Operations Research Unit 4

Unit 4 Duality in LPP

Structure:
4.1 Introduction
Learning Objectives
4.2 Importance of Duality Concepts
4.3 Formulation of Dual Concepts
4.4 Economic Interpretation of Duality
Economic interpretation of dual variables
4.5 Sensitivity Analysis
Changes in Cj of non-basic variable
Change in Cj of a basic variable
Change in available resources
Calculating the range
4.6 Summary
4.7 Terminal Questions
4.8 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Answers to self assessment questions
Answers to terminal questions
4.9 References

4.1 Introduction
Every linear programming problem (LPP) is associated with another linear
programming problem involving the same data and optimal solutions. Such
two problems are said to be duals of each other. One problem is called the
primal, while the other problem is called the dual.
The dual formulation is derived from the same data and solved in a manner
similar to the original 'primal' formulation. In other words, you can say that
dual is the 'inverse' of the primal formulation because of the following
reasons.
 If the primal objective function is 'maximisation' function, then the dual
objective function is 'minimisation' function and vice-versa.
 The column co-efficient in the primal constraint is the row co-efficient in
the dual constraint.
 The co-efficients in the primal objective function are the RHS constraint
in the dual constraint.
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 The RHS column of constants of the primal constraints becomes the row
of co-efficient of the dual objective function.
The concept of duality is useful to obtain additional information about the
variation in the optimal solution. These changes could be effected in the
constraint co-efficient, in resource availabilities and/or objective function co-
efficient. This effect is termed as post optimality or sensitivity analysis.

Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe the duality concept
 Solve a dual problem
 Describe the economical interpretation
 Apply sensitivity analysis

4.2 Importance of Duality Concepts

The importance of duality concept is due to two main reasons:
i. If the primal contains a large number of constraints and a smaller
number of variables, the labour of computation can be considerably
reduced by converting it into the dual problem and then solving it.
ii. The interpretation of the dual variable from the loss or economic point of
view proves extremely useful in programming future decisions in the
activities.

Characteristics of dual solutions

If the primal problem possesses a unique non-degenerate, optimal solution,
then the optimal solution to the dual is unique. However, dual solutions arise
under a number of other conditions. Several of the cases which can arise
are:
 When the primal problem has a degenerate optimal solution, the dual
has multiple optimal solutions.
 When the primal problem has multiple optimal solutions, the optimal dual
solution is degenerate.
 When the primal problem is unbounded, the dual is infeasible.
 When the primal problem is infeasible, the dual is unbounded or
infeasible.

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Self Assessment Questions

State Yes or No
1. Dual LPP always reduces the amount of computation.
2. It is possible to reverse the dual LPP to primal LPP

4.3 Formulation of Dual Concepts

Consider the following LPP
Maximise Z = c1x1 +c2x2 + . . .+ cnxn
Subject to the constraints
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn ≤ b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn ≤ b2
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn ≤ bm
x1, x2, . . ., xn ≥ 0
To construct a dual problem, you must adopt the following guidelines:
i. The maximisation problem in the primal becomes a minimisation
problem in the dual and vice versa
ii. (≤) type of constraints in the primal become (≥) type of constraints in the
dual and vice versa.
iii. The coefficients c1, c2, . . .,cn in the objective function of the primal
become b1, b2,…,bm in the objective function of the dual.
iv. The constants b1, b2,…,bm in the constraints of the primal become c1, c2,
. . .,cn in the constraints of the dual
v. If the primal has n variables and m constraints the dual will have m
variables and n constraints
vi. The variables in both the primal and dual are non-negative
Thus the dual problem will be
Minimise W = b1 y1 + b2 y2 + . . . +bm ym
Subject to the constraints
a11 y1 + a21 y2 + . . . + am1 ym ≥ c1
a12 y1 + a22 y2 + . . . + am2 ym ≥ c2
a1n y1 + a2n y2 + . . . + amn ym ≥ cn
y1, y2, . . ., ym ≥ 0

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Formation of dual LPP is easier when the standard form of LPP for
maximisation problem must contain “≤” type of constraints, while for
minimisation problem, it must contain “≥” type of constraints.

Solved Problem 1
Write dual of
Max Z = 4x1 + 5x2
Subject to 3x1 + x2 ≤ 15
x1 +2 x2 ≤ 10
5x1 + 2x2 ≤ 20
x1, x2, ≥ 0
Solution: The given problem is in its standard form. Therefore, its dual is
Mini W = 15y1 + 10 y2 + 20 y3
Subject to 3y1 + y2 + 5 y3 ≥ 4
y1 + 2y2 + 2y3 ≥ 5
y1, y2, y3, ≥ 0

Solved Problem 2
Write the dual of
Min Z = 10x1 + 12x2
Subject to 2x1 +3 x2 ≥ 10
5x1 +6 x2 ≥ 20
x1 + 2x2 ≥ 15
2x1 + 3x2 ≥ 12
x1, x2, ≥ 0
Solution: The given problem is in its standard form. Therefore, its dual
problem is
Max W = 10y1 + 20 y2 + 15 y3 + 12y4
Subject to 2y1 + 5y2 + y3 = 2y4 ≤ 12
6y1 + 2y2 + 3 y3 ≤ 10
y1, y2, y3, ≥ 0

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Solved Problem 3
Write the dual of
Max Z = 100x1 + 200x2
Subject to 3x1 - 10 x2 ≥ 15
+4x1 +15 x2 ≤ 20
x1, x2, ≥ 0
Solution: First we convert
3x1 - 10x2 ≥ 15
to “≤” type as shown here.
-3x1 + 10x2 ≤ -15
Therefore, its dual is
Mini Z = -15y1 + 20 y2
Subject to -3y1 + 4y2 ≥ 100
10y1 + 15y2 ≥ 200
y1, y2, ≥ 0

Solved Problem 4
When the constraints contain “=” sign, write the dual of
Max Z = 40x1 + 30x2
Subject to 10x1 +6 x2 ≤ 15
5x1 +6 x2 ≥ -10
x1 + x2 = 9
x1 + x2 ≥ 10
x1, x2, ≥ 0
Solution: Firstly,
5x1 – 7x2 ≥ -10
is rewritten as
-5x1 +7x2 ≤ 10
Secondly,
x1 + x2 = 9
is written as
x1 + x2 ≤ 9
Also
x1 + x2 ≥ 9 this is same as -x1 - x2 ≤ -9

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Therefore, the given problem is

Max Z = 40x1 + 30x2
Subject to 10x1 + 6 x2 ≤ 15
- 5x1 +7 x2 ≤ 10
x1 +x2 ≤ 9
- x1 – x2 ≥ - 9
Therefore, its dual is
Mini W = -15y1 + 10 y2 + 9y31 – 9y311
Subject to 10y1 - 5y2 + y31 – y311 ≥ 40
6y1 + 7y2 + y31 – y311 ≥ 30
y1, y2, y31 – y311 ≥ 0
Let y31 – y311= y3
Then the dual becomes
Max W = 15y1 -5 y2 + y3
Subject to 10y1 - 5y2 + y3 ≥ 40
6y1 + 7y2 + y3 ≥ 30
y1, y2, ≥ 0
y3 is unrestricted in sign

Solved Problem 5
Write the dual of
Max Z = 12x1 + 15x2
Subject to 5x1 +36 x2 ≥ 10
x1 + x2 ≤ 5
x1 ≥ 0
x2 is unrestricted in sign

Solution: Let x2 =x21 – x211 ≥ 0. Therefore, its standard form is

Max Z = 12x1 + 15x21 -15x211
Subject to 5x1 +3(x21- x211) ≥ 10
- [x1 +(x21- x211)] ≥ -5
Or x1 - x21+ x211 ≥ -5
x1, x21, x211 ≥ 0

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Therefore, dual is
5y1 – y2 ≤ 12 ………….…(1)
3y1 – y2 ≤ 15 ………….…(2)
-3y1 + y2 ≤ - 15 ……………(3)
No.3 constraint is 3y1 – y2 ≥ 15 …………(4)
Constraints 2 and 4 give
3y1 – y2 = 15
The dual problem is
Max W = 10y1 –15 y2
Subject to 5y1 – y2 ≤ 12
3y1 – y2 =15
y1 ≥ 0 y2 unrestricted in sign

Solved Problem 6
Write the dual of the following LPP
Minimise Z = 3x1 – 2x2 + 4x3
Subject to 3x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 ≥ 7
6x1 + x2 + 3x3 ≥ 4
7x1 - 2x2 - x3 ≤ 10
x1 - 2x2 + 5x3 ≥ 3
4x1 + 7x2 - 2x3 ≥ 2,
x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

Solution: Since the problem is of minimisation, all constraints should be

of ≥ type. Therefore, you have to multiply the third constraint throughout
by -1 so that -7x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≥ -10
Let y1, y2, y3, y4 and y5 be the dual variables associated with the above five
constraints. Then the dual problem is given by
Maximise W = 7y1 + 4 y2 – 10 y3 + 3 y4 + 2y5
Subject to 3y1 + 6y2 – 7 y3 + y4 + 4y5 ≤ 3
5y1 + y2 + 2y3 – 2y4 + 7y5 ≤ -2
4y1 + 3y2 + y3 + 5y4 – 2y5 ≤ 4
y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 ≥ 0

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Solved Problem 7
Find the dual of
Maximise 12x1 + 10x2
Subject to 2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 18
2x1 + x2 ≤ 14
x1, x2 ≥ 0

Solution: The 'dual' formulation for this problem will be

Minimise 18y1 + 14y2
Subject to 2y1 + 2y2 ≥ 12
3y1 + y2 ≥ 10
y1 >= 0, y2 ≥ 0
Points to be noted:
 The column coefficients in the primal constraint namely (2, 2) and (3,
1) have become the row co-efficient in the dual constraints.
 The coefficient of the primal objective function namely, 12 and 10 have
become the constants in the right hand side of the dual constraints.
 The constants of the primal constraints, namely 18 and 14, have
become the coefficient in the dual objective function.
 The direction of the inequalities has been reserved.
 While the primal is a „maximisation‟ problem the dual is a
„minimisation‟ problem

Solved Problem 8
Obtain the dual problem of the following primal formulation.
Maximise Z = 2x1 + 5x2 + 6x3
Subject to 5x1 + 6x2 -x3 ≤3
-2x1 + x2 + 4x ≤ 4
x1 - 5x2 + 3x3 ≤ 1
-3x1 - 3x2 + 7x3≤ 6
x1, x2, x3≥ 0

Solution: Step 1: Write the objective function of the dual. As there are
four constraints in the primal, the objective function of the dual will have 4
variables.
Minimise r* = 3 w 1 + 4 w 2 + w 3 + 6 w 4

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Step 2: Write the constraints of the dual. As all the constraints in the
primal are '<', the constraints in the dual will be '>'. The column COM+
efficient of the primal becomes the row co-efficient of the dual.
Constraints 5w1 - 2w2 + w3 - 3w4 ≥2
6w1 + w2 - 5w3 -w4 ≥5
-w1 + 4w2 + 3w3 + 7w4≥ 6
Step 3 : Therefore the dual of the primal is :
Minimise Z = 3w1 + 4w2 + w3 + 6w4
Subject to: 5w1 - 2w2 + w3 - 3w4 ≥2
6w1+ w2 - 5w3 - 3w4 ≥ 5
- w1 + 4w2 + 3w3 + 7w4≥ 6
w1, w2, w3, w4 >= 0

Solved Problem 9
Obtain the dual of the following linear programming problem.
Minimise Z = 5x1 -6x2 + 4x3
Subject to the constraints: 3x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 ≥ 9
x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 ≥ 5
7x1 - 2x2 - x3 ≤ 10
x1 - 2x2 + 4x3 ≥ 4
2x1 + 5x2 - 3x3≥ 3
x1, x2, x3 ≥0

Solution: As you can see, one of the primal constraints is a "≤ " constraint
while the others are all "≥” constraints. The dual cannot be worked out
unless all the constraints are in the same direction. To convert this into "≥”
constraint, multiply both the sides of the equation by "-" sign. After
multiplying the constraint by "-" sign, it will become 7x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≥ -10.
Now that all the constraints are in the same direction and the dual can be
worked out, the dual formulation is:
Maximise Z = 9w1 + 5w2 - 10w3 + 4w4 + 3w5
Subject to: 3w1 + w2 - 7w3 + w4 + 2w5 ≤ 5
4w1 + 3w2 + 2w3 - 2w4 + 5w5 ≤ -6
6w1 + 2w2 + w3 + 4w4 + -3w5 ≤ 4
w1, w2, w3, w4, w5 ≥0

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Self Assessment Questions

Fill in the blanks
3. The coefficients of decision variables in the objective function become
quantities on the right hand side of _________ __________.
4. “” constraints changes to ________ type in dual LP.
5. For every LPP, there exists a unique ________ problem.

4.4 Economic Interpretation of Duality

The linear programming problem is thought of as a resource allocation
model where the objective is to maximise revenue or profit subject to limited
resources. The associated dual problem offers interesting economic
interpretations of the LP resource allocation model. Consider a
representation of the general primal and dual problems where primal takes
the role of a resource allocation model.

Primal Dual
Maximise Minimise
n m
z  c j. x j w  bi . y i
j1 i1

Subject to Subject to
n m

 a ij x j  b i , i  1, 2, ..., m.  aij y i  c i , j  1, 2, ..., n.

j1 i1

xj ≥ 0, j = 1,2,…., n yj ≥ 0, i = 1,2,…., m

In the above resource allocation model, the primal problem has „n‟ economic
activities and „m‟ resources. The coefficient cj in the primal represents the
profit per unit of activity j. Resource i, whose maximum availability is bi, is
consumed at the rate aij units per unit of activity j.
4.4.1 Economic interpretation of dual variables:
For any pair of feasible primal and dual solutions,
(Objective value in the maximisation problem) ≤ (Objective value in the
minimisation problem).
At the optimum, the relationship holds as a strict equation.
Note: Here, the sense of optimisation is very important.
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Hence, for any two primal and dual feasible solutions, the values of the
objective functions, when finite, must satisfy the following inequality.
n m
z  cj xj   bi y i  w
j 1 i 1

The strict equality, z = w, holds true when both the primal and dual solutions
are optimal. Consider the optimal condition z = w. Given that the primal
problem represents a resource allocation model, you can think of z as
representing the profit in rupees. bi represents the number of units available
of the resource i. Therefore, we can express the equation z = w as profit
(Rs) =  (units of resource i) x (profit per unit of resource i)
This means that the dual variables yi, represent the worth per unit of
resource i.
Note: Variables yi are also called as dual prices, shadow prices and simplex
multipliers.
With the same logic, the inequality z < w associated with any two feasible
primal and dual solutions is interpreted as (profit) < (worth of resources).
This relationship implies that as long as the total return from all the activities
is less than the worth of the resources, the corresponding primal and dual
solutions are not optimal. Optimality is achieved only when the resources
have been exploited to their fullest extent, which can happen only when the
input equals the output (profit). Economically, the system is said to be
unstable (non optimal) when the input (worth of the resources) exceeds the
output (return). Stability occurs only when the two quantities are equal.

Self Assessment Questions

True or False
6. Dual variables represent the worth or unit of a resource.
7. Optimality is reached when the resources are not fully utilised.
8. At optimum level the relationship holds as a strict equation

4.5 Sensitivity Analysis

In linear programming, all model parameters are assumed to be constant.
However; in real-life situations, the decision environment is always dynamic.

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Therefore, it is important for the management to know how profit would be

affected by an increase or decrease in the resource level, by change in the
technological process, and by change in the cost of raw materials. Such an
investigation is known as sensitivity analysis or post optimality analysis.
The results of sensitivity analysis establishes upper and lower bounds for
input parameter values within which they can vary without causing major
changes in the current optimal solution.
Sensitivity analysis allows you to figure out which data offers a significant
impact on the results. This in turn allows you to concentrate on getting
accurate data for those items or at least running through several scenarios
with various values of the crucial data to get an idea of the range of possible
outcomes.
Sensitivity analysis is important because of the following reasons:
 Values of LP parameters might change
 LP parameters have an uncertainty factor attached to them
Any change in an LP‟s parameters affects the optimality of the basic
variable. This is because of the following two reasons.
 When a variable (or number of variables) in row 0 has a negative
coefficient, we can obtain a better basic feasible solution of larger z-
value by pivoting a non-basic variable with a negative coefficient in row
0. If this occurs, the basic variable becomes a sub-optimal basis.
 A constraint (or number of constraints) may have a negative RHS. In
such a case, at least one member of basic variable will now be negative
and will no longer yield a basic feasible solution. If this occurs, you can
say that the basic variable is now an infeasible basis.
The following six types of changes in LP‟s parameters cause changes in the
optimal solution:
 Changing the objective function coefficient of a non-basic variable
 Changing the objective function coefficient of a basic variable
 Changing the right-hand side of a constraint
 Changing the column of a non-basic variable
 Adding a new variable or activity
 Adding a new constraint

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Caselet
Luminous lamps produce three types of lamps A, B and C. These lamps
are processed on three machines X, Y and Z.
To find out the optimal solution in order to maximise profit and minimise
cost, first you find out whether a previously determined optimal solution
remains optimal if the contribution rate is changed. An increase in Cj of a
variable would mean that resources from other products should be
diverted to this more profitable product.
The reverse is true for a minimisation problem.

Solved Problem 10
For the above scenario, the full technology and input restrictions are given
in the following table.
Table 4.1: Lamp production and profit per unit

Machine
Product Profit Per Unit
M1 M2 M3
A 10 7 2 12
B 2 3 4 3
C 1 2 1 1
Available time 100 77 80

Solution: The linear programming model for the above problem is as

follows:
Maximise Z = 12 x1 + 3 x2 + x3
Subject to 10 x1 + 2 x2 + x3  100
7 x1 + 3 x2 + 2x3  77
2 x1 + 4 x2 + x3  80
x1, x2 , x3  0
On solving the above problem by the simplex method, we get
73
x1 = , x2 = 35 , x3 = 0
8 8
981
And the optimal value of the objective function is .
8

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4.5.1 Changes in Cj of a non-basic variable

A non basic variable can be brought on the basis only if its contribution rate
is attractive. Therefore, you need to determine the upper limit of the profit
contribution (Cj) of each non basic variable. The reverse is true for a
minimisation problem. Consider the final simplex table of the above
problem.
Table 4.2: The final simplex table

Cj 12 3 1 0 0 0
Basic Solution values
CB variables x1 x2 x3 X4 x5 x6 b (=xB )
B
1 3 1 73
x1 – –
12 1 0 16 16 8 0 8

3 x2 0 1
13 –
7 5 0
35
16 16 8 8
17 11 9 177
0 x6 0 0   1
8 8 4 4
27 15 3
zj 12 3 0
16 16 8
11 15 3
zj – cj 0 0 0
16 16 8
From the above final simplex table, you can see that profit contribution for
product C is Re 1, which is not greater than its zj. Therefore, to bring x3 into
27
the basis, its profit contribution rate cj must exceed Rs. to make zj – cj
16
value negative or zero that is zj – cj  0. Specifically,
 If cj* – cj > zj – cj, then a new optimal solution must be derived
 If cj* – cj = zj – cj, then alternative optimal solution exist.
 If cj* – cj < zj – cj, then current optimal solution remains unchanged.
11
In case of c3 = 1 and z3 – c3 = ,
16
11
C3* – 1 
16

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11 27
C3*  +1 =
16 16
x3 can be introduced in the basis, if its contribution rate c3 increases at least
29
Rs . If it increases beyond that, then the current solution will no longer
16
be optimal.
4.5.2 Change in Cj of a basic variable
Consider the case of product A (x1 column) and divide each zj - cj entry in the
index row by the corresponding co-efficient in the x1 row as shown below:
2j  Cj   2j  Cj 
- Minimum  ; y ij  0     Minimum  ; y ij  0 
 y ij  1   y ij 
   
Referring to the final simplex table, you observe that corresponding to the
non basic variables x3 and x5, y13, y15 <0.
Therefore,
 11 3 
 
Minimum  16 , 8  = minimum (11, 3) = 3
  1   1
     
  16   8  
Corresponding to the non- basic variable x4 ,y14 >0, therefore,
 15 
 
Minimum  16  =5
 3 

 16 

Hence,
–5  c1* -12  3 i.e. 7  c1*  15
Thus, you can say that the optimal solution is insensitive as long as the
changed profit coefficient c1* varies between Rs 7 and Rs. 15
4.5.3 Change in available resources
If the available resources change, you need to investigate whether a
previous optimal solution remains feasible or not. For long term planning, it
is important to know the bounds within which each available resource (for
instance machine hours) can vary without causing violent changes in the
current optimal solution. To illustrate this, divide each quantity in the XB
column by the corresponding coefficient in the X4 column of the table.
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Table 4.3: Resources table

XB
XB X4
X4
73 3 146
8 16 3
35 7
– 10
8 16
177 11 354
4 8 11

 354 
The least positive ratio   indicates the number of hours of machine M1
 11 
that can be decreased. The least negative ratio (–10) indicates the increase
in the number of hours of machine M1.
4.5.4 Calculating the range
354 746
Lower limit = 100 – =
11 11
Upper limit = 100 – (–10) = 110
746
Therefore, the range of hours for M1 is to 110.
11
You can calculate the range of hours for machine M2 and M3 in the same
manner. The management of a company rarely restricts its interest to the
numerical values of an optimal solution. It is interested in knowing the
impact of changes in the input parameter values on the optimal solution.
This process is called sensitivity analysis.

Self Assessment Questions

Fill in the blanks
9. Sensitivity analysis is carried out on _______ simplex table.
10. It helps us to study the effect of changes in _______ _______ in
objective function.
11. The results of sensitive analysis establish ___________ and ________
___________ for input parameters value.

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4.6 Summary
For every linear programming problem there exists a dual linear
programming problem. The dual LPP helps us to reduce the amount of
calculation involved in original the LPP. They also help us to interpret the
economic variables more effectively.

4.7 Terminal Questions

1. Write the dual of the following linear programming problems.
a) Maximise 2 = 7x1 + 5x2
Subject to constraints x1 + 2x2  6
4x1 + 3x2  12
x1 x2  0
b) Maximise z = 3x1 + 4x2
Subject to constrains 5x1 + 4x2  200;
3x1 + 5x2  150;
5x1 + 4x2  100;
8x1 + 4x2  80,
x1  0, x2  0
c) Maximise z = 2x1 + x2
Subject to constraints 4x1 + 3x2  12,
4x1 + x2  8,
4x1 – x2  8,
x1, x2  0

4.8 Answers to SAQs and TQs

Answers to Self Assessment Questions

1. No
2. Yes
3. Dual
4. ≥
5. Dual
6. True

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7. False
8. True
9. Final
10. Resource, levels
11. Upper, lower, bounce

Answers to Terminal Questions

1.
a. Minimise W = 6y1 + 12y2
Subject to constraints y1 + 4y2 ≥ 7
2y1 + 3y2 ≥ 5
y1 + y2 ≥ 0
b. Minimise w = 200y1 + 150y2 – 100y3 – 80y4
Subject to constraints 5y1 + 3y2 – 5y3 – 8y4 ≥ 3
4y1 + 5y2 – 4y3 – 4y4 ≥ 4
y1, y2, y3, y4 ≥ 0
c. Minimise w = 12y1 + 8y2 + 8y3
Subject to constraints 4y1 + 4y2 + 4y3 ≥ 2
3y1 + y2 - y3 ≥ 1
y1, y2, y3, ≥ 0

4.9 References
The following sources have been referred to for additional content for the
unit.
 http://www.psnacet.edu.in/courses/MBA/Linearprogramming/lecture-
11.pdf
 http://agecon2.tamu.edu/people/faculty/mccarl-bruce/mccspr/new04.pdf
 http://www.sce.carleton.ca/faculty/chinneck/po/Chapter6.pdf.
 http://www-ee.eng.hawaii.edu/~jyee/491.06/lectures/chapter06.pdf

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