Grade Twelve Biology Notes Bridget Walsh Nervous System Glial cells- non-conducting cells important for structural

al support and metabolism of nerve cells Neurons- conduct nerve impulses o Sensory afferent carry impulses from sensory preceptors located in clusters called ganglia outside the spinal cord o interneurons interpret and integrate sensory information o motor neurons efferent carry impulses from the central nervous system to effectors myelin sheath- insulation for neurons o formed by Schwann cells o areas between Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier, nerve impulses jump from node to node o speed of impulse along the nerve fibre is affected by myelination and diameter of axon dendrites- receive impulses axon- projects nerve impulses from the cell body, is an extension of the cytoplasm A rapid change in the chemical potential difference across the membrane of a neuron is detectable each time a nerve is excited The difference between electrical and neural transmission o Current travels faster along a wire than an impulse travels across a nerve o Cytoplasmic core of a nerve cell offers great resistance to the movement of electrical current Julius Bernstein hypothesized that nerve impulses were and electrochemical message created by the movement of ions through the nerve cell membrane Action potential- the voltage difference across a nerve cell membrane when the nerve is excited Resting potential- voltage difference across a nerve cell membrane during the resting period (-70mV) The electrochemical event is caused by an unequal positive charge Negative ions have little effect because they are very large and cannot pass through the membrane The more rapid diffusion of potassium ions to sodium ions means exterior becomes positive to the interior membrane Excitation= sodium more permeable than potassium Charge reversal results in depolarization Refractory period- recovery time required before a neuron can produce another

action potential Threshold Levels: All or Nothing! o Potential stimulus must be above critical value to produce a response o Critical intensity= threshold level o Threshold levels are different for different neurons o Increasing intensity of stimuli will not produce an increased response o Respond completely or not at all Synaptic Transmission o Synapses- regions between neurons or between neurons and effectors o Neurotransmitters- chemicals released from vesicles into synapses o Presynaptic neuron- neurons that carry impulses to the synapse o Postsynaptic neuron- carries neurons away Acetylcholine- is an example of a neurotransmitter. It is released from the end plates of neurons and makes postsynaptic membranes more permeable to Na+ ions, this results in a change in gradient and thus an action potential. Cholinesterase- is the enzyme released from postsynaptic membrane to break down acetylcholine and close sodium channels EPSP and IPSP- an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a temporary depolarization of postsynaptic membrane potential caused by the flow of positively charged ions into the postsynaptic cell. They are the opposite of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), which usually result from the flow of negative ions into the cell. A postsynaptic potential is defined as excitatory if it makes it easier for the neuron to fire an action potential. EPSPs can also result from a decrease in outgoing positive charges, while IPSPs are sometimes caused by an increase in positive charge outflow Summation-EPSPs, like IPSPs, are graded (i.e. they have an additive effect). When multiple EPSPs occur on a single patch of postsynaptic membrane, their combined effect is the sum of the individual EPSPs. Larger EPSPs result in greater membrane depolarization and thus increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell reaches the threshold for firing an action potential.

Homeostasis: Blood Glucose regulation Homeostasis refers to the bodys attempt to adjust to a fluctuating external environment All homeostatic control systems have 3 functional components: a monitor (set point, eg. What your body temp. should be), a coordinating centre (your brain) and a regulator (your body, you start sweating thus cooling yourself) Negative feedback mechanisms trigger a response that reverses the changed condition Positive feedback systems (less common) move the controlled variable even further away from a steady state (eg. The birth process)

The Importance of the Endocrine System

Hormones are chemicals that affect cells in other parts of the body, they are classified by their activation sites o Growth hormone or somatotropin regulate bone growth o Insulin regulates blood sugar by increasing the permeability of cells to glucose o Epinephrine is produced in times of stress Hypothalamus- the region of the brain responsible for coordinating nerve and hormone response Pituitary gland- gland at the base of the brain that, together with the hypothalamus, functions as a control centre, coordinating the endocrine and nervous system Steriod and Protein Hormones o Steroid hormones- group of hormones made from cholesterol that includes male and female sex hormones and cortisol o Cortisol- hormone that stimulates the conversion of amino acids to glucose by the liver o Protein hormones- group of hormones composed of chains of amino acids that includes insulin and growth hormones o Steroid hormones diffuse from the capillaries into the interstilial fluid and then into the target cell, where they combine with receptor molecules located in the cytoplasm o The hormone-receptor complex moves into the nucleus and binds to chromatin activating a gene to produce a specific protein o Protein hormones do not diffuse into the cell but combines with receptor sites on the cell membrane, activating enzymes within the cell Glucagon- hormone produced by the pancreas; when blood sugar levels are low, glucagons promotes conversion of glycogen to glucose o Insulin and glucagon work together, insulin causes a decrease in blood sugar level and glucagons causes an increase Adrenal glands- located above each kidney, each gland is made up of two glands incased in one shell o Adrenal medulla- found at the core of the adrenal gland, produces epinephrine and norepinephrine. Surrounded by the adrenal cortex, the medulla is regulated by the nervous system while hormones regulate the adrenal cortex o Norepinephrine- initiates the fight-or-flight response by increasing heart rate and blood sugar o The hormone- producing cells in the adrenal medulla are stimulated by sympathetic nerves in times of stress o Adrenal cortex- outer region that produces corticoids and mineralocorticoids o Short term stress activates a response through the spinal cord to the adrenal medulla o Long term stress prompts the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to the adrenal cortex which then releases either mineralcorticoids or glucocorticoids

The Autonomic Nerve System o The sutonomic nerve system is part of the peripheral nervous system, this regulatory system works with the endocrine system o The autonomic nerve system is a motor system regulated without conscious control o Made up of two distinct (opposing) units, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system o Sympathetic prepares the body for stress, while parasympathetic restores normal balance o Sympathetic nerves come from the thoracic vertebrae (ribs) and lumbar vertebrae (small of the back) o Parasympathetic nerves exit directly from the brain or from the spinal cord, nerves that exit directly from the brain are called cranial nerves o An important cranial nerve is the vagus nerve (branches to the heart, bronchi of the lungs, liver, pancreas, and digestive tract) o The neurotransmitters released from the sympathetic system are acetylcholine and norepinephrine; the parasympathetic system releases only acetylcholine o Pain killers: Endorphins and enkephalins belong to a group of chemicals called neuropeptides Pain is interpreted by the brain by specialized cells called substantia gelatinosa (SG), when stimulated they produce neurotransmitter that informs the brain of damage (pain) When endorphins or enkephalins are present SG is prevented from producing neurotransmitter and thus pain is decreased Opiates target the same SG cells and prevent them from notifying the brain of pain o When an initiator of stress is identified both the endocrine and nervous system react, the somewhat slower endocrine system provides a more sustained response to the stimulus o Stress hormones provide more blood glucose to cope with the elevated energy requirements brought on by stress o Epinephrine- increases by mobilizing carbohydrates and fat energy stores, increases blood glucose and fatty acids, accelerates heart rate and the activity of the respiratory system o Cortisol- increases by converting proteins to glucose, elevates blood amino acids, blood glucose and fatty acids o Glucagon- increases by converting glycogen to glucose o Insulin- decreases by decreasing the breakdown of glycogen in the liver Reproductive Hormones o Male reproductive system: Testosterone- male sex hormone produced by interstitial cells of the testes FSH- follicle- stimulating hormone, in males the hormone that

increases sperm production LH- luteinizing hormone, regulates the production of testosterone GnRH- gonadotropin-releasing hormone- chemical messenger from the hypothalamus that stimulates secretion of FSH and LH from the pituitary o Female Reproductive System (hormonal controlthis shit is complicated you have to read the entire section to understand): Gonadotropins regulate the control of hormones produced in the ovaries: estrogen and proestrogen FSH- in females, promotes the development of the follicles in the ovary LH- in females promotes ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum Part of a complex negetive feedback loop GnRH is released from the hypothalamus which activates the pituitary gland (the storage site for FSH and LH) During the follicular phase, blood carries FSH, follicle development happens, follicles secrete estrogen Estrogen levels rise, signaling the pituitary to turn of secretion of FSH Similarly high estrogen signals a release of LH , and ovulation occurs After ovulation the remaining follicular cells and transformed into the corpus luteum, which secretes estrogen and proestrogen, inhibiting the release of FSH and LH and thus the corpus luteum deteriorates without the gonadotropic hormones, the drop in ovarian hormones signals the beginning of menstration Kidney Structure (The Urinary System, Formation of Urine and Water Balance): o Ureters- tubes that conduct urine from the kidneys to the bladder o Urethra- tube that carries urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body o Cortex- outer layer of the kidney o Medulla- area inside the cortex o Renal pelvis- area where the kidney joins the ureter o Nephrons: Slender tubules called nephrons are the functional units of the kidney Afferent arterioles- small branches that carry blood to the glomerulus (branches from the renal artery, supplies the nephron with blood) Glomerulus- high-pressure capillary bed that is the site of filtration (does not transfer blood to a venule) Efferent arterioles- small branches that carry blood away from the glomerulus to a capillary net Peritubular capillaries- network of small blood vessels that surround the nephron (efferent arterioles carry blood here)

Bowmans capsule- surrounds the glomerulus, part of the nephron, the afferent, efferent and Bowmans capsule are all part of the cortex Fluids to be processed enter Bowmans capsule from the blood, capsule tapers into a thin tubule called the proximal tubule (connects the Bowmans capsule to the loop of Henle) Loop of Henle- carries filtrate from the proximal tubule to the distal tubule Distal tubule- conducts urine to the collecting duct Urine formation depends on three functions: filtration, reabsorbtion and secretion Filtration: Each nephron has an independent blood supply, blood moves through the afferent arteriole to the high pressure glomerulus, dissolved solutes move from high pressure to low pressure through the walls of the glomerulus Reabsorption Only 1ml of urine is formed for every 120ml filtered through the nephron, the remaining is reabsorbed Selective reabsorption happens both actively and passively Reaborption occurs until the threshold level is reached aka the max amount of material that can be moved across the nephron pH controlled within the proximal tubule by secretion of H+ ions and reabsorption of bicarbonate, also happens in the distal tubule Sodium ions are actively transported out of the nephron tubules into the intercellular space, negative ions such as Cl follow because of charge attraction, the highly concentrated solutes in the intercellular space creates an osmotic force and water moves from the nephron (happens in the descending part of the loop of Henle) Salt is permeable in the ascending loop of Henle, resulting in diffusion out Interstitial fluid is fluid that surrounds the body cells Secretion Movement of wastes from the blood into the nephron o Regulating ADH: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) causes the kidneys to increase water reabsorption When ADH is released, more concentrated urine is produced thus conserving water ADH makes the upper part of the distal tubule and collecting duct permeable to water, more water diffuses out; kidneys only control the last 15% of the water found in the nephron High blood osmotic pressure (dehydration) results in osmoreceptors

located in the hypothalamus to detect the change You experience a behavioral response (thirst), drinking then lowers the osmotic pressure of the blood You also release ADH through the pituitary, allowing increased water reabsorption which prevents the osmotic pressure from increasing further COOL RIGHT? o Maintaining Blood pressure and volume (aldosterone): Aldosterone is a hormone that increases Na+ reabsorption from the distal tubule and the collecting duct When blood pressure and or blood volume is low (dehydration, blood loss), specialized cells within the juxtaglomerular apparatus detect it and release renin. Renin converts a plasma protein into angiotensin, which causes the constriction of blood vessels and stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal gland, carried in the blood to the kidneys, and acts on the nephron Kidney Disease o Effects of Diabetes (insipidus and mellitus) Mellitus Caused by inadequate secretion of insulin from islet cells in the pancreas Blood sugar tends to rise Cells in the proximal tubule have enough ATP to reabsorb about 0.1% blood sugar, the excess sugar remains in the nephron Excess sugar changes the osmotic pressure, less water is able to diffuse out People with diabetes mellitus are often thirsty as the water lost must be replenished Insipidus Destruction of ADH-producing cells of the hypothalamus or nerve tracts Lack of ADH regulation dramatically increased urine production, people the diabetes insipidus must drink large quantities of water o Kidney Stones: Caused by the precipitation of mineral solutes from the blood Categorized into two groups alkaline and acid stones You pee them out, causes excruciating pain as it tears delicate tissue o Dialysis (loss of kidney function) Defined as the exchange of substances across a membrane In hemodialysis a unit called a dialyzer mimics the action of the nephron. For hemodialysis treatments a person must have a minor

surgical operation to create access for needles and tubing Peritoneal dialysis is done through the lining of the abdominal cavity, a catheter is inserted, a solution called dialyste is fed into the abdominal cavity, fluid stays for 2-6 days and then drained