Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry www.traditionaltree.

org

April2006
ver.2.1

Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

Fabaceae (legume family)
gliricidia, Mexican lilac, mother of cocoa, Nicaraguan cacao shade, quick stick, St. Vincent plum, tree of iron (English); immortelle, lilas tranger (French); madre de cacao (French, Spanish); rechesengel (Palau)

Craig R. Elevitch and John K. Francis

photo:C.ElEvitCh

IN BRIEF
Distribution Widely naturalized in the tropi cal Americas, Caribbean, Africa, Asia, and the Pacificislands.

Size Medium tree to 15 m (50 ft), typically reaches10m(33ft)inheight;sizeisusuallycon trolledbyregularpruningincultivatedenviron ments.

Habitat Grows best in warm, seasonally dry climates with 9001500 mm (3560 in) annual rainfallandelevations01200m(04000ft). Vegetation Where introduced, associated with awidevarietyofcultivatedcrops.

Growth rate Fastinearlyyears,orwhenannu allyprunedback,over2m/yr(6.6ft/yr).

Soils Growsinsandstoclays,preferringfreely drainingsoilswithpH5.08.5.

Main products Fuelwood, fodder, mulch/or ganicmatter.

Main agroforestry uses Living fence posts, cropshade,improvedfallow.

Intercropping Hasbeenusedforshadeandor ganicmatterwithcacao,coffee,vanilla,tea,yam, andothercrops.

Yields Fuelwood from stands harvested every 23yearsare1020m3/ha(143286ft3/ac).

Invasive potential Moderatepotentialforinva siveness, has naturalized in many areas, but is usuallynotconsideredtobeapest.

Boundary planting of gliricidia.

INTRODUCTION
Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) is a mediumsize, semide ciduoustreethattypicallygrowsto10m(33ft)(occasion allyreaching15m[50ft])inheight,withabroadcanopy. Native to Central America and possibly northern South America, its cultivation is now pantropical. It grows best intropical,seasonallydryclimates.Thetreethrivesindeep, welldrainedsoils,althoughittoleratesshalloworskeletal soilsthathavehighavailablecalciumlevels.Becauseofits abilitytogrowinslightlysalinecalcareoussoils,gliricidia issuitableforcultivationinatollenvironments. Itisafastgrowing,nitrogenfixingtreeusedthroughout thetropicsforthemanyenvironmentalservicesandprod uctsitprovides.Gliricidiaiswidelyusedtoprovidecrop shadeforcacao,coffee,andothershadelovingcrops,liv ingfencepostsforpastureandpropertyboundaries,andas afallowtreetoimprovedegradedland.Thetreeisalsoan importantsourceofgreenmanure,fodder,andfuelwood. Itseaseofpropagationbyseedandsmallandlargecuttings makes it a very easy tree for farmers to multiply quickly. It is probably the most widely cultivated multipurpose agroforestry tree after Leucaena leucocephala (Simons and Stewart1994).

Family

Fabaceae(legumefamily)

Subfamily Faboideae(Papilionoideae) Tribe Robinieae

Galedupa pungamBlanco Gliricidia lambiiFernald Gliricidia maculatavar.multijugaMicheli Gliricidia maculate (Kunth)Walp. Lonchocarpus maculates(Kunth)DC. Lonchocarpus roseus(Miller)DC. Lonchocarpus sepium( Jacq.)DC. Millettia luzonensisA.Gray Robinia hispidaL. Robinia maculateKunth Robinia roseaMiller Robinia sepiumJacq. Robinia variagataSchltdl.

Non-preferred scientific names

DISTRIBUTION
BecausegliricidiahasbeencultivatedfrompreColombi antimes,theprecisenativerangeisdifficulttodetermine. ItiscertainlynativetoMexico(fromabout2530N)and CentralAmerica(to730NinPanama)andmayalsobe nativetonorthernSouthAmericainColombia,Venezuela, andtheGuianas. Thespecieshasbeencultivatedandhasnaturalizedwidely in tropical America, the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia. In thePacificislands,itisfoundinAmericanSamoa,Cook Islands,FederatedStatesofMicronesia,Fiji,FrenchPoly nesia, Guam, Hawaii, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Papua NewGuinea,Samoa,SolomonIslands,Tonga,andVanu atu.

Common names
Pacificislands gliricidia,Mexicanlilac,motherofcocoa,Nicaraguan cacaoshade,quickstick,St.Vincentplum,treeof iron(English) immortelle,lilastranger,madredecacao(French) rechesengel(Palau) Otherregions almcigoextranjero,amorycelos,bienvestida,desnodo florecido,floresco,madredecacao,madrenegro,mata ratn,mataraton,palodehierro,palodeparque,pin amoroso,pindecuba,pinflorido,varitadeSanJos (Spanish) gamal(Indonesia)
Gliricidiaisasmall,thornless,semideciduoustree315m (1050 ft) in height with a trunk up to 30 cm (12 in) in diameter at breast height (dbh).The canopy diameter is aboutthesameastheheightformostprovenancesifnot pruned.The tree may have single or multiple stems and tendstohaveadiffuse,irregularcrown.Inagriculturalen vironments,thesizeandshapeareoftengreatlymodified byrepeatedloppingtosuitthefarmersgoals.

Native range

Current distribution

Size and form

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.)KunthexSteud.

Preferred scientific name

 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)

Racemesorpanicles512cm(25in)longareborneatthe base of leaves.The individual flowers have a light green (tingedwithred),fivetoothedcalyxandacorollaoffive whitishpinkorlightpurplepetals.Theflowerhasatypi cal peaflower shape with a broad standard, two oblong, curvedwings,andtwounitedpetals.Thereare10whitish stamensandapistilwitharedovaryandawhitishstyle. The alternate, pinnate leaves, 1530 cm (612 in) long, have a silky pubescence when young.There are 717 leaf letpairsandaterminalleaflet.Theleafletsareellipticalor lanceolate,36cm(1.22.4in)longand1.53cm(0.61.2 in)wide,shorttolongpointedatthetip,androundedto shortpointedatthebase. Thefruitsareflattenedpods,1015cm(46in)long,that containthreetoeightseeds.Theyareyellowgreen,becom ingyellowandfinallybrownorblackishatmaturity.Flow eringandfruitingbeginsbetween1and5yearsofage. The seeds are circular and flat, about 10 mm (0.4 in) in diameter,shiny,andlighttodarkbrown.Thereare4700 11,000 seeds/kg (21005000 seeds/lb), varying consider ablyamongseedsources.Theseedsaredispersedwhenthe podsdrysufficientlythatthetwohalvesseparateandcurl explosively,propellingtheseedsasfaras25m(82ft)away fromthemothertree. Thebarkissmoothtoslightlyfissuredandgraytobrown.

Flowers

NAME DERIVATIONS
Gliricidia from Latin glis, dormouse and caedere, to kill and the Spanish name mata-ratn refer to thetreesrodenticidalproperties. The epithet sepium meansof hedges which is the useofthetreeJacquinobservedinColumbiainthe mideigtheenthcentury. Mother of cocoa and the Spanish madre de cacao refertotheplantsfrequentuseasashadetreefor cacao.

Leaves

Quick stick refers to the ability of cuttings to quicklyandeasilyrootandgrowintonewtrees. TreeofironandtheSpanishpalo de hierroreferto thehard,durablewood.

Fruit

Rooting habit

Seeds

Gliricidiapropagatedfromcuttingsproducesanextensive, shallow, lateral root system. Seedlings develop taproots, butitisunclearifthetaprootsendurethroughoutthelife oftheplant.Onestudyoftreesfromseedlingsoncoastal sandsreportedpoorlydevelopedtaprootsandwelldevel opedlateralroots. Gliricidia looks superficially like several other legumi nous tree species.The foliage can be confused with vari ousshowertreesthatare frequentlyusedasornamentals, such as Cassia javanica. Shower trees have clusters of cream, pink, orange, yellow, or red flowers resembling in shapeandsizelargebunchesofgrapeshangingfromsmall branchesThe flowers have five petals of similar size and shape.Incontrast,gliricidiahaspealikeflowersinclusters

Similar or look-a-like species

Bark

Flowers and leaves.insEtflowErphotobyJ.parrotta,othErsbyC.ElEvitCh

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 

Left: Nearly mature seedpods turn from green to yellow (shown here), then dry to brown or blackish at maturity. Right: Bark of a 10-year-old tree. photos:C.ElEvitCh

in wood and foliage production. Of these, the variation in wood production was highest. Southern provenances (GuatemalaandNicaragua)weregenerallygoodperform ers, while northern provenances (Mexico) were generally poorperformers.Thereisgeneticevidencethatoneprove nance(Masaguara)isescapedfromdomesticationandan other(Pedasi)hasundergoneaseveregeneticbottleneck, i.e.,undergonealargereductioningeneticvariability. Therearenoformallyrecognizedvarieties. In the genus Gliricidia, three species are currently recog nizedG. sepium,G. brenningii,andG. maculate.Gliricidia brenningii has many tiny leaflets, tiny appendages at the baseoftheleafletstalks,andlonger,darkerpods.Gliricidia maculate has leathery leaves and usually white flowers in pendulousinflorescences.Gliricidia sepiumhassomewhat elongated, papery leaves, and pink flowers in upward curved to erect inflorescences. Members of the genus are obligate outbreeders (i.e., crosspollination between twoindividualsmusttakeplaceforseedstodevelop),and interspecific hybridization is common between G. maculateandG. sepium inareaswheretheygrowinproximity. Gliricidia sepiumiswidelycultivatedbothwithinandout sideofitsnativerange.Gliricidia brenningiiandG. maculatearecultivatedwithintheirnativerangesforlivingfence postsandornamentalsbutarenotcommerciallycultivated andaregenerallyunknownoutsideoftheirranges.

Known varieties

Culturally important related species in the genus

Although the leaves are similar in appearance to gliricidia, the large clusters of ball-shaped flowers distinguish the shower tree (shown here). photo:C.ElEvitCh

that are much more modest in size, and whitishpink to lightpurpleincolor.

GENETICS
Variability of species
Differences within gliricidia populations have been rec ognizedinstemlength,biomassproduction,flowercolor, seedsize,numberofracemespertree,numberofpodsper tree, and synchrony of flowering. One study (Simmons 1996)noted2.5timesasmanypodspertreeinMonterrico than in Belen Rivas provenance. A high correlation (r = 0.73)betweenracemenumberandpodnumberwasnoted, butwithoutprovenanceorfamilyvariation.Anotherstudy (SimonsandDunsdon1992)notedprovenancevariations

Genetic resources where collections exist

GermplasmcollectionshavebeenmadebytheInternation

 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)

alLivestockCentreforAfrica(ILCA),CentroAgronmi coTropicaldeInvestigaconyEnseanza(CATIE,Costa Rica), and Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI, UK). Trials havebeenconductedbytheOFI/OxfordandtheUniver sityofHawaii.

andwherethereishigherrainfall,althoughseedproduc tionislessreliable.

Elevationrange 01200m(04000ft) Meanannualrainfall (600)9001500(3500)mm([24]3560[140]in) Rainfallpattern Thetreegrowsinclimateswithsummer,winter,bimodal, oruniformrainfallpatterns. Dryseasonduration(consecutivemonthswith<0 mm[1.6in]rainfall) 39months Meanannualtemperature 2027C(7881F) Meanmaximumtemperatureofhottestmonth 2736C(8197F) Maximumtemperaturetolerated 42C(108F) Meanminimumtemperatureofcoldestmonth 1423C(5773F) Minimumtemperaturetolerated 810C(4650F).Itdoesnotgrowwellinareaswherethe night temperature drops below 5C (41F) and does not toleratefrost(<0C[32F]).
Thetreedoesbestindeep,mediumtextured,welldrained, fertile soils, with near neutral acidity. It tolerates rocky (shalloworskeletal)soilsthatarehighinavailablecalcium, andsoilswithtexturesfromsandstoclays.Gliricidiafails or grows poorly on cool, wet, compacted, poorly aerated, veryacidic(belowpH4.2),orhighlyalkalinesoils(above pH9.0).

ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES

Gliricidiagrowsnaturallyindeciduousorsemideciduous dryforests.Thespeciesisapioneer,colonizingdisturbed areas,andsomaybefoundinsecondaryforests;itisrarely orneverfoundinoldgrowthhighforests.

Gliricidiamaybefoundassociatedwithmostofthespe ciesofthedeciduousdryforestsofMesoAmerica.Some commonlyassociatedgeneraareAcacia, Bauhinia, Bursera, Brosimum, Caesalpinia, Calicophyllum, Combretum, Crescentia, Dalbergia, Enterolobium, Guazuma, Haematoxylum, Juliania, Lonchocarpus, Lysiloma, Pithecellobium, Senna, Simarouba, and Swietenia.

Associated species commonly found in native habitats

As a relatively recent introduction to Pacific islands, gliricidiaisgenerallyfoundbelowelevationsof350m(1150 ft)andgenerallyonlyonfarms,buttoalimitedextentin urban areas, where it is associated with a wide range of mainlyintroducedcultivatedspecies.

Species commonly associated as aboriginal introductions in Pacific islands

InCentralandSouthAmericaindisturbedhabitatsand whereintroduced,itiscommonlyassociatedwithTabebuia spp.,Cordiaspp.,Albiziaspp.,Guazuma ulmifolia, Leucaena leucocephala,andRicinus communis.Intherestofthetrop ics,itisassociatedwiththeagriculturalcropscacao,vanilla, coffee,tea,yam,pepper,vegetables,grains,pasturegrasses, andothercrops.

Species commonly associated in modern times or as recent introduction

Soils

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND TOLERANCES

Climate
Gliricidiagrowsbestinwarm,seasonallydryclimateswith moderatemeanannualrainfall.Italsogrowswellinareas withprecipitationdistributedevenlythroughouttheyear

Soiltexture Itgrowsinlighttoheavysoils(sands,sandyloams,loams, sandyclayloams,clays,clayloams,andsandyclays). Soildrainage Itprefersfreelydrainingsoilsandtoleratesseasonallyim pededdrainage.

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 

Soilacidity The tree prefers acid to neutral/mildly alkaline soils (pH 5.08.5). Specialsoiltolerances Gliricidiacangrowinshallow,slightlysaline,slightlysodic, andmoderatelyinfertilesoils.Italsotoleratescalcareous soils,suchasthoseofatolls.

surviving.Treesgrownfromcuttingsaremorevulnerable towindthrowthanseedlings.

Abilities
Fixnitrogen Gliricidia is a good nitrogen fixer, although not as good as many other nitrogenfixing trees (see table below). NodulationwithRhizobiumnormallyoccursinthenative and in Central and South American naturalized ranges within3monthsofplanting.ForPacificislandandother habitatswherethetreeisnewlyintroduced,theplanting holes or nursery media may be sprinkled with rhizobia bacteria inoculant cultures. Alternatively, crude liquid inoculant can be made by collecting soil from the root zoneunderhealthygliricidiatrees,mixingwithwater,and strainingofftheparticulatestomakeiteasiertosprinkle.
Nitrogen fixation for some important agroforestry trees (after MacDicken 1994)
Casuarina equisetifolia Gliricidia sepium Inga jinicuil

Tolerances
Drought Gliricidia tolerates seasonal droughts and climates with meanannualrainfallaslowas600mm(24in). Fullsun Itgrowsbestinfullsunlight. Shade Thetreetoleratesonlylightshade.Seedlingsthatareplant edinheavyshadecansurvivebutwillnotgrow.Seedlings thathavebeensuppressedbyshadeforeven34yearswill recoverandgrowrapidlyiftheshelteringoverstoryisre moved. Fire GliricidiaisnativetoareasofCentralAmericaproneto perennialfires.Itisoftentopkilledbyfire,butyoungtrees readilyregeneratebysproutingfromtherootcollar. Frost Thetreeisintolerantoffrost. Waterlogging Ittoleratesbriefflooding,butheavilycompact edsoilsorareaspronetowaterloggingshould beavoided.Itcangrowinareaswithanaerobic orseasonallyanaerobicsubsoils,althoughitis notlonglivedinsuchconditions. Saltspray Gliricidiacangrowinlightsaltspray.Infact,it isnativetomanyplantcommunitiesalongthe PacificcoastsofMexicoandCentralAmerica, whichindicatesgoodsalttolerance.

Species

kg/ha/yr
40100 60 13

lb/ac/yr
3690 54 12

Erythrina poeppigiana

Leucaena leucocephala

upto274

3540

3136 244

Wind Thetreetoleratestradewindsverywell,evenin wetareas,whereitholdsitsleavesyearround. Thetreesaremoderatelyresistanttohurricane force winds, losing leaves and branches but Gliricidia growing near coast of Upolu, Samoa, where it is subject to wind
and salt spray. photo:C.ElEvitCh

6 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)

Regeneraterapidly Thetreeregeneratesrapidlyfollowingcuttingorothertop damage. Self-prune Thetrunksareusuallyclearofsidebranchesbelowthemain crown,althoughmanyprovenanceshaveshorttrunkswith large,spreadingbranches. Coppice The tree can be managed for coppice production of fire wood, stakes, fodder, and green manure. It regrows very wellafterpruning,especiallyifcutonlyduringperiodsof activegrowth(ratherthanduringthedryorcoolseasons) andifabout10%ofthefoliageisleftonthetree. Pollard Pollardingisthepruningbackofallbranchestoaframe workonaregularbasis(usuallyannually).Gliricidiaistol erant of pollarding and forms a new crown quickly; this iscommonpracticeforgliricidiausedaslivefenceposts inpastureinsituationswherethereisauseforthewood orwherethereisenoughscarcityoffoddertojustifythe effort.

PROPAGATION
Gliricidia is easily propagated by seed or large cuttings. Seedlings are produced in nurseries in pots or bags and arereadyforoutplantingwithin23months.Directseed ing experiments have given good germination and early survival,butgoodweedcontrolforthefirstfewmonthsis required.Asalivingfencepost,thisspeciesisoftenpropa gated by cuttings.Tissue culture has also been done suc cessfullybutisrarelyusedinpractice.

Propagation by seed

(afterWilkinsonandElevitch2003a)

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Initialgrowthisrapid(upto3m[10ft]inthefirstyear), slowinguntilafinalheightof315m(1050ft)isreached. Thetreehasamoderatelifespanofupto50yearsandof tenbecomeshollowanddeclinesbeforedying.

Growth rate

Flowering and fruiting

Astheseedpodsdrytheyreleasetheirseeds(dehisce)ex plosively,flingingthemupto25m(82ft)awayfromthe tree.Forthisreason,seedcollectorsmustobservecarefully andcollectseedpodsfromthetreewhentheyareripebut beforetheydehisce.Seedpodsare1015cm(46in)long and 1215 mm (0.50.6 in) wide. Each contains three to eightseeds.Podsarecollectedaftertheyturnfromyellow greentobrownbutbeforetheyaredryenoughtocurland releasetheirseeds. Podsarecollectedwithaminimumofeffortbyhandfrom lowbranchesorwithpruningpolesfrommoderatelysized trees.Pruningtreesbacktoastump12m(3.36.6ft)in heightduringoraftertheseedharvestcontrolstreesize andpromotesfloweringthenextseason.Thehighestseed producingareas(inPuertoRico)receivearound1250mm (50in)ofmeanannualprecipitation.Areaswith1900mm (75in)ormorerainfallhaveproducedlittleseed.Although usually not recommended, seeds may also be collected fromtheground,particularlyindryareas.

Seedcollection Gliricidiaishighlyvariableinformandproductivity,and for this reason superior provenances (e.g., Retalhuleu andBelenRivas)shouldbesoughtoutforpropagation (SimonsandDunsdon1992).Timeoffloweringandseed ingvarieswithclimate,elevation,anddryseasonduration. Treesusuallyflowerinthedryseason(NovemberMarch inKona,Hawaii;JanuaryMarchinMexico;December MayinPuertoRico).Thetimebetweenfloweringandpod ripeningcanbeveryshort,57weeksinsomeareas.Dur ingcertainyears,andforcertainprovenances,seedproduc tioncanbeverylow.

Floweringandfruitingmaybeginasearlyastheendofthe firstgrowingseasonandalmostalwaysbeginsbythefifth growing season. Flowering occurs during the dry season, depending on the local climate. If rainfall is evenly dis tributedthroughouttheyear,floweringmayoccuratany time,irregularlythroughouttheyear,butinlowerquanti tiescomparedwithseasonalclimates.

Reaction to competition

New plants are susceptible to competition from grasses duringthefirstyear.Onceabovethegrasses,gliricidiais agoodcompetitor.Ithasbeenusedtoreclaimintractable grassswards.

Seedprocessing Ripepodsarespreadoutinthesunonplastictarpsora concreteslab.Astheydryinthesun,thepodscurlandex plode,makingapoppingsound.Thedryingareashouldbe coveredwithafinemeshnettingtopreventseedsexpelled from dehiscing pods from escaping the area. Once the

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 

photo:C.ElEvitCh Right: Same-age seedlings that are inoculated with Rhizobium (left) are much more vigorous than those that are not inoculated (right). This holds true for the life of the tree. photo:K.MudgE

Seeds drying on a tarp in the sun. The fragments of dried seed pod will be removed along with other particulates before storage

seedpodsaredryandcrunchy,seedsthatarestillattached topodsareseparatedbyhandorwithathresher.Seedsare furtherdriedto610%moisture.

ingarea.Roottrainingtubes14cm(6in)deepand3.8cm (1.5 in) in diameter work well, as do polyethylene plastic bags10x15cm(4x6in),whenlaidflat.

Seedstorage Theseedisorthodox,meaningtheyremainviableafterbe ingdried.Atamoisturecontentof610%,andfreeofpests, seedscanbestoredinanairtightcontainerat4C(39F) forover10yearsandretainviabilityofupto90%(Allison and Simons 1996). Insect pests can be killed by freezing fullydriedseedsat10C(14F)for48hourspriortostor age. Pre-plantingtreatments No scarification is necessary. Soaking seeds overnight in cool water will cause them to swell, hastening germina tion. For fresh seed collections free from insect infesta tions,germinationisusuallyhigh,over90%.Germination takes315days. Growingarea Seedlingsarebestgrowninfullsuninanuncoveredgrow

Germination Seeds are placed in containers filled with premoistened pottingmediumandcoveredwithabout5mm(0.2in)of medium and a thin layer of mulch (such as poultry grit, fine gravel, or finely screened volcanic cinder). Water is applied with a fineheaded sprayer to keep the medium moist.Dailywateringisusuallynecessary,byhandorwith anautomatedsystem.Atseedingtimeorwithin2weeksof germination,seedlingsshouldbeinoculatedwithrhizobia bacteria,eithermanufacturedormadefromnodulesorsoil collectedfromunderacompatiblehost.Earlyinoculation withrhizobiaensuresgoodnodulationandgrowth. Media Astandardwelldrainedpottingmediumsuchas50%peat moss, 25% perlite, and 25% vermiculite, amended with a little compost, lime, gypsum, micronutrients, rock phos phateandpotassium,canbeused.

 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)

Timetooutplanting When grown in full sun and under optimal conditions, seedlings are ready to plant out in 812 weeks. About 8 weeks after germination, seedlings are doublespaced to allowmaximumpenetrationofsunlightandaircirculation. Assumingseedlingswereinoculatedwithrhizobiabacteria atanearlyage,noadditionalnitrogenfertilizationisneces sary,althoughaverylighttopdressingofslowrelease888 fertilizerwillaidingrowthanddevelopment.Removeany weedsthatentertheseedlingflat.Insectproblemsareusu allyminimal,althoughanoccasionalinfestationofaphids orscalemaybetreatedwithanapprovedgardensoapor similarproduct.
Seedlingsshouldneverbeallowedtodryout,butwatering frequency may be reduced to cause temporary, moderate waterstresstohardenseedlingsbeforeoutplanting.

Propagation by cutting (afterWilkinsonandElevitch

2003b)

Cuttingsareoftenusedinsteadofseedlings,especiallyin wetareaswhere seedproductionis usuallypoorand soil moisture is favorable for starting cuttings directly in the ground. Gliricidia generally roots very easily from large cuttings,makingthisthepreferredmethodofpropagation inmanyareas.Otheradvantagesoverseedlingsare: Large cuttings are usually taller than the weeds and caneasilybeseenforearlyweedmaintenance.

Approximatesize Seedlingsarereadytoplantataheightof2030cm(812 in) with a stem diameter at the base of about 810 mm (0.30.4in). Guidelinesforoutplanting Survivalisusuallyveryhighforthishardy,nitrogenfixing species. Controlling grasses and other competitive weed growtharoundthetreeuntilitscanopyovertopstheheight oftheweedsiskeytogoodgrowthandsurvival.Thereafter, thetreewillholditsown,andinfactisusedinIndonesia andWestAfricatoreclaimgrasslandsinfestedwithblady grass(Imperatasp.).Onsiteswithadequaterainfall,trees caneasilyattain23m(6.610ft)inheightafterayearof growth.AplantingstudyonasandysiteinPuertoRico had72%survivalandseedlingsreached3.8m(12.5ft)in 28months.

Many farmers set fencepostsized cuttings and im mediatelynailthefencewirestothem.Thosethattake root are maintained as living fence posts, and those that do not root are replaced with new cuttings af ter they rot off, until a complete living fence system isestablished.Smallerdiametercuttingscansupport fencewireafewmonthsafterestablishment. Cuttingsarevegetativeclonesofthemothertreesand therefore can be easily selected for desired qualities suchasuprightgrowth.

Thedisadvantagesofusingcuttingsinclude:

Largecuttingsprovidecropshadewithinarelatively shortperiodoftime.

Theyaremanytimesthesizeandweightofseedlings, so they are harder to transport and require a much deeperplantinghole. Cuttingsaregeneticallyidenticaltotheparentplant and therefore large plantings might be more suscep tibletodiseaseandinsectattack.

Parent trees are able to produce fewer cuttings than seeds. Cuttingsaremorevulnerabletowindthrow.

Propagation by direct-seeding

Directseeding is often the best method for outplanting. Itisoftencheaperbecauseiteliminatesnurserycontainer growingandtransplanting.Thedrawbacksofdirectseed ingincluderiskofpredatordamage(e.g.,rats,birds,etc.), lack of rains to sustain the newly germinated seeds, and themandatoryfrequentmaintenancethatmustbedoneto ensureweedsdonotovercomethesmallseedlings.

Indirectseeding,anareaispreparedateachplantingspot, clearedofweeds,andcultivatedtoadepthof50cm(20in) ifthesoiliscompacted.Seedsareplantedatadepthof5 mm(0.2in).

Rootdevelopmentofgliricidiafromcuttingsispoorcom pared to trees grown from seed. For live fences, the ben efitsofquickestablishmentandresistancetoanimalattack usually outweigh this consideration. For windbreaks or forestry,establishmentfromseedlingsisrecommended.

Collectingcuttings Normally,largecuttings22.5m(6.68.2ft)longand615 cm(2.46in)indiameterareusedforquickestablishment oflivefencepostssupportingbarbedwireorhogfencing. For growing in dense stockades, smaller woody cuttings 50cm(20in)long,12cm(0.40.8in)indiameter,andat least 6 months old are used. Gliricidia is highly variable informandproductivity;selectcuttingsfromtreeswith moreuprightformforbestresultsforlivefenceposts.
Cuttingscanbetakenanytimeofyear,althoughtheideal

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 

Ifcuttingsaretransported,theyshouldbecov eredorkeptintheshadeandshouldnotbeal lowedtodryoutortobebruised.Protectcut tings from bruising during transport by pad dingwithleavesorablanket.

time for deciduous trees such as gliricidia is when the new growth is appearing, usually at theonsetoftherainyseason.

Harvestingcuttings Make a clean cut with a sharp pruner or saw. Thetopshouldbecutatanangletopreclude water accumulation and rotting on top of the cutting.Theangledcutalsoindicateswhichside to plant upwards. Cuttings should be pruned cleanofmajorsidebranchesandleaves. Storageofcuttings Itisidealtooutplantthecuttingsimmediately. Ifthisisnotfeasible,cuttingscanbestoodup Barbed wire mounted on a stockade fence of gliricidia cuttings. photo:C. inshadyconditionsandcoveredwithwetsack ElEvitCh ing or sprinkled frequently. In Central Amer ica, farmers often harvest cuttings during the establishment,butnotoverlywet.Irrigationmaybeneces waningmoon,followedby1weeklyinghorizontaland3 saryduringdryspellsuntilthecuttingsareestablished. weeksintheverticalpositionwiththerootingenddown, andplantingduringthenextwaningmoon(Allisonand Guidelinesforoutplanting Simons, 1996). In Puerto Rico, they wait for what they Removingweedsfromthebaseandrootzonearoundcut considertobethecorrectphaseofthemoontoharvestthe tings is important for high success rates. Placing a weed cuttingsandplantimmediately. barriersuchasasheetofcardboardorotherbiodegradable material can greatly reduce the time necessary for weed Preparingcuttings control. Atplantingtime,thelower3040cm(1216in)ofthecut In areas without adequate rainfall, cuttings should be ir tingsareusuallywoundedusingasharpknifetomake rigatedonceortwiceaweekuntiltheyarewellestablished several small incisions through the bark to promote side (i.e., 46 months). Overwatering can cause rotting of rooting. Without these cuts, roots usually only emerge gliricidiacuttings.Controllinggrassesandothercompeti fromthebaseofthecutting,makingforapotentiallyweak tiveweedgrowtharoundthetreeuntilitscanopyovertops rootstructureandsusceptibilitytowindthrow. theheightoftheweedsiskeytogoodgrowthandsurvival. Growingarea Onceestablished,verylittlemaintenanceisrequired. Cuttingsarenormallyplanteddirectlyinthefield.Forcut Cuttingsareusuallyplantedforlivefenceposts,withwire tings22.5m(6.68.2ft)tall,thelowerportionisburied strungbetweenposts.Spacingforlivefencepostsranges 3050cm(1220in)deep.Forsmallercuttings,generally from0.53m(1.610ft)betweencuttings.Forpigcontain about20%ofthecuttingslengthshouldbeunderground. ment,gliricidiaisalsousedaslivefencepoststomakea Planters should make sure to plant cuttings correct side physicalbarrierfromthetreetrunksreinforcedwithwire down. As described above underAbilities, the planting mesh,corrugatediron,ororganicmaterial;30cm(12in) holeshouldbeinoculatedwithrhizobiacultureoracrude apartorlessistypicalspacingforthispurpose.Livefences inoculantmadefromnodulesorsoil. sometimes contain a mix of other species such asMorus spp. (mulberry), Hibiscus spp., or Erythrina spp., in the Afterplacingthecutting,ensurethereisfirmsoilcontact Pacific,orwithTabebuiaspp.andBursera simarubainthe with the cutting to promote side rooting and to prevent Americas. movementinthewind.Soilshouldbemoistduringearly

10 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)

Top left: Cuttings prepared for planting. Right: Without wounding the lower 3040 cm of bark, this tree only formed roots at the very base of the cutting, and it was easily toppled in a strong wind. Bottom left: Because this horizontal cut at the top of the cutting retained rainwater, rotting has taken place down into the center of the tree, compromising its health and strength; for this reason, it is best to make the top cut at a 3045% angle. photo:C.ElEvitCh

DISADVANTAGES
Potential for invasiveness
Gliricidiahasnaturalizedtoalimitedextentinanumberof locationsoutsideitsnativerange,particularlyindisturbed environments such as roadsides and abandoned agricul turalland.Asalightdemandingspecies,itisunlikelyto invadedenseplantcommunities.Ithasnotbeenreported tobeanaggressiveinvaderoraseriouspestandisnotcon sideredaninvasiveplantinthePacific(PIER2003).

registeredforaphidswouldprobablybeeffective.Inaddi tiontoaphids,thetreeissusceptibletomealybugs,scale insects,andsomefoliardiseases,incertainareasandunder specificcircumstances,butthesearerarelymajorproblems. Entranceofheartrotfungicanbeavoidedbyprotecting thetreesfrombreaksinthebark.However,thiscannotbe avoidedwhentreesareusedforlivingfencesandlopped forfirewoodorfodder.Itissuggestedthatthetreesbere placedastheybegintodeclineinhealthandvigor.

Itissusceptibletoaphids(Aphis craccivorainPuertoRico). The leaves of aphidattacked trees seasonally become blackened and fall prematurely. No data is available on aphidcontrol,butconventionalapplicationofinsecticides

Common pest problems

Host to crop pests/pathogens

Nonereported.

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 11

AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES
Mulch/organicmatter It is lopped for mulch and green manure in agroforestry applicationsandregrowsveryrapidlygivensufficientsoil moistureandwarmtemperatures. Soilstabilization Gliricidiaisplantedincontourhedgerows(alleycropping) on sloping lands susceptible to erosion. The hedgerows hold soil together and, when properly planned and man aged,canslowerosivesurfacerunoff. Pestcontrol Thereissomeevidencethatgliricidiacanprotectcertain cropsfromvariousfungal,insect,andviralpests.Forexam ple,inoneexperiment,intercroppedgliricidiahedgeswere associated with reduced rust and leafspot in groundnuts (Stewart1996).Inotherstudies,gliricidiahedgesactedas a diversionary host to an aphid that spreads the rosette virusingroundnut,andtoalivewoodteatermite(Stewart 1996).Ithasalsobeenshowntobeassociatedwithreduced stemborerdamageinrice(WiersumandNitis1997). Cropshade/overstory Gliricidiaisapopularshadeornursetreeforcropsinclud ingcoffee,tea,cacao,pepper,passionfruit,andvanilla,in manyvariedspatialarrangements.Spacingofabout10x10 m(33x33ft)interspersedwithcropssuchascoffeeand cacaoiscommon.Itadditiontoprovidingafavorableenvi

ronmentforcertaincrops,theshadeitprovideshelpssup presslightdemandingweeds.Theshadetreesarepruned seasonally to maximize benefits to the understory crop, andtominimizecompetitionforwaterandnutrients.

Alleycropping It has been intercropped in alley cropping systems with maize,cassava,taro,cucurbits,andotherfoodcrops.Insuch systems,pruninggliricidiabackregularlyprovidesmulch forthecropsandcontrolscompetitionbythegliricidiafor light,water,andnutrients. Homegardens The benefits of shade, nitrogen fixation, nutrient cycling, mulch, and fuelwood production can be the same on a smallerscaleasforfarms. Improvedfallows Itisplantedbyseedorcuttingsasanitrogenfixingfallow crop.Ithasbeenusedtoreclaimlandinfestedwithblady grass (Imperata cylindrica) by shading out the grassit hasbeenshowntobesuperiorinthisrespecttoleucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)andalsodoesnotpresenttheweed riskofleucaena. Livingfences Gliricidiaisoneofthemostwidelyusedspeciesforliving fencepostsinthetropics. Fenceposts Cuttingsthatdonottakeroot,oftenupto50%ofthose planted,serveastemporaryfenceposts,whichholdupthe fencing material during the process of estab lishinglivinggliricidiafences. Boundarymarkers Gliricidia is sometimes planted to mark prop ertyboundaries.

Windbreaks Althoughthetreetolerateswindfairlywell,it isaloneminimallyefficientasawindbreakdue toitsthincrownanddeciduoushabitindryre gions.Ifcarefullyplanned,gliricidiacanbeused asonespeciesinamultirowwindbreak,where theotherspeciesoffersufficientprotectiondur ingtheperiodwhenthegliricidiacrownisbare. Itshouldusuallybe plantedonthewindward sideoftallerspecies.Inwarmareaswithouta dryseason,gliricidiatreescanbeprunedtwoor threetimesayeartomaintainfull,lushgrowth. By planting two rows alongside one another Gliricidia provides shade and organic matter in a cacao orchard.photo:C. ElEvitCh and pruning each row alternately 34 months

1 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)

Hostplanttrellising Gliricidiaisusedassupportforpepper,yam,passionfruit, and vanilla. It is very suitable as crop support due to its uprightgrowthafterpruningandtheappropriateamount ofdappledshadeitprovidesformanycrops. Beeforage Gliricidia attracts honeybees, carpenter bees, and a wide rangeofinsectpollinators,anditprovideslimitedcoverfor birdsandmammals.Inareaswithapronounceddryseason, itflowersprofuselyandisaverygoodhoneyplantforthe nectaritproduces. Coastalprotection Because of gliricidias ability to grow in exposed coastal environments,andeveninshiftingsands(Simons1996),it haspotentialforagriculturaluseinnearshoreagricultural environments. Ornamental It is planted in residential lots, parks, and on roadsides wheresmalltreesarerequired.Itproducescopiousquanti tiesoflilaccoloredflowerswhengrowninenvironments withapronounceddryseason.

USES AND PRODUCTS

Living fence post supporting barbed wire, strong enough to contain pigs.photo:C.ElEvitCh

apart,adensewindbreakto34m(1013ft)inheightcan be achieved, while also providing a regular source of or ganicmatterorfodder.

Leafvegetable Cooked gliricidia leaves and flowers are said to be eaten boiled or fried. Placed in containers with bananas, the leaveshastenripeningofthebananas. Honey Theflowersattracthoneybeesandareagoodsourceofnec tar. Medicinal Crushedfreshleavesareappliedasapoultice.InMexico, theplantisusedasanantihistaminic,antipyretic,expecto rant,anddiuretic.Extractsofgliricidiahavebeenshownto havehighantifungalactivity(Stewart1996). Animalfodder The leaves (cut branches with leaves attached or directly browsed from low plants) are widely used as cattle and goatfodder.Therearefewtoxicityproblemswithruminant animals.Experimentshaveshownsimilarbenefitinusing gliricidiafodderandmineralmixturesassupplementsto grass pasture. Yields of fodder range from 2 to 20 t/ha/ yrandcanmakeasignificantcontributiontodryseason forage. Silage preparation of gliricidia leaves mixed with

Silvopasture Living fence posts and field boundary trees can provide fodder when periodically lopped. Animals often are al lowedtobrowsethetreesinolderplantations. Woodlot Gliricidia is a good producer of highquality fuelwood, bothindedicatedwoodlotsandincidentalwithotheruses. Treesgrownforfuelwoodareeithercoppicedonrotations of15yearsorharvestedandreplantedafter68years. Nativeanimal/birdfood Thefoliageisconsumedbybrowsinganimals.Thebarkand seedsarenotknowntobeeatenbyanymammalorbird. Thetreeisusedasnestinghabitatbysomespeciesofbirds.

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 1

LORE
According to Caribbean folklore, planting gliricidia near houses and fields will control rats and mice. Fallenseedssupposedlyattractratsandmicethateat themanddieofpoisoning. a small percentage of molasses or sugarcane has shown promise(Stewart1996).

activity.AleafextractusedinLatinAmericatobatheani malsevery714dayshasbeenfoundtosharplyreducethe incidenceoftorsalo(tropicalwarblefly)ingoats.

URBAN AND COMMUNITY FORESTRY

Gliricidiaissuitableforornamentaluseinresidentialand publiclandscaping,parkinglotislands,andalongresiden tialstreetsbecauseofitsmoderatesize,cleanappearance, and colorful flowers. Care must be taken that trees are planted in soil that is at least moderately fertile and un compacted. Itiseasilyshapedtoadesirablesizeandformbyperiodic pruning.Itisgenerallykeptat36m(1020ft)inheight

Beautiful/fragrantflowers Thelilacpinkflowersmakethisamemorableornamental. However,theflowersarenotfragrant. Timber/wood Thewoodislighttodarkolivebrown,veryhardandheavy, strong,coarsetextured,withanirregulargrain.Itseasons welland,althoughdifficulttowork,takesahighpolish.It ishighlydurable(termiteandfungusresistant),andval uedforhouseconstructionandcornerfenceposts(CABI 2003). Gliricidia timber has been used for posts, railroad ties,construction,furniture,toolhandles,andfarmimple ments.Thesmalldiameterofthetimberandshortpieces available,usuallylessthan30cm(12in)indiameterand 2 m (6.6 ft) in length, preclude most commercial use of gliricidiatimber. Fuelwood Fuelwoodproducedfromgliricidiaisusedlocallyforcook ing,heating,anddryingtobacco.Itrarelyrequiressplitting, isofmoderatelyhighdensity(47to75g/cm3),andhasa caloric value of 4900 kcal/kg (2230 kcal/lb). In woodlots thefirstharvestcanbecarriedoutafter34years,giving wood yields of 815 m3/ha (114215 ft3/ac) (CABI 2003). Yieldsmayreachashighas3.54.5kg/tree/yr(1.62.0lb/ tree/lb)inCentralAmerica.Annuallycoppicedfuelwood inthePhilippinesproducesfuelwoodvolumesof2340m3/ ha (330572 ft3/ac).The wood is also sometimes used for charcoalproduction.Productionoffuelwoodhasreached commerciallevelsinonlyafewlocationssuchasthePhil ippines. Craftwood/tools Stemsandbranchesaresometimesusedfortoolhandles. Toxin/insecticide/fishpoison Roots,bark,andseedsaretoxicduetothepresenceoftan nins,afrormosin,medicarpin,andisoflavins.Thebotanical andcommonnamesandfolkloresuggeststhattheseeds orotherpartsareusefulasarodenticide.Testsofleafand woodextractshaveshowninsecticidalandantimicrobial

Size in an urban environment

to:C.ElEvitCh

With profuse flowering during the dry season, and deciduous habit, gliricidia makes an interesting specimen tree. pho

1 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)

and24m(6.613.2ft)incrownspread,requiringannual orbiannualpruning.Whenregularlyprunedwithaframe workofsidebranches(pollarding),gliricidiahasasimilar appearancetothecommonlandscapingshowertrees,e.g., goldenshower(Cassia fistula)andpinkandwhiteshower (C. javanica), except that gliricidia is deciduous in areas withapronounceddryseason. Thetreegenerallygrowsrapidlyatarateof12m/yr(3.3 6.6 ft/yr) in early years, slowing to a few cm per year af ter68years.Trunkdiametergrowthisabout2cm/yr(0.8 in/yr).

Rate of growth in a landscape

Root system

Damage to curbs, sidewalks, and foundations is unlikely unlessthetreeisbothverylargeandplantedincloseprox imitytosuchfeatures.

Products commonly used in a Pacific island household

GliricidiaisstillrelativelyuncommoninthePacificbutis increasinglyimportantinFiji,Vanuatu,Hawaii,andother regions.

Light requirements

Fullsunisrecommended;otherwise,withincreasingshade, growthslowsandthecanopybecomessparse.

Water/soil requirements

Irrigation is generally not needed except in very dry cli mates (<600 mm [24 in] of mean annual precipitation). Plantinginwaterloggedsoilsshouldbeavoided.

Due to its deciduous habit in seasonally dry climates, gliricidia does not make a good year-round single-species windbreak or privacy barrier.photos:C.ElEvitCh

Life span

Gooddataarenotavailableonlifespan.Gliricidiaunder favorableconditionscanbeexpectedtoliveupto50years, butitiscertainthatthespeciesisnotlonglived.

curs between November and March. Fruit development andmaturationoccursattheendofthedryseason.Inar easwithevenrainfallthroughouttheyear,thetreesnever completelydefoliate,andfloweringoccursirregularly,but lightly,throughouttheyear.Fruitsoftenfailtodevelopin areaswithevenlydistributedandhighrainfall.

Varieties favored for use in a homegardens

Exceptional ornamental values

Although there are no formally described varieties, indi vidual trees vary in form from low and spreading to tall andupright(columnar).Thetreeisusuallypropagatedby cuttingsthatareclonesofthemothertreeandgrowwith thesamehabit.Therefore,cuttingsshouldbetakenfrom treeswithdesiredqualitiesforaparticularpurpose. Floweringoccursatthebeginningofthedryseasonwhen thetreeshavelosttheirleaves.Inthenativerangethisoc

Gliricidiaisaverybeautifultreewheninbloom,although flowering usually occurs during periods of leaf loss. Its cleanappearanceandmoderatesizegivesitcharacterdur ingtherestoftheseason.

Seasonality of leaf flush, flowering, fruiting

Inadditiontoitsuseaslivingfenceposts,whenpruned regularlytomaintainlush,leafygrowth,gliricidiamakesa finehedge,especiallyinwetterclimateswhereitremains leafyyearround.

Use as living fence, hedge or visual/noise barrier

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 1

Pruningisgenerallynotneededifanopencrownatthe natural height of the tree (815 m [2650 ft]) is desired. Regular pruning can be done to force trees into desired shapes(hedges,belowviewplanes,etc.)andtoencourage lush,leafygrowth. Aphidscausethetreestodriphoneydew,whichissticky, attractsants,andcandiscolorcars,furniture,etc.

Maintenance requirements

Yields Fuelwoodyieldsfromstandsharvestedevery23yearsare 1020m3/ha(143286ft3/ac).Woodproductionfromaliv ingfencehasbeenreportedat9m3/km(57ft3/mi).Yields varygreatlydependingonprovenance(geneticsource).

Nuisance issues

Hazards

Indryareastheseedpodstendtoopenexplosivelywhen ripe,especiallyonhotdays.Theseedsarethrownupto25 m (82 ft) from the tree, which can present some danger topeople.Inhighwinds,branchescanshearoff,particu larlyfromtreesgrownfromcuttingsandduringperiods ofrapidgrowth.Theroots,bark,andseedsarepoisonous tohumansandmanyanimalsifingested.Oldtreesoften become hollow, especially those that have received inju ries from fence staples, mowers, or by pruning, and be cause of the weakness they are prone to trunk breakage andwindthrow.

On intermediate quality sites in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, annual fuelwoodincrementreachedapeakof4.5kg/tree(9.9lb/ tree)at2yearsofage,althoughcuttingusuallytakesplace onrotationsof58years.Statisticalanalysisforsiteindex, meantreeheight,basalarea,anddryfuelwoodforplanta tions1260monthsofageareavailable(Hughell1990).
Fuelwood is often stacked and dried for a few weeks before marketing.

Processingrequired

Markets Fuelwoodmarketsareusuallyclosetothepointoforigin.

INTERPLANTING/FARM APPLICATIONS
In many countries such as Indonesia, Brazil, and Costa Rica,cacaoistraditionallyestablishedundertheshadeof trees such as gliricidia, Erythrina poeppigiana, Inga spp., andotherspecies.Theseshadetreesareusedduetheirrap idgrowth,abilitytobiologicallyaccumulateatmospheric nitrogen, ease of establishment, adaptability to many dif ferentsiteconditions,andabilitytoregrowvigorouslyafter pruning.Duringestablishment,theshadetreesareplanted withinthecacaoorchardataspacingsof2x2mto4x 4m(6.6x6.6ftto13x13ft)foracoverofabout3055% shade. After 23 years as the canopy of cacao closes, the shadetreesareusuallythinnedtoaspacingof6x6m(20 x20ft).

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Muchofthevalueofgliricidiaisnotcommercialbutthe farmservicesitprovidesincludinglivingfenceposts,green manure, shade, fodder, windbreak, etc. There are several areas where there is commercial potential, however. Be cause much of the commercial seed available is inferior germplasm (unselected for productivity) (Stewart et al. 1996), there is a market for seeds from the better prov enances.Similarly,theremaybelocalmarketsforcuttings fromselectedgermplasmforuseinplantinglivingfence posts,shelterbelts,etc.Incertainareas,theremayalsobea marketforgliricidiafuelwood.

Fuelwood
Spacing FuelwoodplantationsinCentralAmericaaretypicallyes tablishedwith10005000trees/ha(4002000trees/ac)for rotationsof5years.InAsia,fuelwoodplantationsareset outat1x1m(3.3x3.3ft)to2.5x2.5m(8x8ft)spacings forpruningat1or2yearintervals. Managementobjectives Treesmaybeprunedatgroundlevelinfuelwoodplanta tionsorintercropplantingsorcutabovethewireheightin livingfences.

PUBLIC ASSISTANCE AND AGROFORESTRY EXTENSION

Extension offices for agroforestry and forestry in the Pa cific:<http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html>.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
(indicatesrecommendedreading)
AdHocPaneloftheAdvisoryCommitteeonTechnology Innovation. 1980. Firewood crops. National Academy of

16 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)

Sciences,Washington,DC. Allison,G.E.,andA.J.Simons.1996.Propagationandhus bandry.In:Stewart,Allison,andSimons,op.cit. CABInternational.2003.ForestryCompendiumGlobal Module,rev.CABInternational,Oxon,UK. Clarke,W.C., and R.R.Thaman (eds.). 1993. Agroforestry inthePacificIslands:SystemsforSustainability.United NationsUniversityPress,NewYork. Combellas,J.,L.Ros,P.Colombo,R.Alvarez,andL.Ga baldn. 1996. Influence of Gliricidia sepium restricted grazingonliveweightgainofgrowingcattleinstargrass pastures.LivestockResearchforRuralDevelopment8(4). <http://www.cipav.org.co/1rrd/1rrd8/4/comb84.htm>. Duke,J.A.1983.HandbookofEnergyCrops(unpublished): Gliricidia sepium( Jacq.)Steud.<http://www.hort.purdue. edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gliricidia_sepium.html>. FACTNetStaff.1998.GrowingGliricidia.WinrockInter national(formerlyNFTA),Morrilton,Arkansas. Glover,N.1986.GliricidiaItsNamesTellItsStory.NFT Highlights.WinrockInternational,Morrilton,Arkansas. Hensleigh,T.E.,andB.K.Holoway.1988.AgroforestrySpe cies for the Philippines. U.S. Peace Corps, Washington, DC. Hughell,D.1990.Modelosparalapredicciondelcrecimien to y rendimiento de Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Gliricidia sepium, Guazuma ulmifolia y Leucaena leucocephala en America Central. Technical Bulletin 22. Turrialba, Cen tro AgronomicoTropical de Investigacin y Enseanza (CATIE),CostaRica. Jker,D.2002.Gliricidia sepium( Jacq.)Steud.SeedLeaflet 51.DanidaForestSeedCentre,Humlebaek,Denmark. Lavin,M.1996.Taxonomy.In:Stewart,Allison,andSimons, op.cit. Little,E.L.,Jr.,andF.H.Wadsworth.1964.CommonTrees ofPuertoRicoandtheVirginIslands.AgriculturalHand book249.USDAForestService,Washington,DC. MacDicken,K.G.1994.SelectionandManagementofNi trogenfixing Trees. Winrock International, Morrilton, ArkansasandFAO,Bangkok. PacificIslandsEcosystemsatRisk(PIER).2003.Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.) Steud.,Fabaceae. University of Hawaii, DepartmentofBotany,Honolulu.<http://www.hear.org/ pier/scinames.htm>. Parrotta, J.A. 1992. Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.) Walp. Res. Note SOITFSM50. USDA Forest Service, Interna tionalInstituteofTropicalForestry,RoPiedras,Puerto Rico. Roshetko,J.M.2001.AgroforestrySpeciesandTechnologies. WinrockInternational,Taiwan. Salim,A.S.,A.J.Simons,C.Orwas,J.Chege,B.Owuor,andA. Mutua.2002.Agroforestreedatabase.WorldAgroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. <http://www.worldagroforestry. org/Sites/TreeDBS/AFT/AFT.htm>.

Simons, A.J. 1996. Ecology and reproductive biology. In: Stewart,Allison,andSimons,op.cit. Simons, A.J., and A.J. Dunsdon. 1992. Evaluation of the Potential for Genetic Improvement of Gliricidia sepium. ODAForestryResearchProjectR4525,OxfordForestry Institute,UniversityofOxford,Oxford,UK. Stewart,J.L.,G.E.Allison,andA.J.Simons(eds.).1996. Gliricidia sepium: Genetic resources for farmers. Oxford ForestryInstitute,UniversityofOxford,Oxford,UK. Stewart,J.L., and A.J. Simons. 1994. Gliricidia sepium: a multipurpose forage tree legume. In: Gutteridge, R.C. andH.M.Shelton(eds.).ForageTreeLegumesinTropi calAgriculture.CABInternational,Oxon,UK. Thaman,R.R.,andW.A.Whistler.1996.AReviewofUses andStatusofTreesandForestinLandUseSystemsin Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati and Tuvalu with Recommenda tionsforFutureAction.SouthPacificForestryDevelop mentProgramme,Suva,Fiji. Thorpe,P.(ed.).1999.PacificAgroforestry:AnInformation Kit.PacificRegionalAgriculturalProgramme,Suva,Fiji. Wiersum,K.F.,andI.M.Nitis.1997.Gliricidia sepium( Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. In: Faridah Hanum, I., and L.J.G. van der Maesen (eds.). Plant Resources of SouthEast Asia No11:Auxiliaryplants.BackhuysPublishers,Leiden,the Netherlands.<http://www.proseanet.org>. Wilkinson, K.M., and C.R. Elevitch. 2003a. Propagation protocol for production of container Gliricidia sepium ( Jacq.)Walp.plants.In:NativePlantNetwork.University ofIdaho,CollegeofNaturalResources,ForestResearch Nursery, Moscow, Idaho. <http://www.nativeplantnet work.org>. Wilkinson, K.M., and C.R. Elevitch. 2003b. Propagation protocolforvegetativeproductionofcontainerGliricidia sepium ( Jacq.) Walp. plants. In: Native Plant Network. UniversityofIdaho,CollegeofNaturalResources,Forest Research Nursery, Moscow, Idaho. <http://www.native plantnetwork.org>. Winrock International. 1998. Gliricidia sepiumthe quint essentialagroforestryspecies.Factsheet9804.Winrock International,Morrilton,Arkansas.<http://www.winrock. org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/gliricidia.htm>.

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Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)

Gliricidia sepium (gliricidia)

Authors:CraigR.Elevitch1andJohnK.Francis2 1.PermanentAgricultureResources,POBox428,Holualoa,Hawaii96725,USA;Web:<http://www.agroforestry.net>. 2.ShrubSciencesLaboratory,RockyMountainResearchStation,U.S.D.A.ForestService(retired),735N.500E.,Provo,Utah84606,USA; Acknowledgments: TheauthorsandpublisherthankKeolaChilds,DaleEvans,JohnParrotta,DianeRagone,andJimRoshetkofor theirinput.PhotocontributionsbyJ.B.Friday,KennethMudge,andJohnParrottaaregreatlyappreciated. Recommended citation:Elevitch,C.R.,andJ.K.Francis.2006.Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia),ver.2.1.In:C.R.Elevitch(ed.).Species ProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry.PermanentAgricultureResources(PAR),Hlualoa,Hawaii.<http://www.traditionaltree. org>. Sponsors:PublicationwasmadepossiblebygeneroussupportoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureWesternRegionSus tainableAgricultureResearchandEducation(USDAWSARE)Program;SPC/GTZPacificGermanRegionalForestryProject; USDANaturalResourcesConservationService(USDANRCS);StateofHawaiiDepartmentofLand&NaturalResourcesDivi sionofForestry&Wildlife;andtheUSDAForestServiceForestLandsEnhancementProgram.Thismaterialisbaseduponwork supportedbytheCooperativeStateResearch,Education,andExtensionService,U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,andAgricultural ExperimentStation,UtahStateUniversity,underCooperativeAgreement20024700101327. Series editor:CraigR.Elevitch Publisher:PermanentAgricultureResources(PAR),POBox428,Hlualoa,Hawaii96725,USA;Tel:8083244427;Fax:808324 4129;Email:par@agroforestry.net;Web:<http://www.agroforestry.net>.Thisinstitutionisanequalopportunityprovider. Reproduction:Copiesofthispublicationcanbedownloadedfrom<http://www.traditionaltree.org>.Thispublicationmayberepro ducedfornoncommercialeducationalpurposesonly,withcreditgiventothesource.2006PermanentAgricultureResources.All rightsreserved.
Email:jfrancisfr@fs.fed.us

1 Gliricidia sepium(gliricidia)