Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Thesis submitted to the University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of
CROP PHYSIOLOGY
By ANILKUMAR M.
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
CONTENTS
Title
Page No.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE MATERIAL AND METHODS EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS DISCUSSION SUMMARY REFERENCES
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. 1.
Title Monthly meteorological data for the experimental year (kharif, 2004) and the mean of past 54 years (1950-2003) as recorded at the Meteorological Observatory, Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad (Karnataka) Physical and chemical experimental area properties of the soil of
Page No.
Salient feature of the growth regulators and chemicals used in experiment Influence of plant growth regulators on plant height (cm) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on number of branches in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on number of leaves in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf dry weight (g/plant) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on stem dry weight (g/plant) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on total dry matter (g/plant) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf area (dm/plant) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf area index (LAI) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf area duration (days) in patchouli
Contd.. Table No. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Title Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf area ratio (cm/g/plant) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on specific leaf area (cm/g) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on specific leaf weight (mg/cm) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on absolute growth rate (AGR, g/day) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on crop growth rate (CGR, g/dm/day) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on relative growth rate (RGR, g/g/day) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on net assimilation rate (NAR, mg/cm/day) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on number of oil glands (glands/mm leaf area) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on chlorophyll a and b content (mg/g fresh weight) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on total chlorophyll (mg/g fresh weight) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on carotenoid content (mg/100 g fresh weight in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on phenols content (mg per g dry weight) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on nitrate reductase activity NRA ( moles of NO2 fixed/g fresh weight) in patchouli Influence of plant growth regulators on yield parameters of patchouli (FWB and DWB) Page No.
26.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Title
Between pages
1.
Plan of layout
LIST OF PLATES
Plate No.
Title
Between pages
1.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Aromatic plants are the plants which contain essential oils. These essential oils or volatile oils as they are often called, are found in different species of plants which are known to be very complex in their chemical nature. These are the mixture of acyclic and cyclic monoterpenoids, the physiological significance of which as far as the plant is concerned is not obvious. These probably represent by products of metabolism rather than foods and they have no apparent function in the plants with regard to primary metabolism. The characteristic flavour and aroma that they impart are basically advantageous in attracting insects and other animals which play a role in pollination or dispersal of seeds and fruits. However, the aroma in these essential oils is being exploited largely in perfumery, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. India has a perfumery tradition that dates back to over 5000 years to Indus valley civilization. In the excavations of Harappa and Mohanjodaro, a water distillation still and receiver have been recorded whose shape resemble to the deg and bhaka currently used by attars (traditional perfumers) of kannauj in India. Bucchbauer (1990) has recorded examples of several aromatic plants presently in use for medication which have come to us from our ancestors inhabiting different countries. Thus, anise oil, citronella oil, eucalyptus oil, spruce oil and aroma chemicals like camphor, menthol, cineol, thymol and guacacol are still used as both aromatic and additive. In addition to the aromatic oils, the finer perfumes contain fixatives substances, which are less volatile than the oils and delay equalize evaporation. There are several aromatic species which are utilized for this purpose. Patchouli is one among them. The patchouli plant was first described by Pelletier Scutelet and named Pogostemon patchouli. In 1986, Holmes identified it as Pogostemon cablin Benth. a native of the Philippine islands, the word Cablin being arrived from Cablam, vernacular name of the plant in the Philippines. The plant has also been described by Blanco in his Flores de Filipinos as Mentha cablin. Today the true patchouli plant of commerce, Pogostemon cablin Benth. (syn. P Patchouli pellet) belonging to family Lamiaceae, serves for distilling the essential oil is cultivated in British Malaya (Straits Settlements and Johare State) and more extensively in Indonesia (Northern Sumatra). The Malayan Vernacular term Dhulam wangi or tilam wangi means sweet or cultivated patchouli. Patchouli is grown mainly in Indonesia, Malaysia, China and to lesser extent in Madagascar, Reunion and Seychelles. Though efforts have been made by several institutions since early fifties, current indigenous production of patchouli oil is hardly few hundred kilograms and that too quality variation is very large. Indonesia is producing about 600 tonnes and China about 30 to 40 tonnes of oil. Indian consumption is about 40 tonnes of pure oil and about 70 tonnes of formulated oil. International prices have recently gone up to US $20 to 25 per kg, therefore landed cost would be higher than Rs.1500 per kg. Thus, there is a large potential for patchouli oil production in India. The commercial oil of patchouli is obtained by steam distillation of the shade dried leaves and is one of the most important naturally occurring essential oil used in perfumery industry. Although rarely used as dominant source of fragrance in its own right, the oil is widely used to give a solid foundation and lasting character to a fragrance. Patchouli oil has notably strong fixative properties and helps to prevent rapid evaporation of a perfume and thereby promotes, tenacity and its dominant woody note, although the aroma possesses other characteristics and is very complex. The oil is generally blended with other essential oils, such as geranium or clove before use. Patchouli oil is used in a wide range of toilet soaps, scents, lotions, pre-shave and after-shave lotions and detergents. Its strong tenacity render it to be particularly suitable for
heavy perfumes and for imparting a lasting character and strength to lighter perfumes. In very low concentration (0.002% or 2.21 ppm) the oil is extensively used as a flavour ingredient in major food products including alcoholic and non alcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatin, meat and meat products. Blended with sandalwood, it gives one of the finest attars, widely used in soaps, cosmetics, tobacco and incense sticks. Dry patchouli leaves are used for scenting wardrobes. The leaves and tops are added in bath for their antirheumatic action. In Chinese medicine decoction from the leaves are used with other drugs to treat nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, cold and headaches (Leiung, 1980). A related species patchouli (Pogostemon heyneanus) is reported to content principle possessing anticancer activity (Purushothaman et al., 1985). Pogostemon cablin yields patchouli oil, which has a great demand in the perfume and flavour industry. At present, the global requirement of patchouli is met mainly through production from Indonesia. However, due to adverse conditions in Indonesia, the supply of oil is irregular. Indias available infrastructure and environment can provide an opportunity to gain a major part of the world market. The global trade in patchouli oil is to the tune of 200 crores (1000 tonnes) per year. Most of which presently comes from Indonesia. The Indian perfumery market consumes 70-80 tonnes per annum and there is good potential for export, which focussed programmes for promoting cultivation of this plant, thus India can become the second largest producer of patchouli oil in the world. Commercial cultivation of the crop in India was first attempted by Tata Oil Mills in 1942 (Kumar et al., 1986). After initial stray attempt to grow the crop, its systematic cultivation started in 1962 by CIMAP (Kumar et al., 1986). Patchouli can be cultivated in coastal regions of India as a main crop or as an intercrop along with plantation crops. India which has started cultivating patchouli is importing annually about 20 tonnes of pure patchouli oil and 100 tonnes of formulated oil which is certainly a very meagre quantity. This appears to be mainly because of non availability of planting material to the farmers. Inspite of farmers enthusiasm to cultivate patchouli, inadequate supply of planting material is one of the major setback. Similarly, farmers inability to increase the yield potentiality down the production of patchouli oil has ultimately brought down the production of patchouli oil. The plant growth regulators (PGRs) are considered as a new generation agrochemicals after fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Plant growth regulators are the chemical substances, when applied in small amounts modify the growth of plants usually by stimulating or inhibiting part of the natural growth regulatory system. About sixty plant growth regulators are now commercially available and several of them have reached considerable importance in crop production. The growth regulators include both growth promoters and retardants which have been shown to modify the canopy structure and other yield attributes. Plant growth regulators are known to have great potential ability to increase the productivity of horticulture crops. The response of plant or plant parts to growth regulators varies due to fluctuations in endogenous hormonal level of the plant and the manner in which the natural growth regulators interact with the applied growth regulator. Though the PGRs have great potentialities to influence plant growth and morphogenesis, its application and actual assessments etc. have to be judicially planned in terms of optimal concentrations, stage of application, species specificity and seasons etc. These constitute major impediments of PGRs applicability. In view of this an investigation was conducted to study the effect of plant growth regulators on growth and yield of patchouli with following objectives. 1. To study the effect of different concentrations of growth regulators on morphological and biochemical characteristics of patchouli 2. To assess the influence of growth regulators on growth and anatomical characteristics 3. To study the effect of growth regulators on yield and yield components of patchouli
Studies conducted by Bhattacharya and Rao (1996) on effect of Triacontanol and mixatalol on rose scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.) revealed that foliar application of long chain aliphatic alcohol plant growth regulators such as triacontanol and mixatalol significantly increased yield attributes of Pelargonium cv. Bourbon including height, number of branches, weight of leaves and stems, branches, shoot and roots and essential oil composition yield and recovery. The enhancement over control plants in root yield was much greater than shoot yield indicating the influence of these plant growth regulators on root growth and development of leaf cuttings of third, fourth and fifth leaves producing adventitious roots and shoots under ambient conditions when treated (foliar spray) with Triacontanol. It also increased the number of root, leaf, petiole and shoot weights. Distillation of leaves after rooting, however yielded no essential oil. Mohandas and Sampath (1985) made studies on the regulation of growth and yield in geranium with some hormonal sprays, wherein height of plant was much influenced by GA3 and alar sprays. Significantly higher plant height was noted under GA3 250 ppm as compared to control. At higher concentrations of ethanol and CCC (400 ppm each) shortened it as against control. Significant increase in total plant spread was noticed with the spray of alar at 1000 ppm recording 12166.32 sq cm as against control registering only 6101.78 sq cm. The foliage yield in general increased with CCC @ 1000 ppm and alar @ 1000 ppm concentration sprays but ethrel spray at 4000 ppm caused significant reduction over control. Umesha et al. (1991) studied influence of GA3 and cycocel (CCC) on growth and productivity of clocium (Ocimum gratissimum L.) and revealed that while GA3 promoted plant height, internodal length, leaf area and dry matter accumulation, CCC had a negative influence on all these parameters. Although CCC application resulted in early flowering, leaf yields were considerably reduced. GA3 was found to increase yield of essential oil, eugenol content and eugenol yield. Mohamed et al. (1983) conducted pot experiment to study effects of GA3 and chloromequat on yield and oil quality of geranium in two successive seasons where in GA3 increased plant height and herb production. Oil percentage and oil yield, however decreased. On contrary chloromequat although decreased plant height, it increased both percentage and yield of oil. Studies made by Gupta et al. (1992) on effect of growth regulators gibberlic acid and tria contanol on supplying stage of Ocimum carnosum under field conditions indicated that Triacontanol although had promotory effect on plant height, leaf number and leaf area, gibberlic acid, however did not show any effect on growth parameter except plant height and internodal length. Total chlorophyll and protein contents were increased in leaf under the influence of Triacontanol, but gibberlic acid has no effect. Krishnamoorthy and Madalagere (2000) noticed application of GA3 300 ppm in ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi L.) increased plant height and recorded maximum number of secondary and tertiary branches followed by that of CCC and NAA. Maximum number of leaves, total dry matter and higher seed yield was recorded by GA3 300 ppm followed by GA3 200 and 100 ppm. The essential oil content of seeds increased with NAA application. An experiment conducted by Singh and Bajimol (2001) to study effect of plant bioregulators GA3, ethrel and kinetin at different concentrations on growth flowering and bulb production in tuberose has revealed the maximum number of sprouts per clump, length of spike and duration of flowering with 100 ppm GA3 where as 200 ppm GA3 significantly increased number of leaves/plant, plant height, number of florets/spike and weight of florets/plant. In general, all the PGRs has significantly influenced on various parameters over control except any conspicuous effect on bulb diameter and number of spikes/plant. Gowda and Krishnan (1992) studied effect of three concentrations each of GA3, CCC and kinetin on morphological and solasodine content of Solanum viarum Dunal. The results revealed that GA3 treatments increased plant height and internodal length at 60 days. Plant spread was increased at lowest concentration of GA3 @ 250 ppm.
In an experiment conducted by Borse and Dhumal (2001) to enhance solasodine contents in Solanum kharianum, GA, IAA and CCC were used as foliar sprays in different concentrations. Results revealed that all treatments increased plant height, number of branches and leaves per plant and reduced spines on leaves and stem. Shedeed et al. (1990) reported increased leaf number, leaf area, FW and DW in case of basil plant by GA3 and kinetin application and optimum concentration of GA3 was 100 ppm and for kinetin it was 50 ppm. Shukla et al. (1992) observed increased plant height, artemirinin level and shoot fresh weight in case of Artemisia annua L. plants treated with triacontanol at 1.0 and 1.5 mg/litre. According to Srivastava and Sharma (1991) the plant height, capsule number and weight, morphine content, CO2 exchange rate, total chlorophyll and shoot fresh and dry weight were greatest at triacontanol (0.01 mg/ltr) treated opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) plants. According to Shahine et al. (1992) in the plants of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graceum) sprayed with growth regulators, gibberlic acid increased leaf area, leaf number and stem length. Paclobutrazol and ethrel increased branching and leaf chlorophyll, but carotenoid concentrations were decreased by gibberlic acid and ethrel.
Application of 0.4 g/ml increased micronutrient uptake, total chlorophyll and citral content in case of lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexosus), but chlorophyll a: b ratio and stomatal resistance was decreased (Misra and Srivastava, 1991).
2.4 Yield and yield parameters (total herbage yield, leaf yield, seed yield and essential oil yield)
A field trial was conducted by Bhaskar et al. (1997) to study the influence of growth regulators such as TIBA and kinetin in 3 concentration viz., 25, 50 and 100 ppm and 50, 100 and 200 ppm respectively on the production and regeneration capacity of patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli) cultivar IIHR PP-1. Results indicated that maximum fresh herbage production of 3.23 t/ha and oil yield of 24.44 kg/ha in the first harvest was recorded with the application of TIBA at 100 ppm and kinetin at 200 ppm. Though maximum oil content of 2.53 per cent was observed with this treatment the differences were not significant. Application of kinetin alone at higher concentration of 200 ppm resulted in improvement in both herbage and oil yield. Both herbage production and oil content showed increasing trend with increase in concentration of either each regulator alone or in combination. However, it was also observed that regeneration was not improved with any of growth regulators or in combination. Jadhav et al. (2003) conducted a pot culture experiment showing that stem cuttings of 10-15 cm length with 2-4 leaves and three internodes on dipping in IBA 1500 ppm for 30 seconds produced maximum number of leaves, length of shoot, leaf area, biomass of plant, while 30 seconds dipping in IBA 2000 ppm showed maximum oil content in patchouli (Pogostemon cablin Benth). Tasma and Moko (1988) observed that triacontanol (0.5%) auxin (0.25) + cytokinin or phenol compound (2 ppm) at two weekly intervals or 2,4-D (0.5%) at 4 weekly interval were found to enhance plant growth and yield with auxin cytokinin mixture having maximum effect in patchouli. Singh et al. (1989) studied effect of growth regulator on rooting and yield of geranium. They observed that maximum essential oil yield was obtained at IBA (500 ppm), further IBA (200 ppm) was proved to be optimum for oil characters and is recommended for better growth and yield. Barua and Hazarika (1982) reported that the application of NAA in different concentrations significantly affected leaves and solasodine content of Solanum khasrianum Clarke. Further they observed that NAA application at 50, 100, 150 and 200 ppm led to dark green leaves in horizontal and droopy portions and increase in solasodine content was observed in 50, 100 and 150 ppm concentration. In the pot culture experiments conducted by Bhattacharya et al. (1995) in Geranium to study the effect of foliar application of indole-3-acetic acid (100 mg/l), indole-3-butyric acid (100 mg/l) and cycocel (2000 mg/l) increased number and yield of leaves was exhibited. Shoot (leaves + stem) essential oil and concentration of essential oil of rose scented geranium cv. Bourbon was also noticed compared to control. Napthyl acetic acid (50 mg/l) and gibberlic acid (200 mg/l) did not influence the yield of rose scented geranium at the concentration tried with kinetin (100 mg/l). However, increased leaf and shoot yield was noticed but not essential oil yield. Stem yield (without leaves) of the crop was not affected by any of plant growth regulators. A field experiment was conducted by Singh (2003a) to evaluate the response of plant bio-regulators on growth and flowering in marigold. In his experiment plants of marigold were sprayed with GA3 (100 and 200 ppm), IAA (50 and 100 ppm), kinetin (50 and 100 ppm) and control with distilled water. Maximum fresh and dry leaf biomass were recorded with GA3 100 ppm treatment. Kinetin gave pronounced effect in increasing number of branches/plant and leaf area which were statistically on par with GA3 100 ppm. Earliness on flower bud initiation and flowering were noticed with IAA 50 ppm, followed by GA3 100 ppm. Lower value leaf biomass and flower yield were encountered with control.
Hegde et al. (2001) studied the effect of three phytoharmones, BA, NAA and GA3 at different concentrations (25 and 50 ppm) on Kasturbhendi. The results indicated that NAA at 25 and 50 ppm concentrations increased number of fruits/plant and total biological yield. Figueiredo et al. (2002) evaluated the effect of plant growth regulators GA3 (50 and 100 mg/litre), ethrel (100 and 200 mg/litre); CCC (500 and 1000 mg/litre); alar 85 (1000 and 2000 mg/litre), accel (20 and 40 mg/litre) and control on citral yield of lemon grass. But, no plant growth regulator used increased citral content. Sahhar et al. (1984) studied the effect of gibberlic acid on some botanical and chemical characteristics of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) where in herbage fresh weight and essential oil yield in all cases increased with GA3 at 90 ppm. Mousa and Emary (1983) examined the effect of foliar applied gibberlic acid and maleic hydrazide on sweet basil in which GA3 considerably reduced plant height but increased herbage yield. MH at 100 ppm greatly increased number of branches per plant while oil percentage of fresh herbage was significantly increased by GA3 at 50 ppm and MH at 100 or 200 ppm. Kewalanand et al. (1998) studied effect of plant growth regulators on Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) var MAS-1 in which growth parameters, essential oil, content, fresh herbage and oil yield were noticed to be significantly enhanced by application of GA3 at 40 mg/litre in comparison with NAA and control. A low dose of plant growth stimulant triacontanol (0.1 g/ml) to Mentha arvenis L. increased essential oil yield as well as fresh and dry matter production, net photosynthetic rate (pn) chlorophyll content and chl ab ratio (Srivastava and Sharma, 1991). Ansari et al. (1988) recorded that IAA and GA3 applications in Cymbopogon jawaraneusa increased leaf length, width and dry weight whereas treatment with IBA decreased all three values IAA and GA3 increased the essential oil yield as well as the content of major constituent piperitone, compared to IBA. Randhawa et al. (1988) observed that sucker treatment with GA3, resulted in early emergence and the production of higher number of sprouts ultimately giving higher herb and oil yields in Mentha arvensis. Yaseen and Tajuddin (1998) recorded highest oil in case of Artemesia by application of GA3 and IAA at 150 ppm. Further, Artemirin content was highest in 6 ppm triacontanol treated plants. Gupta et al. (1995) analysed physiology of growth in Ocimum carnosum L. Kotto treated with triacontanol wherein results revealed that TRIA 10 g/ml increased leaf character, NAR, CGR and consequently increasing total biomass and herbage yield/plant. According to Kadam et al. (1998) the foliar spray of 5.0 ppm vipul increased nitrate reductase activity, essential amino acid in spinach leaves. Farooqui et al. (1996) noticed that application of GA3 (25 or 50 mg/litre) significantly increased fresh weight yield, artemisin content and yield, and essential oil content (l/g) in comparison with control plant in case of Artemisia annua L. In a field trials conducted by Saeid et al. (1994) on effect of growth regulators on herb, oil yield and hormonal content of lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) indicated that application of mepiquatchloride (125-500 ppm) and IBA (25-100 ppm) reduced the herb yield and oil yields/plant but percentage of oil contents were slightly increased compared to control. Singh (2003b) reported that GA3 significantly increased fresh weight of leaf and diameter of flower, however maximum fresh and dry weight of leaf biomass, leaf area index,
number and weight of flowers per plant were highest in case of GA3 200 ppm in calendula (Calendula officinalis). Analysis of growth and development and essential oil formation in O. kelimandscharicum revealed that GA3 augmented the essential oil biogenesis and the content and increased oil extension growth, herbage yield and also oil content in all concentration under experimental studies (Anonymous, 1998). Rao et al. (1994) concluded that foliar application of plant growth regulators such as ethephon (0.062%), cytozyme (0.3%), biozyme (0.1%) and chamatkar (0.3%) in geranium cv. Bourbon significantly increased the growth (plant height, number of branches/plant), biomass production (yield of leaves, stem and branches with cut leaves, shoot, root yield) and chemical profile of essential oil. Sudria et al. (1999) mentioned that plantlets treated with plant growth regulators showed increased oil accumulation in case of Lavandula dentata. However, growth of plantlets were not correlated with their essential oil content.
3.2 Climate
The main research station of University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad is situated in Northern Transitional Tract (Zone-8) of Karnataka state. The meteorological data of previous 54 years and the year of investigation recorded at the meteorological observatory, Main Agricultural Research Station, Dharwad are presented in Table 1.
3.5.3
(Pogostemon
cablin
Benth.)
The cultivar Johore used in the experiment is a perennial, profusely branched, erect or ascending aromatic herb/under shrub, pubescent with quadrangular stem, leaves are simple, opposite, decussate pale to purplish green when grown in open field condition. Its odour is woody earthy followed by aromatic spicy.
Table 1. Monthly meteorological data for the experimental year (kharif, 2004) and the mean of past 54 years (1950-2003) as recorded at the Meteorological Observatory, Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad (Karnataka)
Month
Rainfall (mm) 2004 Mean* 0.086 1.161 0.147 48.45 81.40 109.14 145.77 95.30 100.54 130.99 32.04 54.50 750.43
Temperature ( C) Mean maximum 2004 29.6 32.5 36.5 37.4 33.6 28.8 29.2 27.0 28.6 30.1 30.2 29.4 Mean* 29.15 34.52 35.73 37.00 36.52 29.50 22.06 22.01 28.75 30.12 29.46 29.18 Mean minimum 2004 14.7 16.4 19.6 19.8 21.4 21.5 21.0 20.3 19.9 18.4 15.9 12.5 Mean* 19.23 16.02 18.81 21.32 21.48 21.21 20.95 20.62 20.16 19.30 15.50 13.44
Relative humidity (%) 2004 54 53 49 51 66 80 79 83 77 65 52 45 Mean* 63.34 51.18 56.47 76.98 66.71 81.69 87.46 86.51 82.40 76.44 68.13 63.81
January February March April May June July August September October November December Total
24.4 61.1 43.8 24.8 160.7 222.1 64.6 0.6 0.0 602.1
Sl. No.
Particulars
Values Rating
Method employed
A. Physical properties 1. Mechanical analysis Coarse sand (%) Fine sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) 2. Bulk density (Mg m-3) B. Chemical properties 1. Soil pH (1:2.5 soil water extract) 2. Electrical conductivity (dSm-1) 3. Organic carbon (%) 4. Available nitrogen (N) (kg ha-1) 5. Available phosphorus (P2O5) (kg ha-1) 6. Available potassium (K2O) (kg ha-1) 7.6 Slightly pH meter (Piper, 1966) alkaline 6.28 Clay 14.27 Clay 27.52 Clay 51.99 Clay 1.33 International pipette method (Piper, 1966) International pipette method (Piper, 1966) International pipette method (Piper, 1966) International pipette method (Piper, 1966) Core Sampler Method (Dastane, 1967)
0.28 Normal Conductivity Bridge (Jackson, 1973) 0.52 Medium Wet oxidation method (Jackson, 1967) 221 Low Alkaline permanganate method (Subbaiah and Asija, 1959)
32.4 Medium Olsens method (Jackson, 1967) 318.7 High NH4OAC Extract method (Jackson, 1973)
Table 3. Salient feature of the growth regulators and chemicals used in experiment
Sl. No. 1.
Chemical Awan
Physiological effect Growth promoter, stimulates cell division, cell elongation and elongation of shoot, photosynthesis, RNA synthesis, membrane permeability to water uptake, prevents abscission of to leaves, enhance leaf area index leaf chlorphyll content in crop plants Growth retardant, controls vegetative growth, increases chlorphyll synthesis and cause uniform maturity Growth promoter, stimulates cell division, cell elongation, auxin metabolism, cell wall plasticity and permeability of cell membranes, RNA synthesis, induction of hydrolytic enzymes and increases plant height, increased mobilization and translocation of reserve food material Growth promoter has been found in increase the crop yield in enhancement in mobilization of photosynthetic activity and rapid increase in reducing sugars, soluble protein, succinate and changes in permeability of membrane Spraying the crop with cow and urine increase yield of aromatic grasses (Farmers note book, THE HINDU)
2.
Anti-gibberllin
3.
Gibberellins
4.
Miraculan
5.
Cow urine
consists of urea (10 Non-protein to 30 mg/dL), uric nitrogenous acid, creatine substance amino acid and ammonia
LEGEND
T10: Control
3.6.2 Planting
The 60 day old saplings raised from shoot cuttings were planted as per the recommended spacing 60 x 60 cm.
3.6.5 Harvesting
The crop was harvested after 5 months of DAP, three plants from each plot were uprooted for yield parameters and herbage yield was recorded per plot and calculated on hectare basis.
Total chlorophyll = chlorophyll 'a' + chlorophyll 'b' = 27.8 (A652) x Where, A = Absorbance at specific wave length (645, 652, 663 nm) V = Final volume of the chlorophyll extract (ml) W = Fresh weight of the sample (g) a = Path length of light (1 cm)
3.7.2.2 Carotenoid estimation The carotenoid content was estimated at 60, 90 and 120 days after planting following method of Goodwin and Briton (1988). Carotene content was estimated in each treatment in all the three replications by using acetone hexane extraction method. About 5 g of fresh leaf sample was taken from five leaves which was macerated by using 85 per cent acetone, till all the carotenoids are dissolved. The extract was filtered through muslin cloth and then transferred to 250 ml separating funnel. Then 100 ml distilled water and 100 ml hexane were added to the extract in the separating funnel. The solution was shaken properly and then allowed to settle. The lower layer of water was discarded and upper hexane layer was retained. The hexane fraction containing carotene was washed with distilled water for about three or four times with the help of separating funnel. The hexane fraction was then transferred to conical flask and to this smaller quantity of anhydrous sodium sulphate was added to remove the water completely in the final solution. Reading was taken at 448 nm wave length in the spectrophotometer. 3.7.2.3 Nitrate reductase activity The nitrage reductase activity (NRA) in vivo was assayed at 60, 90 and 120 DAS following by the method of Sardhambal et al. (1978). Leaves were cut into small round disc, weighed and suspended in 0.1 M kNo3 under bright light for 1 hour for complete stomatal opening. Then discs were transferred to 25 ml volumetric flasks containing 5 ml of stock solution containing 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.5). 0.02 M kNo3, propanol (5%) and 2 drops of chloromphenicol (0.5 mg/ml). The flasks were incubated at 30C for 30 minutes in dark and reaction was stopped by adding 0.1 ml of zinc acetate (0.1 M) and 1.9 ml of ethanol (70%). The contents were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes and supernatnat was collected. To the supernatent, 1.0 ml of sulphanilamide (1%) and 1 ml of NNEDA (N-Nipthyl ethylene diamine dihydrochloride 0.02%) were added and incubated at room temperature for 20 minutes. The activity of nitrate reductase was determined from a standard curve of kNo2 and expressed as moles No2 formed per gram fresh weight per hour. 3.7.2.4 Total phenols The phenol content was estimated at 60, 90 and 120 DAP by following Folin ciocatteau reagent form the alcohol filtrate (Sadasivam and Manikam, 1992) in oven dried samples. Extraction One gram of leaf tissue was weighed and made into small pieces and was boiled in 10 ml of 70 per cent alcohol for 5-10 minutes. The tissue was crushed with pestle and mortar and then filtered. The extracts were pooled and alcohol was evaporated on hot water bath and made up the volume to 10 ml with distilled water and this extract was stored in refrigerator at 4C. Procedure One ml alcohol extract was taken in a test tube to which one ml of FCR reagent followed by 2 ml of 2 per cent sodium carbonate was added. The tubes were shaken well and heated in a hot water bath for exactly one minute and then cooled under running tap water and blue colour developed was diluted with 25 ml distilled water and its absorbance was read at 650 nm in UV-vis spectrophotometer (ELICO, 159). The amount of phenols present in sample was calculated from a standard curve prepared from catechol and the content was expressed as mg per gram dry weight.
Number of oil glands was calculated by the replica method developed by Wolf et al. (1979) at 60, 90 and 120 DAP. Leaf samples were collected from three different plants in each treatment. Using applicator brush attached to correction fluid was dippled into thermocol, xylene flurol and then brush was stroked across the middle of the leaves, after a few seconds when the fluid became dry and firm replica was ready to be removed, a small piece of double adhesive celluloid tape was be recurred to a glass slide and the sticky surface was then placed over replica. The replica was mounted for viewing inprint of a distinct oil gland surrounded by large number of trichomes of dark structure. The member of oil glands were counted for three microscopic field and the mean of which was taken for further calculation. Then using occular and stage micrometer the area of microscopic field was calculated and number of oil glads per mm was thus estimated.
LA = Where, LA Wa Wd A
Wa x A Wd
= leaf area (dm/plant) = Weight of all leaves (inclusive of 20 discs weight) in grams = Weight of discs (g) = Area of disc
3.7.4.3 Leaf area index (LAI) LAI was calculated by dividing the leaf area per plant by the land area occupied by the plant (Sestak et al., 1972). Leaf area Land area
LAI =
3.7.4.4 Leaf area ratio (LAR) The leaf area ratio was worked out by the formula of Radford (1967) and expressed as cm/g.
LAR =
3.7.4.5 Leaf area duration (LAD) Leaf area duration is the integral of leaf area index over a growth period (Watson, 1952). LAD for various growth periods was worked out as per the formula of Power et al. (1967) and expressed in days.
Where,
L1 = LAI at i stage L (i+1)= LAI at (i+1)th stage t2-t1 = Time interval in days 3.7.4.6 Specific leaf area (SLA) The inverse of specific leaf weight is the specific leaf area and was calculated as follows.
th
SLA =
3.7.4.7 Specific leaf weight (SLW) The specific leaf weight (g cm-2) indicates the leaf thickness and was determined by the following formula. Leaf dry weight (g) Leaf area (cm2)
SLW =
3.7.4.8 Absolute growth rate (AGR) (g plant-1 day-1) It expresses the increasing dry weight per plant in unit time and was calculated by -1 -1 using the following formula (Radford, 1967) and expressed as g plant day .
AGR =
W 2 - W1 t2 - t1
Where, W 1 = Total dry weight of the plant (g) at time t1 W 2 = Total dry weight of the plant (g) at time t2 t2-t1 = Time interval in days 3.7.4.9 Relative growth rate It is the rate of increase in dry weight (mg/g/day) already present and was calculated by using the formula of Blackman (1919).
3.7.4.10 Net assimilation rate (NAR) Net assimilation rate is the rate of dry weight increased per unit leaf area per unit time. It was calculated by following the formula of Radford (1967) and expressed as mg cm-2 -1 day
NAR =
W2 - W1 t2 - t1
Where, A1 and W 1 = Leaf area (cm) and total dry weight of plant (g) respective at time t1. A2 and W 2 = Leaf area (cm) and total dry weight of plant (g) respective at time t2. t2-t1 = Time interval in days 3.7.4.11 Crop growth rate (CGR) Crop growth rate is the rate of dry matter production per unit ground area per unit time (Watson, 1952). It was calculated by using the following formula and expressed as g dm -1 2 day .
CGR =
W 2 - W1 t2 - t1
I X P
Where, W 1 = Dry weight of the plant (g) at time t1 W 2 = Dry weight of the plant (g) at time t2 t2-t1 = Time interval in days P = Unit land area
separation of layer essential oil was measured and its percentage was calculated as v/w on on dry weight basis (DWB). 3.7.5.3 Essential oil yield/ha The amount of oil obtained in mili litres was converted to kilograms by multiplying with specific gravity (0.95) (Shankaranarayan, 2002) of patchouli oil and expressed as kg/ha.
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 27.26 28.00 27.96 26.56 26.20 26.16 27.20 28.26 28.00 27.50 27.31 0.670 NS
Days after planting 90 80.33 72.90 57.43 56.33 73.50 69.00 66.73 62.90 66.90 64.56 67.06 2.455 7.290 120 84.31 83.31 60.19 61.02 76.81 75.81 70.82 72.90 70.90 70.21 72.31 2.399 7.621
At harvest 88.86 88.10 63.20 57.76 81.16 81.13 76.83 75.26 74.50 75.36 76.22 2.57 7.65
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 3.2 3.9 3.6 3.8 3.7 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 3.2 3.46 0.38 NS
Days after planting 90 18.70 20.03 18.90 18.83 22.43 21.03 18.60 18.60 18.36 18.30 19.34 0.670 1.990 120 26.10 25.10 24.50 21.20 30.10 29.90 22.40 23.20 23.7 23.3 25.16 1.22 3.62
At harvest 30.13 29.16 27.76 26.16 32.03 31.73 25.43 25.2 24.3 24.6 28.05 1.26 3.74
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 108.73 109.73 107.73 110.75 112.36 110.70 110.36 108.7 108.7 109.7 109.7 1.89 NS
Days after planting 90 519.6 505.0 484.0 452.0 528.0 516.6 414.0 449.0 456.6 417.3 474.23 20.32 60.36 120 1160.60 1091.60 1050.00 948.3 1250.0 1153.30 1160.0 1035.0 1165.0 1034.0 1104.0 65.19 193.61
At harvest 1581.30 1434.60 1385.00 1351.60 1761.60 1503.33 1164.00 1511.30 1471.60 1024.33 1468.83 122.06 362.51
Table 7. Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf dry weight (g/plant) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 NAA @ 20 ppm T2 NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 4.93 4.33 5.20 5.76 4.32 4.30 4.56 4.43 4.40 4.76 4.70 0.495 NS
Days after planting 90 69.92 59.50 56.83 50.20 68.60 59.50 57.00 56.21 60.66 43.60 59.28 4.54 13.49 120 108.16 91.40 91.56 68.70 118.83 101.90 93.63 73.56 85.53 66.56 59.98 4.864 14.846
At harvest 131.50 105.20 96.40 98.70 138.83 125.20 100.30 104.90 105.50 89.90 109.68 4.509 13.390
120 days after planting. At harvest the treatment GA3 @ 20 ppm recorded maximum number of leaves per plant (1761.6) which is on par with NAA @ 20 ppm, NAA @ 40 ppm and GA3 @ 40 ppm, miraculan @ 2000 ppm and cow urine. But, no significant differences were observed between treatments of different concentrations of mepiquat chloride miraculan @ 1000 ppm and cow urine (20% v/v). Control exhibited significantly lower number of leaves over all other treatments.
Table 8. Influence of plant growth regulators on stem dry weight (g/plant) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 5.93 5.86 6.26 6.00 6.06 5.80 5.80 5.86 5.90 5.46 5.89 0.317 NS
Days after planting 90 45.86 42.00 35.96 38.20 54.86 42.56 37.93 38.86 40.86 39.83 41.69 2.52 7.494 120 107.36 86.94 72.23 74.08 117.06 105.86 74.46 75.86 73.30 68.64 85.58 5.36 15.94
At harvest 120.36 99.94 86.40 87.08 130.10 118.86 88.86 87.46 85.23 81.64 98.59 5.36 15.93
Table 9. Influence of plant growth regulators on total dry matter (g/plant) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 10.37 10.40 11.67 11.96 10.63 10.31 10.59 10.49 10.50 10.45 10.73 0.59 NS
Days after planting 90 115.20 100.34 94.54 85.78 132.85 102.27 98.92 95.85 102.27 84.20 101.22 5.711 16.961 120 216.23 179.09 164.56 143.47 236.65 208.45 168.84 150.22 159.61 135.94 176.30 7.01 20.84
At harvest 252.61 189.92 184.07 186.45 269.70 205.78 193.17 191.17 191.52 172.29 209.02 7.34 21.81
Table 10. Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf area (dm/plant) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 8.77 7.73 9.31 10.48 8.74 7.29 7.56 8.34 7.77 7.64 8.36 1.087 NS
Days after planting 90 32.89 28.09 26.93 26.02 36.44 30.62 29.47 29.89 29.00 19.97 28.93 1.968 5.844 120 52.18 42.80 42.55 35.93 56.53 56.07 44.44 32.67 38.90 31.48 43.25 2.742 8.142
At harvest 63.75 48.46 44.48 51.17 64.02 62.44 47.08 46.19 47.39 41.95 51.69 2.667 7.920
Table 11. Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf area index (LAI) in patchouli
Days after planting Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 0.24 0.21 0.25 0.29 0.21 0.20 0.21 0.23 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.03 NS 90 0.91 0.75 0.74 0.68 1.01 0.81 0.72 0.73 0.80 0.55 0.77 0.060 0.179 120 1.46 1.18 1.18 0.99 1.54 1.44 1.23 1.39 0.99 0.88 1.22 0.07 0.233 1.73 1.34 1.23 1.42 1.77 1.77 1.30 1.28 1.31 1.16 1.43 0.074 0.220 At harvest
Table 12. Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf area duration (days) in patchouli
Treatments T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5%
60-90 17.36 15.09 14.59 14.68 18.41 15.43 13.88 14.54 15.32 11.51 5.08 1.098 3.244
90-120 35.44 29.44 28.95 25.29 38.32 32.15 30.80 24.68 28.29 24.77 29.79 1.917 5.692
120-150 48.54 46.29 36.26 38.02 49.81 47.54 38.13 32.86 35.95 30.59 40.43 3.846 11.422
Table 13. Influence of plant growth regulators on leaf area ratio (cm/g/plant) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 79.16 74.87 77.27 85.79 72.92 70.50 71.51 79.70 74.21 73.80 75.97 6.96 NS
Days after planting 90 28.59 26.72 27.64 28.86 27.43 25.89 29.67 27.65 28.32 27.08 27.78 0.74 NS 120 24.28 23.91 25.92 25.03 23.47 25.41 26.23 24.93 24.36 23.19 24.67 1.502 NS
At harvest 24.01 23.56 24.15 24.33 22.42 25.15 24.71 23.93 23.93 22.02 25.07 1.682 NS
Table 14. Influence of plant growth regulators on specific leaf area (cm/g) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 48.17 6.78 46.68 44.70 52.46 51.77 44.68 47.41 47.31 45.57 47.73 1.697 NS
Days after planting 90 48.83 47.15 47.53 45.94 49.29 47.94 45.67 45.94 47.92 45.88 47.32 0.698 2.073 120 48.17 46.78 46.48 44.70 52.46 51.77 47.41 44.68 45.57 47.31 47.73 1.679 NS
At harvest 47.51 45.53 45.88 51.68 46.08 51.01 46.78 44.12 44.98 46.68 47.03 1.624 NS
Table 15. Influence of plant growth regulators on specific leaf weight (mg/cm) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 5.56 5.65 5.94 5.56 5.65 5.94 6.03 5.37 5.65 6.22 5.75 0.42 NS
Days after planting 90 21.79 20.87 21.01 21.23 21.86 21.23 20.85 20.47 21.79 20.26 21.13 0.31 0.92 120 20.75 21.42 21.51 19.15 22.45 21.13 21.42 21.98 21.12 21.13 21.04 0.69 NS
At harvest 21.04 21.70 19.43 19.72 21.79 21.70 21.41 22.74 22.26 21.42 21.32 0.690 NS
Table 16. Influence of plant growth regulators on absolute growth rate (AGR, g/day) in patchouli
Treatments T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5%
60-90 3.467 2.997 2.753 2.453 4.070 3.057 2.940 2.840 3.053 2.453 3.008 0.184 0.546
90-120 3.363 2.223 2.330 1.917 3.457 2.597 2.323 1.810 1.907 1.720 2.465 0.150 0.446
120-150 1.428 0.887 0.701 0.647 1.430 1.207 1.099 1.428 1.061 1.210 1.088 0.057 0.170
Table 17. Influence of plant growth regulators on crop growth rate (CGR, g/dm/day) in patchouli
Treatments T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5%
60-90 0.085 0.082 0.076 0.068 0.096 0.083 0.082 0.079 0.085 0.068 0.080 0.003 0.009
90-120 0.096 0.071 0.064 0.053 0.099 0.093 0.064 0.050 0.053 0.048 0.069 0.003 0.008
120-150 0.033 0.030 0.024 0.018 0.039 0.033 0.019 0.039 0.029 0.035 0.030 0.001 0.003
Table 18. Influence of plant growth regulators on relative growth rate (RGR, g/g/day) in patchouli
Treatments T1 NAA @ 20 ppm T2 NAA @ 40 ppm T3 Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5%
Table 19. Influence of plant growth regulators on net assimilation rate (NAR, mg/cm/day) in patchouli
Treatments T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5%
60-90 0.888 0.827 0.754 0.657 0.957 0.857 0.799 0.786 0.822 0.845 0.822 0.021 0.063
90-120 0.350 0.325 0.278 0.274 0.416 0.344 0.305 0.278 0.217 0.263 0.310 0.011 0.033
120-150 0.144 0.081 0.051 0.054 0.161 0.141 0.083 0.081 0.061 0.067 0.089 0.005 0.014
RGR showed no significant difference between 120 DAP to harvest. At 60-90 DAP the RGR recorded significantly higher value (0.36) in GA3 @ 20 ppm which was on par with NAA @ 20 ppm followed by all other treatments except different concentration of mepiquat chloride which were on par with control. The same trend was noticed among the treatments between 90-120 DAP.
Table 19. Influence of plant growth regulators on net assimilation rate (NAR, mg/cm/day) in patchouli
Treatments T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5%
60-90 0.888 0.827 0.754 0.657 0.957 0.857 0.799 0.786 0.822 0.845 0.822 0.021 0.063
90-120 0.350 0.325 0.278 0.274 0.416 0.344 0.305 0.278 0.217 0.263 0.310 0.011 0.033
120-150 0.144 0.081 0.051 0.054 0.161 0.141 0.083 0.081 0.061 0.067 0.089 0.005 0.014
Table 21. Influence of plant growth regulators on chlorophyll a and b content (mg/g fresh weight) in patchouli
Chlorophyll a Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 1.303 1.300 1.303 1.293 1.303 1.290 1.303 1.300 1.300 1.310 1.302 0.347 NS Days after planting 90 1.322 1.249 1.247 1.250 1.400 1.371 1.307 1.309 1.312 1.308 1.307 0.0144 0.0429 120 1.303 1.300 1.293 1.303 1.303 1.290 1.300 1.303 1.310 1.300 1.302 0.347 NS 60 0.6993 0.6993 0.6997 0.7010 0.7007 0.7007 0.6983 0.6973 0.6973 0.6993 0.6993 0.027 NS
Chlorophyll b Days after planting 90 0.7017 0.7013 0.6987 0.6980 0.7000 0.6970 0.6997 0.7000 0.696 0.6963 0.6989 0.017 NS 120 0.7007 0.6993 0.6980 0.6987 0.6993 0.7007 0.6973 0.6983 0.6993 0.6973 0.6993 0.027 NS
Table 22. Influence of plant growth regulators on total chlorophyll (mg/g fresh weight) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 2.02 1.999 2.003 2.014 1.994 2.003 1.988 2.000 1.999 2.073 2.010 0.338 NS
Days after planting 90 2.023 1.984 1.979 1.948 2.116 2.091 2.007 2.043 2.008 2.004 2.020 0.166 0.493 120 1.994 1.999 2.014 2.003 2.002 2.003 2.003 1.988 2.073 1.999 2.010 0.338 NS
Table 23. Influence of plant growth regulators on carotenoid content (mg/100 g fresh weight in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 10.37 10.40 11.67 11.96 10.63 10.31 10.59 10.49 10.50 10.45 10.73 0.59 NS
Days after planting 90 13.33 13.55 13.55 13.66 13.44 13.77 13.78 13.22 14.00 13.88 13.62 0.78 NS 120 13.55 13.55 13.61 13.41 13.81 13.78 13.22 14.11 13.38 13.62 13.21 0.78 NS
4.4.5 Nitrate reductase activity (moles NO2 fixed/g fresh weight/ hour)
The data on nitrate reductase activity as influenced by growth regulators is presented in Table 25. The results revealed that NRA was highest during 60 DAP and declined thereafter at 90 and 120 DAP. No significant difference was observed among the treatments at 60 DAP where as at 90 DAP GA3 @ 20 ppm recorded significantly higher NRA (48.70) which was on par with NAA @ 20 ppm. GA3 @ 40 PPM followed by remaining treatments which were on par with each other and control. At 120 DAP NRA was significantly higher (29.23) in treatment GA3 @ 20 ppm which was on par with NAA @ 20 ppm and GA3 @ 40 ppm this is followed by mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm and NAA @ 40 ppm which were on par with each other. Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm, miraculan @ 2000 ppm and cow urine (20% v/v) did not show significant different among each other and also over control.
Table 24. Influence of plant growth regulators on phenols content (mg per g dry weight) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 0.260 0.267 0.247 0.250 0.250 0.247 0.253 0.240 0.247 0.257 0.252 0.012 NS
Days after planting 90 0.533 0.467 0.493 0.407 0.423 0.320 0.290 0.310 0.293 0.293 0.378 0.015 0.044 120 0.740 0.677 0.620 0.33 0.640 0.570 0.513 0.553 0.487 0.450 0.585 0.017 0.052
Table 25. Influence of plant growth regulators on nitrate reductase activity NRA ( moles of NO2 fixed/g fresh weight) in patchouli
Treatments 60 T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% 68.06 64.73 63.16 64.36 63.03 64.3 61.20 66.23 67.46 66.03 64.86 1.551 NS
Days after planting 90 47.43 44.50 42.40 4.2.43 48.70 45.83 45.53 44.03 43.10 42.10 44.60 1.220 3.622 120 28.76 24.50 25.46 22.26 29.23 27.53 28.40 23.93 22.76 21.43 24.83 0.801 2.380
Table 26. Influence of plant growth regulators on yield parameters of patchouli (FWB and DWB)
Herbage yield Treatments T1 - NAA @ 20 ppm T2 - NAA @ 40 ppm T3 - Mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm T4 - Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm T5 - GA @ 20 ppm T6 - GA @ 40 ppm T7 Miraculan @ 1000 ppm T8 Miraculan @ 2000 ppm T9 Cow urine (20% v/v) T10 Control Mean S.Em CD at 5% Fresh weight basis (q/ha) 51.59 47.70 45.71 45.69 53.62 49.16 47.85 44.67 42.81 4226 47.09 1.609 4.778 Shade dry weight basis (q/ha) 12.55 11.52 11.17 11.50 13.07 12.04 11.63 10.86 10.58 10.29 11.52 0.506 1.502 Oil (%) 2.98 2.82 2.64 2.54 2.84 2.92 2.53 2.52 2.47 2.49 2.67 0.001 0.002 Oil content (kg/ha) 35.56 29.05 27.47 27.62 37.00 33.39 27.74 26.36 24.85 24.36 29.36 0.808 2.404
V. DISCUSSION
Plant growth and development is a complex process. There are two important factors which influence the reaction and metabolism of plants and thus regulate the developmental pattern of a plant, one of them is a system of endogenous chemical messengers, called hormones which exert important regulatory effects upon the development of individual organs of the plant as well as the plant as a whole. The second one comprises more or less interdependent set of external environmental factors, such as light, water temperature and gravity, which play indispensable role in the development as do hereditary factors which have been transmitted to it from its biological parents. Thus, the final pattern of development and behaviour of each individual plant is the remit of a complex interplay between genetic, hormonal and environmental factors. The role of plant growth regulators in optimising the yield and quality of various economical parts of crop plants is an established fact. PGRs are known to modify growth by increasing or decreasing the morphological traits such as plant height, number of branches etc. The plant growth regulators optimise the yield of the plant by bringing necessary physiological changes. Patchouli being an aromatic crop contains the essential oil in its leaves, stem and also flowers in some species. It is possible to increase the herbage and also the oil yield by exogenous application of PGRs. The plant hormones are broadly been characterized into five distinct and diversified groups. These include auxins and gibberllins, that stimulate predominantly cell elongation the cytokinins which are purine bases that stimulate cell division, ethylene, the olefinic gaseous molecule that regulates fruit ripening and abscisic acid (ABA), the sesquiterpene that regulates senescence and abscission of plant parts and helps in plant water relations. While these bioregulators are distinctive both in chemical characteristics and in exhibiting characteristic growth responses, each of the bio-regulators has potentiality to alter almost all the aspects of plant growth and development as both promoter as well as retardant when used in appropriate concentrations. Although extensive studies on the influence of PGRs on various crop plants have been made the studies on the effect of PGRs on aromatic and medicinal plants is very much limited. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to study the effect of growth regulators (promoters and retardants) on growth and yield of patchouli and results obtained are discussed in this chapter.
height due to mepiquat chloride appears to be because of reduction in cell division and cell elongation which caused inhibitory action in the biosynthetic pathway of GA3 (Moore, 1980). Similar observations were also reported by Bhaskar et al. (1997) and Misra (1995) in patchouli. Duhan et al. (1978) also reported same in Mentha citrata. The number of leaves and number of branches per plant are important morphological characters which are directly related to herbage yield. The application of growth regulators increased the number of leaves and total number of branches per plant. The data on the number of leaves and total number of branches revealed that the growth regulators showed a significant increase in number of leaves and total number of branches in the present investigation at 90, 120 DAP and harvest. The treatment GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 20 ppm recorded significantly higher number of leaves and number of branches as compared to control. Similarly Krishnamoorthy and Madalageri (2000) and Mousa and Emary (1983) reported increased number of leaves and number of branches by application of growth regulators in ajowan and patchouli respectively. The increased number of branches per plants perhaps is due to increased polar transport of auxins towards basal axillary buds leading to increased number of branches, thereby increasing the number of leaves by growth regulators and this may be attributed to production of secondary and teritary branches (Krishnamoorthy and Madalageri, 2000).
The relative growth rate (RGR) is also an important growth parameter which decreased from 60 DAP to harvest. The RGR showed significant differences due to growth regulator treatment at 60-90 DAP, 90-120 DAP but failed to impart significant difference between 120 DAP to harvest. Shrivastava and Tiwari (1981) indicated that spraying of TIBA and planofix significantly increased RGR in chickpea. Similarly, the present data also indicated that during early stage of crop growth, RGR was significantly more with use of growth regulator. Net assimilation rate (NAR) synonymously called as unit leaf rate expresses the rate of dry weight increased at any instant time on leaf area basis with leaf representing an estimate of the size of the assimilatory surface area. Gregory (1926) was first to suggest the use of this function in the analysis of growth, there on used by several workers in affluent crops. In general, application of growth regulators showed the higher value for NAR at all the growth stages. GA3 @ 20 ppm significantly increased the NAR, this may be attributed to increase in the dry matter production by maintaining more number of green leaves. Growth regulator Triacontanol significantly increased NAR in Ocimum carnorum (Gupta et al., 1995). Baghel and Yadava (1994) reported that foliar application of NAA significantly increased NAR in blackgram.
in promoting the synthesis of chlorophyll as well as development of chloroplast (Fetcher and Cullagh, 1971). These results were in accordance with Kanjilal and Singh (1998) who explained that application gibberlic acid increased chlorophyll content in chamomile. Similarly Singh and Hippalgaonkar (1993) explained application of kinetin increased total chlorophyll (a+b) content. The carotenoid content in leaves (mg/100 g fresh weight) did not exhibit significant difference among the treatments. On an average, a total carotenoid content of 10.73, 13.62, and 13.68 was obtained at 60, 90 and 120 DAP respectively. However, Kanjilal and Singh (1998) reported that on an average 10.36 in chamomile. Significant differences were observed among the treatments with respect to phenol content at 90 and 120 DAP wherein NAA @ 20 ppm recorded maximum phenol content at 90 and 120 DAP. This increase in phenol content at later stages plant growth may be due to enhancement of synthesis of phenolic glycosides by application of chemicals to yield free phenols (Sharma et al., 1983). Similar observations were recoded by Chakraborthy et al. (2002). The enzyme nitrate reductase catalyses the reduction of nitrate to nitrite which is first step in the assimilation of nitrate by plants. The reaction takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell in both roots and shoots (Kumar et al., 1989). It has been reported by Bowerman and Godman (1971) that the total dry matter accumulation is significantly and positively associated with corresponding nitrate reductase activity in clocium. In general NRA was highest during 60 DAP and it declined in later stages. It was observed that activity of nitrate reductase increased significantly in the treatment that received GA3 @ 20 ppm, NAA @ 20 ppm and GA3 @ 40 ppm. The increased nitrate reductase activity may be related to enhanced NR protein and NR-mRNA contents by application of NAA (Christophe et al., 1997). Similar observations were recorded by Charlotte et al. (1982) who reported increased nitrate reductase activity by GA, kinetin and zeatin treatments over control in dwarf bean.
Oil per cent recorded significant difference among treatments at harvest where in NAA @ 20 ppm recorded maximum oil per cent followed by GA3 @ 20 ppm. This increase in oil per cent may be related to increased number of oil glands/mm leaf area. Oil content (kg/ha) recorded significant differences among the growth regulators at harvest where in GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 20 ppm resulted in higher oil content which were on par with each other. Existence of positive relationship between yield and concentration of essential oil was reported by Rajeshwara et al. (1993). Increase in biomass and essential oil yields of many aromatic crops through application of growth regulators were reported by Mohammed et al. (1983) and Singh et al. (1989) in geranium. In the present investigation the application of PGRs resulted in more number of leaves and higher leaf yield which ultimately recorded higher essential oil yield. A direct effect of plant growth regulators on monoterpene metabolism through increased activity of enzyme that synthesize essential oil terpenes leading to accumulation of essential oils was observed in several species belonging to family Lamiaceae. Such a probability existence in the food crops such studies explain higher content of essential oil in aromatic crops also is obtained in the treated plants. Similar observation were also made by Bhaskar et al. (1997) in patchouli reporting maximum oil content by application of growth regulator TIBA. Bhattacharya et al. (1995) also reported increase in essential oil content of rose-scented geranium by application of GA3 and NAA and Krishnamoorthy and Madalageri (2000) reported increase in essential oil content in ajowan by NAA application. All these studies clearly explain application of growth regulators influence the growth and yield irrespective of type of crops. Thus, an increase in the essential oil content in patchouli due to PGRs is not an exception.
VI. SUMMARY
A field experiment was conducted at Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad during kharif 2004 to study influence of different growth regulators on various morphological, biochemical anatomical and yield and yield components in patchouli. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design (RBD) with three replications. The salient findings of the investigation are summarised here under. 1. 2. 3. 4. The plant height increased significantly due to NAA @ 20 ppm followed by GA3 @ 20 ppm as compared to control. The treatment mepiquat chloride @ 500 ppm and mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm reduced the plant height. Number of branches and number of leaves were increased significantly with GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 20 ppm showing profound effect of growth regulators. Leaf dry matter was maximum during harvest. The application of growth promoters GA3 @ 20 ppm, NAA @ 20ppm increased leaf dry weight significantly when compared to control. All the treatments showed significant increase in stem dry weight and maximum was noticed at harvest. Among various treatments tried, maximum stem dry weight was noticed in GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 20 ppm. Total dry matter increased significantly due to application of growth regulators. The treatments with GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 20ppm recorded significantly higher values for TDM over all other treatments at all stages except 60 DAP. The significant increase in leaf area, leaf area index, leaf area duration was noticed in all the treatments at all the stages except 60 DAP over control. GA3 @ 20 ppm recorded highest LA, LAI and LAD. Specific leaf area, specific leaf weight differed significantly at 90 DAP among treatments. Among the treatments GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 20 ppm recorded higher SLA and SLW over other treatments and control. Application of growth regulators GA3 @ 20 ppm significantly increased AGR, CGR, NAR at 60-90, 90-120 and 120 DAP to harvest whereas RGR was significantly increased with GA3 @ 20 ppm at 60 90 and 90-120 DAP. A significantly higher number of oil glands was observed at 90 and 120 DAP. NAA @ 20 ppm exhibited highest number of oil glands. Total chlorophyll content differed due to growth regulators. Total chlorophyll content were significantly higher with GA3 @ 20 ppm and GA3 @ 40 ppm at 90 DAP. The results on carotenoid content by application of growth regulators were nonsignificant. The significant difference among the treatments with respect to phenol content was noticed at 90 and 120 DAP. NAA @ 20 ppm recorded higher phenol content over other treatments. Nitrate reductase activity was maximum at 60 DAP and decreased thereafter. The application of growth promoters GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 40 ppm increased NRA significantly @ 90 and 120 DAP when compared to control. The results on various yield and yield attributes indicated that all the yield contributing characters viz., fresh and shade dried herbage yield, essential oil per cent and essential oil content (kg/ha) increased significantly due to growth regulator treatments GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 20 ppm. Based on the above results, it is concluded that, the application of GA3 @ 20 ppm and NAA @ 20 ppm was more effective in increasing the yield potential.
5. 6.
7. 8.
15.
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EFFECT OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF PATCHOULI (Pogostemon cablin Benth. L.)
ANILKUMAR M. 2005 Dr. A. S. NALINI PRABHAKAR
MAJOR ADVISOR
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad during kharif 2004 to study the influence of different growth regulators, on various morphological, physiological, biochemical, anatomical, yield and yield components in patchouli. The experiment was laid out on randomized block design using four growth regulators (GA3, NAA, Mepiquat chloride and Miraculan) at different concentrations with three replications. Growth regulators significantly influenced the morphological characters such as plant height, number of branches per plant and number of leaves per plant. Further number of leaves and number of branches per plant was significantly higher with GA3 (20 ppm) followed by NAA (20 ppm). The leaf dry weight and stem dry weight were significantly higher with application at GA3 (20 ppm) followed by NAA (20 ppm). The growth regulator GA3 (20 ppm) and NAA (20 ppm) revealed significantly increased LAI, LAD, AGR, CGR and NAR at 90, 120 DAP and at harvest. The results on various biochemical parameters on anatomical parameters revealed significant differences among treatments at 90 and 120 DAP except carotenoid content. Among growth regulators GA3 (20 ppm) followed by NAA (20 ppm) recorded higher chlorophyll content. Higher NRA, higher phenol content and higher number of soil glands. The results of various yield and yield attributes indicated that all the yield contributing characters viz., fresh and shade dried herbage yield, essential oil per cent and essential oil content (kg/ha) increased significantly due to growth regulator treatments. It is concluded that, the application of GA3 (20 ppm) followed by NAA (20 ppm) was more effective in increasing the yield potential.