METEOROLOGY 3.1 Introduction Transportation and concentration of pollutant : Affected by topographical and meteorological condition. Mean air motion.

n. Turbulent level. Mass diffusion depends on concentration gradient. Characteristics of pollutants size, shape, weight. 3.2 Solar radiation : The power is about 8.16 J/cm2.min (1.36 kw/m2) on the upper boundary of the earth. Incident wave lengths are visible between 0.4 0.8 m . About 42% of the solar energy are 1.Absorb by high atmosphere. 2.Reflected by cloud.

3.Back-scattered by atmosphere. 4.Absorbed by water vapour and cloud. 47 % of solar radiation are absorbed by the earths water and surface. Green house effect - The earth temperature = 290 o K and radiates long wave lengths (near infra red) between 4 12 m. It is mainly absorbed by the CO2 and H2O in air and not able to escape to space. Too much of such green house gases causes earth warming. (e.g. 100% increase in the CO2 and H2O raises earth temperature by 2 to 4 o F. Particulates in pollution have the opposite effect that blocks the solar radiation.

3.3 Lapse rate dp = - g dz First law : (eqn 1)

dq = du + dw = dh vdp p dv + p dv 1 = Cp dT v dp = Cp dT dp Adiabatic condition: dq = 0 0 = Cp dT v dp dT = v dp / Cp = dp / Cp = - g dz / Cp dT 1 g = = - g / Cp dz C p 1 Cp = Cv R = Cp / k - R kR Cp = k 1 dT g (k 1) = = - 9.81 (1.4-1)/(1.4 x 287) dz kR (eqn 2)

= - 0.0098 oC/ m = - 0.98 oC/100 m When taking +ve value, it is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate (). dT = ( ) dry ,adia dz Based on meteorological data, the actual lapse rate in air varies linearly. = 0.66 O C / 100 m Saturated adiabatic lapse rate : In air, it contains water vapour. When a parcel of air moving upward, the drop in pressure causes a drop in temperature. the drop in temperature causes the condensation of vapour (saturated) which might raise the temperature.

1 dq = C p dT dp when small amount of vapour (mass) is condensed, dw (-ve) 1 - h fg dw = C p dT ( gdz ) = C p dT + gdz dT g h fg dw ( ) = + dz C p C p dz dw Note that is negative, the net of the two dz Stratosphere terms will cause the lapse rate lower than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, . The rise in the Standard air upward is still parcel of causes it the drop in temperature but not as Troposphere adiabatic the dry adiabatic case. much as z Temperature profile ofT standard atmosphere in
comparison with adiabatic temperature gradient.

3.5 Stability Conditions : The dispersion of pollution depends on the atmospheric stability. A stable atmospheric condition is one that does not exhibit much vertical mixing or motion. The pollutants will stay and accumulate. Mixing depends on (1) temperature gradient (2) turbulences. Unstable / Superadiabatic lapse rate the actual lapse rate is greater then dry adiabatic lapse rate,.

dT ( )env > z dz
B A

F E

Unstable

Means actual temp gradient is more negative than . When a lump of air moves up from A to B. The process is adiabatic due to limited time. The temp of state B is higher (density is lower) than that at C, it will then move up further. Similarly for the lump of air moves downward. It will then continue to move down. Neutral lapse rate the actual lapse rate is about the sameas the dry adiabatic lapse rate,.

dT ( )env = z dz
B A

F E

Neutral

Means actual temp gradient is the same as . When a lump of air moves up from A to B. The process is adiabatic and the temp of state B is about the same as (density is the same) that at C, it will then stay there. Similarly for the lump of air moves downward.

Weakly stable / Subadiabatic lapse rate the actual lapse rate is lower then the dry adiabatic lapse rate,.

dT ( )env < z dz
C B F A

Weakly stable

Means actual temp gradient is less negative than . When a lump of air moves up from A to B. The process is adiabatic due to limited time. The temp of state B is lower (density is higher) than that at C, the lump of air is then forced to return to A. Similarly for the lump of air moves downward. It will then forced to return to A. Strongly stable lapse rate the actual lapse rate is very much lower (opposite gradient) then the dry adiabatic lapse rate,.

dT ( )env << z dz
B F C A

Weakly stable

Means actual temp gradient is much less negative than . When a lump of air moves up from A to B. The process is adiabatic due to limited time. The temp of state B is much lower (density is higher) than that at C, the lump of air is quickly forces to return to A. Similarly for the lump of air moves downward. It will then forced quickly to return to A. An unstable lapse rate will help the pollutant to move away from where it is emitted.

However, the stable lapse rate will keep the pollutant at where it is. 3.6 Inversion : When temperature in air increase with the increase of altitude,negative lapse rate, is known as inversion. Inversion reduces the vertical dispersion of pollution and increase the local pollution concentration. Mainly two types of inversion : (1) Subsidence inversion Formed by descent of a layer of high pressure air mass. The subsidence speed 1000 m/day. If the subsidence of the layer persists for a period of time, a negative lapse rate could happen. The inversion layer acts as a gaint lid on the atmosphere below it. If it persists for a few days, pollutants will accummulate.
ZT T

ZT

(2) Radiation inversion : At night, the earth surface radiates the heat absorbed in day time. While the surface of the earth becomes cooler, it causes the air near the earth surface to be cooler than the that away from the earth surface. This type of inversion only happen in a short while in clear sky and low wind condition. After sun rise, the earth surface is heated up, the lapse rate will be +ve again. (3) Other inversions It could be caused by the flow of cool air from the mountain to the valley at night. The wind blown from the sea resulted from the hot air rise above land.

Day time

Night & morning T Subsidence inversion T Radiation inversion

Subsidence inversion

Radiation inversion Combined inversion

3.7 Maximum mixing depth - MMD Convective and turbulence mixing aid polluant dispersion in low ground level. Greater vertical extent where mixing takes place, larger volume of air for pollutant dilution.

 When a parcel of air is heated, it will continue to rise vertically until the equals the local temperature. At that point, its surrounding is in neutral equilibrium and the height is the limit of the convective layer known as the maximum mixing depth (MMD). Buoyancy effects determine the depth of MMD. The monthly average value - mean maximum mixing depth. dp = - g dz dv Force dp ' gdz dp = = = g dt Mass ' dz ' dz where is the density of the air in the environment. is the density of the heated air parcel. dv gdz ' = g = g dt ' dz ' p = RT = ' RT '

dv T 'T =( )g dt T

(dT/dz)env

(dT/dz)env MMD

MMD

(dT/dz)env

MMD

T0

T0

T0

T0

T0

T0

In general, the ground has a temperature of T0 and temperature profile is represented by the dark line marked (dT/dz)env . The air parcel is heated to T0 . It is expanded upwards along the dry adiabatic lapse rate line marked with . The intersection of the two lines represents the position of the MMD.

 Usually, the MMD is high during daytime with values up to 2000 to 3000 m are common. At night the MMD is lower and could be practically zero. In urban area where air pollution frequently occurs when the MMD is less than 1500 m. MMD measurement is usually done by balloon sending aloft. It trasmits the temperature and altitude back radiosonde. When plotted together with the dry adiabatic lapse rate line the MMD is determined. It is normally done at night or in the early morning.