work together accomodative system -- consensual and conictual??? Can also result in majority-coalition systems where parties work together before the election
Electoral Process
How does the electoral system translate votes into representation? Primaries, runoffs, electoral college? Plurality usually single-member districts, candidate with largest number of votes wins Proportional representation usually multimember districts, candidates elected in proportion of party share Preferentialranked in order of preference, then lowest are redistributed to voters second choicemajority Approval vote for all acceptable candidates and winner is the one most acceptable to largest proportion
Electoral Process
p. 176
Interest aggregation

Two-party systems - (p. 198) two major parties
alternating in power, each with realistic possibility of forming governing majority (Great Britain: Labour and Conservative)
Multiparty systems - (pp. 199-202) majority may

require a coalition of two or more parties (Israel: Likud). Often unstable system as coalitions fall apart, leading to dissolution of legislature and succession of new governments.
International Electoral Systems

Electoral System China Iran Electoral College Qualied Majority Vote Electoral Formula Absolute Majority Vote One-third minimum in rst round Plurality in second round Mexico Mixed SMD plurality for 300 deputies PR for 200 deputies Nigeria Russia SMD Mixed Plurality SMD plurality for 225 deputies PR for 225 deputies Great Britain
Number of Districts N.A. 196 SMDs or MMDs
Assembly Size 2,985 290
300 1 360 225 1 646
500
360 450
SMD
Plurality
646
Authoritarian Party Systems (p.98-100)
Aggregation takes place within the ranks of the party. Two types of authoritarian parties: Exclusive Inclusive
Military and Interest Aggregation (p. 100-101)
Powerful, but often difcult to maintain because military rulers have a difcult time with interest aggregation.
Trends in Interest Aggregation
Democratization!
What are the Forms that Governments Can Take?

W h o G e t s W h o M a k e s t o D e c i d e D e c i s i o n s ? D o e s f o r m a f f e c t s u b s t a n c e ? Still more on Interest Aggregation
Aristotles Descriptions of Various Governments Described Based on Size

Good One Person Small Group Large Group Monarchy Aristocracy Polity Bad Tyranny Oligarchy Democracy
Remember the concept of Limited government! Described Based on Limits on Authority

Constitution -- basic rules concerning decision making, rights and the distribution of authority in a political system. Think limited government and rule of law. A constitution is the highest law of the state. Decision Rules -- non-Constitutional rules governing how decisions are made, who implements them, etc. Most important are voting rules (egalitarian vs. hierarchical)
Constitutional and Nonconstitutional Regimes

Constitutional regimes operate under the rule of law and ensure restraints on power holders (p. 184) Nonconstitutional regimes are characterized by unchecked political powermost authoritarian or totalitarian regimes(p. 184)
High Freedom Anarchism Weak State High Equality Social Democracy Strong State Low Equality Liberalism
Communism Low Freedom

Fascism
High Freedom Anarchism Weak State High Equality Social Democracy Strong State Low Equality Liberalism
Communism Low Freedom

Fascism
Strong State Most Authoritarian Regimes (Usually Non-Constitutional) Communism Low Freedom
Fascism
Fascism
High Freedom Anarchism Weak State High Equality Liberalism Democracies (Usually Constitutional) Low Equality
Social Democracy
Fascism
Continuum of Types of Government

Authoritarian Most Non-Democracies Constitutional Most Democracies
Defining Democracy
Democracy - governance by leaders whose authority is based on a limited mandate from a universal electorate that selects among genuine alternatives and has some rights to political participation and opposition (p. 173)

So what are the Characteristics of a Democracy anyway?

Democracy is the worst form of government except for all the others - Winston Churchill Limited Government (majority rule with minority rights) Free Speech/Freedom of the Press Freedom of Petition/Assembly Popular Sovereignty Rule of Law Competitive Elections
Defining Democracy
Participatory Democracy active, direct participation by all citizens in the allocation of values (p. 172) Representative Democracy citizens elect people to represent them and allocate values on their behalf (p. 172)
Defining Democracy
Electoral Democracy- citizens
periodically select leaders from among alternative contenders who accept the limited mandate (p. 173)
Liberal Democracy - citizens enjoy

electoral democracy as well as extensive rights and liberties regarding personal freedom, participation and opposition (p. 173)
Defining Nondemocracies
Dictatorshipsabsence of a limited mandate
as above, and political rights and freedoms of the citizens are very limited. Nonpolitical aspects of life generally not under control. Allocation of values and control penetrate virtually every aspect of peoples lives. Rely on coercion to survive.
Authoritarian regime (most common form)same
Totalitarian regime res publica becomes total.
Democracy Nondemocracy Continuums

No country fully one or the other Freedom House measures along scale of political rights and civil liberties and classies free, not free or partly free About 56% of world population not free or partly free (Freedom House 2003)
Democracy Nondemocracy Continuums 14 point scale
Region 1
Region 2
100
Democracy Nondemocracy 75 Continuums Freedom House 50

25
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
Map of Freedom, 2006 by Freedomhouse
Freedom by Country in 2006 (Freedomhouse)
Freedom by Population in 2006 (Freedomhouse)
Democracy vs. Nondemocracy
p. 184
Freedom in Muslim Countries 2006
Discussion Questions
What do you believe is the best form of government? If we were to hold a constitutional convention today, would you favor retaining all the same governmental forms that exist today? Some analysts believe democracy is not possible without the existence of at least two parties. What do you think?
How is State Power Distributed?

Identifying the Structure within which Process Functions Operate
Distribution of Power
Unitary state - central government holds all
legitimate power
Federation - power divided between central and

regional governments. Rationale as follows:

- Large size

- Prior existence of strong states
- Create unity or accommodate diversity
Confederations - states delegate some power to a supranational central government but retain primary power (p. 190)
- Examples are NATO, EU or United Nations
- Require compliance and support of member states
- Promotes compromise
p. 190
How Power is geographically shared between the national and regional governments?
Confederate System
The Federal System
The Unitary System
What are the Typical Political Institutions that Occur within most state governments?
More on Identifying the Structure within which Process Functions Operate
Political Structures
Four Major Structures:
- Legislatures
- Executives
- Administrative systems
- Judiciaries
Distinction between functions of government and the institutional structures involved in the performance of those functions
The Legislature
About 90% of states have a legislature (either one or two houses), where policy issues are discussed and assessed Roles of the legislature:
- Enacting legislation
- Representation of the citizenry (whose
interests are being represented?)
- Oversight of the executive
Structure of Legislatures
Number of houses
- Unicameral (one house) in majority of legislatures, normally seen in unitary states with a strong central government, such as China, Costa Rica, Denmark or Israel
- Most states with bicameral legislatures are federations, such as Australia, Germany, India, Mexico and the United States

Structure of Legislatures
Advantages of clear responsibility, speed and lack of duplication (unicameral) over careful deliberation and differing principles of representation (bicameral) Size of legislatures - Varies enormously, but single or lower house normally represents people, proportionate to population. US House has 435 members.
Decline of Legislatures
General decline in power relative to executive and bureaucracies? Possible rubber stamp for executive Respond to executive initiatives or create their own policies? No clear, dynamic leadership for public
Executives
Carries out systems policies or laws Chief Executive may be two or more people, such as President or King and Prime Minister Roles of Executives
Leadership in policy formation Symbolic and ceremonial unifying role Supervises administrative hierarchy Supervises military and foreign affairs
Structure of Executive
Dual executive with ceremonial leader and head of government Fused executive most common, combining ceremonial and political roles Chief executive and executive structure
- hierarchical system of political control
- executive less prone to stalemate and inaction than legislature
Administration
Machinery and processes through which policies and rules are applied and implemented (p. 155) Bureaucracy is a particular structure and set of processes through which the administration can operate (p. 155) Keep records, provide goods, maintain order, provide services (education, health care, roads) Not always fair or predictable, especially when contrary to traditional practice
Administration
Bureaucracy 1) applies specic rules to each case; therefore the treatment is 2) rational, 3) nondiscretionary, 4) predictable and 5) impersonal (Weber 1958) Many political systems rely on personal contacts and bribes Choice of either overly rigid and impersonal or based on corruption or favoritism
Administration
Five functions:
Information management Provision of knowledge Provision of public goods and services Regulation and enforcement of public policies Extraction of resources
The Judiciary
Social contract authorizes states to punish those who violate its rules and laws Adjudication means to interpret and apply the relevant rules or laws to a given situation May be means of social control or source of arbitration regarding behavior of system itself Involves questions of legitimate domain of governmental actors and private actors
The Judiciary
Judiciary is structure composed of courts and personnel that determine whether rules have been transgressed, and if so, whether sanctions ought to be imposed Often separates criminal, civil or administrative law. May be religion based. May be independent or dependent on political power to differing degrees
What do the courts do?

Judicial review exists in about half of the worlds democracies One function of an independent judiciary is to preserve civil rights. In some states another function may be to police other parts of the government
Debate
Consider the debate on pp.162163.
Is Judicial Review Democratic?
Separation of Powers
How are the executive and legislative branches of government separated? Democratic Presidential -- president and legislative branch are separately elected. Parliamentary -- based on a condence relationship. Semi-presidential -- Mixed.
Which is better: Parliamentarism vs. Presidentialism

Presidentialism may result in gridlock Parliamentarism can be of two types: if the result of proportional elections, may be a crisis waiting to happen as extremist parties gain power. If the result of plurality elections, there will likely be a more stable government.
Forms of ExecutiveLegislative Relations
Forms of ExecutiveLegislative Relations

Hybrid systemsboth prime minister and legislature,
but also have a president (France, Germany and Austria). Balance of power varies.
Council systemssmall group shares leadership,

responsible for both executive and legislative functions (tribal societies, juntas)
Assembly systemslarge group shares power as a

legislature (Switzerland and EU)
Which system is being used in the emerging democracies of the 3rd Wave?
Since many of the current transitional democracies are ethnically and religiously divided, a parliamentary, proportional representation system may be a particularly suitable. WHY???
Politics and Economics

P o l i c y M a k i n g P h i l o s o p h y
SOUTH AMERICA
NORTH AMERICA ASIA
AUSTRALIA
EUROPE 2000 Core Semiperiphery Periphery AFRICA
Core
Great Britain
Semi-Periphery
Russia China Mexico
Periphery
Iran Nigeria
PoliticalEconomic Framework
Purchasing power parity (PPP) corrects for differences between economies
p. 218
Factors of Production
Three major factors of production:
1) land - ground plus raw materials on or in ground 2) labor - human productive input 3) capital- nonhuman productive input, such as nancial resources, machinery and technology
Some actor (rm or producer) acquires a combination of above to produce a good or service
Who gets to own the Factors of Production?

The answer has created an area of inquiry called political economics. It is a fascinating study, in which theory has produced answers that matter. Millions of people have died ghting over the answer to the question. Political order depends on the economic system to generate income, goods and services for the survival and prosperity of its citizens
Three Answers to Who owns the factors of production.

The three isms: capitalism, communism, and socialism Capitalism is based on Adam Smiths laissez-faire economics and is based on private ownership of the factors of production. Communism and socialism are based on the idea that the state must own and control land, labor and capital to serve the best interests of all the population
Socialism vs. Communism

Socialism, a confusing term in practice, tries to balance state involvement and private control to reduce inequalities. In other words, want to achieve Marxist ideals through the machinery of a free democracy. Communism, another confusing term, holds that freedom of thought and association are denied and adverse criticism of the policy of the central government is condemned and punished. Both policies are shaped by the Marxist ideal of changing existing society into one in which the means of social production are placed under central control.
What are the different types of Political Economies?

Three different types of political economies Market economy Command economy Mixed economy

Three different types of political economies Market economy Command economy Mixed economy How are these related to major isms, especially capitalism, socialism and communism?
Political-Economic Framework: Command Economy

Command economy: Total state control
State owns all factors of production State determines what goods are produced according to state plan, their value, and how they are distributed Competition is eliminated since the state established payments for every factor State has dominant role, and surplus value (prot) is accumulated by the state
Political-Economic Framework: Market Economy

Market economy: total private control
Actors have direct, personal control over factors of production and what goods are produced Actors are motivated to maximize value associated with goods and resources they control Invisible hand of market determines value and distribution of goods and services State role and intervention are minimal

Political-Economic Framework: Mixed Economy

Mixed economy - hybrid compromise
Means of production ownership shared between state and private actors. State usually owns major factors such as transportation or communications Primarily demand-oriented, but public sector under state control. State intervenes on behalf of national priorities. Private actors maximize prots, but state taxes to purchase goods or transfer payments to redistribute to certain actors in social order
Problems For Each Ideal-Type Economy
p. 223
PoliticalEconomic Framework
5 fundamental questions
p. 220
Problems For Market Economy

Market economy:
Resource inequality Competition is ruthless and wide disparity develops in wealth, power and status Production for prot, not need Many goods do not meet needs and waster of resources in competition such as advertising Severe economic cycles Large swings possible of ination or depression
Problems For Command Economy

Command Economy:
Limited incentives for efciency
Due to lack of competition people accept poor quality or unappealing goods
Unresponsive production
Follow central plan, not consumer demands
Overcentralization and inexibility

Out of touch with individual complexities
Generally market and capitalist

Switzerland
6th wealthiest (GDP per capita) Weak central government Private control, little regulation Government spending among lowest of all developed countries 1990s saw a rise in welfare spending
Generally mixed and capitalist

South Korea
Government expenditures lowest among developed countries (goods/services) Government greatly promotes economic development 29th in the world (GDP per capita) Export-oriented 35th in measure of economic freedom
Generally mixed and socialist

Denmark
3rd among major countries (GDP per capita) 13th ranking in economic freedom Strong regulation in working conditions and environmental quality Government provides extensive welfare benets High taxes
Generally command and communist

Cuba
Although lessened in recent years, state control of economy, owning means of production Ranked 149th among the 154 countries in economic freedom Government commitment to fund education, health care, and control of land and income guarantee equality between genders, race, urban and rural citizens Ranks in the top 50 countries for quality of life (UN)
SOUTH AMERICA
NORTH AMERICA ASIA
AUSTRALIA
EUROPE 2000 Core Semiperiphery Periphery AFRICA
Core
Great Britain
Semi-Periphery
Russia China Mexico
Periphery
Iran Nigeria
Discussion Questions
What is the attraction of command economies to market economies when are they generally inferior in productivity? What would be the greatest benets if the state played virtually no role? What would be the problems? Is capitalism so individualistic that it cant protect the collective good?
Public Policy= Policy Output __________ And Hopefully __________ Policy Output= Policy Outcome
The states hope

The state is hopeful that public outputs produce the intended public outcomes. There is nothing worse for a politician than when public policy produced unintended, detrimental public outcomes.
Public Policies
Extraction of Resources -- money, good, persons, and services -- from the domestic and international environments Distribution of Resources -- of money, good and services Regulation of Human Behavior -- the use of compulsion and inducement to enforce extractive and distributive compliance or otherwise bring about desired behavior Symbolic policies -- political speeches, holidays, rites, public monuments and statues, and the like -- used by governments to exhort citizens to desired forms of behavior
Create a Graph
I want you to compare political ideology in Chapter 3 with the different types of states discussed in Chapter 7. There are similarities. Our ideology is tied to what we want from the state we call home. If we are liberal, what type of state do we want? Answer: night watchman state. What are the qualities of a night watchman state? They should line up with a description of the political ideology of a liberal.
Type of State
Public Policy Emphasis
Desired Outcomes
Corresponding Political Ideology
Night Watchman State
Police State
Welfare State
Regulatory State
Politics in Britain
The political system
House Of Commons
House Of Lords
Source: http://mori.com
Collectivist Consensus 1945 - 1979 Major parties all accepted and were committed to full employment, social services and government intervention Beveridge Report (1942) called for a social insurance program became known as womb to tomb coverage
Thatcherism 1979 -1990 In the 1970s, economic stagnation and declining competitiveness of British Industry fueled strife. The Winter of Discontent (1978-79) featured a series of nationwide strikes. Thatcher blamed Britains decline on its softness (too many on the dole) and her new agenda set a retreat from the welfare state. Cut taxes, reduced social services, privatized sectors of the economy.
The Third Way 1990 - Present Blairs compromise between the extremes of collectivist consensus and Thatcherism. Some call it Thatcher-Lite. A middle road much like Clintons.
The British Approach to Institutional Stability

I. Major Assumption The unstable nature of human society. The importance of institutional architecture. II. Three Key Propositions
A. Executive Dominance: no checks and balances.
B. Value of a Two Party System.
C. Minimize Interest Group Access.
Britains Political Institutions

A. The Labour Party B. The Conservative Party C. Third parties: Liberal-Democrats V. The Electoral System A. First past the Post. B. By-elections.
The Institutional Approach

How Does Britain Attain These?
1. Architecture: physical layout.
2. Vote of Condence.
3. Campaign Finance.
4. Nominating System.
5. No Residential Requirement.
Comparing Legislative Committees

United States Method of Selecting Members Basis of Organization Size Duration Seniority & Service Policy Area Relative Small (50+ Members) Permanent Very Great (Issue subpoenas, hold hearings, summon witnesses, issue reports, etc) Draft Legislation for Final Consideration Britain Random Random Relative Large (120+ members) Ad Hoc ("standing" for a single bill)
Powers
Very Small
Function/Purpose
Edit Bills Passed on By Executive
Ideology in Britain: Conservatism

Views Conservatives Share 1. Belief in private property. 2. Role of government is to secure property rights. 3. Human inequality is natural and inevitable. Emphasis on philanthropy. 4. Human nature is aggressive.
Views that Divide Conservatives

Tory Conservatism. (Edmund Burke) 1. Reason alone cannot be trusted. 2. Society is an organic fabric: avoid violence against existing classes. 3. Institutions are evolutionary: presumption is test of time. 4. Law of unanticipated consequences.
Views that Divide Conservatives (2)

Whig Conservatism. 1. Society is individualistic, not a fabric. 2. Rational self-interest is both guide and explanation of behavior. 3. Government should promote free markets and private property. 4. Poverty is the fault of the individual.
Views that United Labour

1. Purpose of Government is to assist the less fortunate. 2. Inequality arises out of particular economic systems; it is not a result of human differences. 3. A strong presumption in favor of government intervention in economy and society.
British Political Ideology: Labour

Old Labour 1. Historic commitment to public ownership. (Clause 4.) 2. Social classes are inherently in conict. 3. Role of government is to aggressively redistribute wealth. 4. Therefore, need for progressive tax system and pro-active state.
British Political Ideology

New Labour (Tony Blair).
1. Abandon commitment to public ownership. 2. Redistribution of wealth to be balanced by business-friendly and consumption- friendly policies. Inter-class cooperation can replace class conict. 3. Valid privatizations of Thatcher period should be preserved. 4. Tax system: balance taxation with consumption and investment.
Elections of 1997 and 2001 Why Did Labour Win?

1. Conservatism fatigue including scandals: in power since 1979. 2. Exhaustion of neo-liberal paradigm. 3. New Labour (like new Democrats).. appeal to new middle class and younger people. 4. Globalization fears: Labour represents greater social security.
British Elections of 2001 and 2005

2001 Party Labour Conservative Lib-Dem. Other % Votes 41 32 18 10 # Seats 412 166 52 29
2005 % Votes 35 32 22 10 # Seats 356 197 62 30 Change -45 +35 +10

+1
Election results
House of Commons
the government gets its way MPs weigh political reputations MPs in the governing party have opportunities to inuence government MPs talk about legislation MPs scrutinize administration of policies MPs publicizing issues
China
An explosion at a chemical plant in Jilin in 2005 forced the evacuation of tens of thousands and contaminated drinking water supplies intended for millions.

Comparative Government Keynote

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Comparative Government Keynote

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Introduction to Comparative Politics

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Institutional Approach Cultural Approach Rational Approach

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Why do we Accept Authority?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Technical Definitions We Must Agree On Before Going Further

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

What then, are the good reasons for having governments?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

What are the biggest challenges for governments?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

What are the possible criticisms of government?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Does humanitarian intervention violate state sovereignty?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

The Problem of Cleavages

Tuesday, January 24, 12

How does a government overcome these challenges?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

How do we compare states in this class?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

What is Political Attitude? How is it different from Political Ideology?

How are Political Attitudes Identified?

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

Tuesday, January 24, 12

A Practical Lesson about Political Attitude

Tuesday, January 24, 12

A Practical Lesson about Political Attitude

What does a radical in the U.S. want?