Arab J Geosci DOI 10.

1007/s12517-009-0102-9

ORIGINAL PAPER

Environmental changes in the wetlands of Southern Iraq based on palynological studies

Thamer Khazal Al-Ameri & Sahar Y. Jassim

Received: 19 February 2009 / Accepted: 21 October 2009 # Saudi Society for Geosciences 2009

Abstract Palynological techniques are useful in reconstructing past environments, especially when other sources of information are lacking. We have embarked on a palynological study of the wetlands in Southern Iraq in an attempt to determine the nature and extent of past plant communities and other conditions prior to the drying of the wetland in the 1990s. Ten 1-m depth cores were collected from selected locations in marshes and shallow open water wetlands in Mesopotamian wetlands of Southern Iraq. Pollen diagrams from three short cores from the Hawizeh wetlands serve as a reference because this site has not been drained. The palynomorphs in these cores were Gramineae, Chenopodiaceae, Typha, Isonandra lanceolata, Bursarea, Artocarpus, Ireantea, Arenga, Crinum, Palmae, Navia, Tofieldia, Ipomorea, Xyris, and Morus. Fungal spores including Polyporisporites, Pluricellaesporites palyadosporites, Fusiformisporites, Spegazzinites indicus, Diporisporites, Plochmopellinites, Lycoperdon, Miliolinites, Dryadosporites constrictus, and Trichothyrites padapakarensis were noteworthy. Charcoal was scattered through the cores and indicate activities associated with human settlements. Many other forms of cuticles, filaments, insects, algae, and foraminifera test linings were also recorded. A second set of pollen samples were analyzed from 160 soil samples from eight cores collected from the wetland area which was dried during the 1990s. These data show a
T. K. Al-Ameri (*) : S. Y. Jassim Department of Geology, College of Science, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq e-mail: thamer_alameri@yahoo.com

mixture of pollen and spores that could be used to evaluate past vegetation, climatic, and ecological changes. Preliminary results indicated that chenopodiaceous have increased while germinate types have declined which probably reflected desertification and a trend towards a more aeolian landscape during the 1990s. It is hoped that these studies will be useful in establishing conditions of the wetlands prior to destruction and will assist in setting restoration goals in the future. Case studies of one deep borehole (153 m) near Amara city for evaluating late Quaternary history and dig of 3 m depth to evaluate ancient desertification by wetland dryness were taken for correlation and connection with this recent sediment. Keywords Ahwar . Wetland . Southern Iraq . Pollen . Fungi . Paleoenviroments

Introduction Palynological studies for soil samples are well established to evaluate environmental changes and paleovegetation (Zonneveld 1996; Traverse 1988; Horn 1994; Wicander and Monroe 2004), human impact and adaptation (Eriksen and Straus 1998; Yasuda et al. 2000), sea level changes and the flood catastrophe (Al-Ameri et al. 2000; RossignolMartine 1995), rise and demise of human culture (Robert 1998; Leroi-Gourhan 1981), and many other disciplines all coupled with a science called Quaternary Palynology that deals with natural events during human life on earth. In this scenario, studies based on pollen diagram are done on the wetland area in Southern Iraq, Ahwar in local

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terminology for wetland areas and special type of living for their environmental changes especially the plant communities and local climatic equilibrium in this area as part of the global model prior to and after the wetland dryness in 1990s as well as the Holocene history of the nature and human settlements and evolution in Southern Mesopotamia. Historically, Southern Mesopotamian peoples developed the earliest civilization of the world. The wetland (Ahwar) area have been formed since the deluge time of the main post global glacial melt 10,000 years ago that raised oceanic water level to 70 m (the last and the more active successive rise during the ice melting 18,000 to 10,000 years ago) and hence oceanic water from the Arabian sea were pushed in transgression to the greater Mesopotamian valley and formed the Arabian Gulf since the early Holocene (Purser 1973; Uchupi et al. 1996; Al-Ameri et al. 2000). This scenario was proven in the global context by Larcomb et al. (1995) based on coral reef changes in the Great Barrier Reef of the East Australian shelf and by Rossignol-Martine (1995) on the basis of pollen records in the Eastern Mediterranean for the glacialinterglacial transitions. Retreat of this transgressed oceanic water 6,000 years ago (Al-Ameri 2000; Aqrawi 2001) have formed the theme for the water fill in the depressions of Southern Iraq while continued water supply from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers have formed this continued ecosystem of the wetland in Southern Iraq. This wetland ecosystem could be represented as part of the cyclic successive stages of geographic development of past, present, and future in Mesopotamia (Al-Ameri et al. 2000) as a response to transgressions and regressions of the latest glacial epoch on earth. Accumulated sediments in this wetland area are fluvial clay and sand during the Pleistocene while the Holocene sediments are of fluvial sand, marsh organic sediment, marine sand and silt, peat and fluvial clay and silt. Ahwar region of Southern Mesopotamia represent today the locally semiarid region bound by temperate region in the north and arid region in the south, between these is vegetated area and well-adapted human life throughout history. Hence, any environmental change could disturb this equilibrium and desertification will happen as well as soil destruction. (Monroe et al. 2007). The present global warming could accelerate this scenario. But keeping the water cover of the Ahwar could keep this equilibrium in stable position, otherwise catastrophe could happen. Accordingly, this study is aimed for the clarification of environmental and climatic changes, involving Ahwar dryness in South Iraq to predict solutions for preventing present and future catastrophe of desertification, food resources shortage, and local people suffering. For this goal, studies will be performed for the historic development of this wetland and case studies of this phenomenon during

the late Quaternary history of the Mesopotamia in South Iraq as well as present changes.

Materials and methods For the fulfillment of this study, soil samples were collected from localities illustrated in Fig. 1 with latitude and longitude values. They are of the following types: 1. Eight hand cores of 1 m depth. They are surface cores collected from marshes (Ahwar) and wetland areas (Fig. 2) of Al-Athem (3142/4745), Ummulnaage (3136/4734) and (3135/4740), AlBaghdadia (3102/4702), Al-Mashab (3040/ 4745), Al-Kurmashya (3049/4634), and Abo Zarak (3109/4638) and (3105/4637). Fourteen to 18 soil samples were collected from each of these cores. 2. Dig hole of 3 m depth in the archeological site of Ummulakareb area, 25 km west of Al-Rifae city of AlNasiriyah region with location of (4548/3135). Seventeen samples were collected systematically from this dig hole as well as five samples from the royal house of the same archeological site. 3. Drilling cores of deep boreholes were performed according the following: (a) Borehole 18 drilled by the Metallurgical and Geological Survey Company located between the cities of Qurna and Amarah within (4725/3125) and of 152 m depth. Sixty soil samples were collected systematically. (b) Borehole Abo-Zarak of 33 m depth located in Ahwar Abo-Zarak, 25 km northeast of the city of Nasiriyah. One hundred twenty soil samples were collected systematically. Palynological preparations are performed by standard maceration techniques of HCl and HF treatment, acetolysis, sieving with 16 m nylon mesh, stained with safranin, and slicked on slide by glycerin oil and/or celusize. They have been stored in the Department of Geology, College of Science, University of Baghdad.

Late Quaternary history It is evident from the pollen diagram (Fig. 3) of deep borehole no. 18 40 km south of the city of Amarah (AlAmeri et al. 2000) that this succession could be correlated with the late Quaternary period of the last 50,000 years of earth history in this locality and could be subdivided into three main stratigraphic intervals of historic events on Mesopotamian peoples. These are:

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Fig. 1 Location map of the studied sections in Southern Mesopotamia

Latest Pleistocene nature This constitutes the interval of deeper than 62 m and characterized by no marine-inhabited palynomorph, abundant chenopodiaceous and Artemisia pollen with few palmate, poaceae, and fungi. These characteristics could indicate land area with no marine influence and cold arid to humid paleoclimate according to the comparison with environmental significance of major pollen producers of the last 40,000 years in earth history of the Middle East (El-Muslimani 1987 and Zeist and Bottema 1977) and their habitat (Barnet 1989). The age interval of this succession is 11,00050,000 years before present by comparison with the global interval of Traverse (1988) and sealand correlation of pollen records in the Eastern Mediterranean for the glacialinterglacial transition (Rossignol-Martine 1995) and palaeolithic landscape of Europe (Van Andel and Tzedakis 1996). Accordingly, this interval is equivalent to the late glacial age of the Quaternary that stored 70 km3 of ice on land which affected the sea level to stabilize with 130 m below the present sea level (Wicander and Monroe 2004). The effect of this natural phenomenon in the Middle East is the

extension of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in a valley represented today by the Arabian Gulf to make their input to the Arabian Ocean in the Hormuz Strait (Fig. 4) with some tributaries within the valley to form delta. This delta is evident by microtopography provinces of the Arabian Gulf (Uchupi et al. 1996) based on data from 3.5 kHz recording obtained during Atlantis II cruise 93 leg 18 supplemented with data obtained during leg 17. That valley with its river tributaries, lakes, water falls from mountains of the present location of the Arabian Gulf Island such as Bahrain, and the temperate climate (Servant et al. 1993; Starkel 1993) could have attracted human settlements that cultivated the area and domesticated some animals. Probably, they used woody boats of the ancient time for their aquatic transport in a Paleolithic culture (Al-Ameri 2001). Anthropological studies, viz Wicander and Monroe (2004) and Stanley (1989), have gathered evidences that CroMagnon humans closely resemble European and Middle Eastern today man who had evolved since 35,000 years ago. He characterized by brain volume of about 1,6001,900 cm3 and 170220 m tall while modern man have brain volume of 1,4001,800 cm3 and of 160190 m tall. They have been

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characterized by brain volume 1,4001,600 cm3 and <170 cm tall with muscles have settled in caves of high mountains such as Northern Iraqi caves such as Shanidar Cave (Solecki 1957; Braidwood and Bruce 1960), as well as caves of Northern Spain, Northern France, and Germany to avoid ice storms and the very cold climate. With the appearance of Cro-Magnons, human's evolution has become almost entirely cultural rather than biological, their culture was the Paleolithic. They were mainly hunters who used a variety of specialized tools in their hunts, including perhaps the bow and arrow. They were also skilled in drawing, painting, and making rock art. Early Holocene environments This constitutes the depth interval in borehole 18 of 62 up to 13 m with time interval of 10,5007,500 years before present. Sediments of this interval is of mainly clay and characterized by occurrence of the marine inhibitors dinoflagellate cysts, aquatic fungi, foraminifera test lining (FTL), and fossils gastropods and pelecypods with terrestrial pollen to indicate marine influence by comparison with studies of the marine-inhabited palynomorph by Barnet (1989) and Tyson (1995). On the other hand, spores and pollen of land plant in these sediments have shown high occurrences of poaceae (Graminidites and Graminea cerealea) that could indicate summer rainfalls and irrigation as well as winter rainfall to that formed in humid air (ElMuslimani 1987). The presence of palms, indicated by the records of Pinanga and Iriatria (Fig. 5), could indicate high temperature while chenopodiaceous and Artemisia have decreased to confirm changes equivalent to global ice melt with the end of the last glacial age of Europe and North

Fig. 2 Selected photographs of 1-m depth cores in the soil of Ahwar of Southern Iraq

recorded in Southern France and the Middle East mainly in the coasts of the Mediterranean ocean and lowest Mesopotamia in the valley of what we call today the Arabian Gulf. But communities of that humans have retreated during the last cold glacial period (22,00010,000 years ago) to the low valleys of warm climate which was probably the lowest Mesopotamian area of the Arabian Gulf region before its filled with oceanic water while the Neanderthal man who
Fig. 3 Pollen diagram of the deep borehole no. 18 30 km south of Amara city showing climatic changes and oceanic transgression time during the late Quaternary history of Southern Mesopotamia, modified after Al-Ameri et al. (2000)

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Fig. 4 Successive stages of geographic developments of past, present, and future events in Mesopotamia during the late Quaternary

America and hence the Holocene stage influencing the earth to mark its start at 10,500 years before present (Traverse 1988; Wicander and Monroe 2004). Ice melt were charged to the sea water and hence raised the global sea level to 70 m (Larcomb et al. 1995). Rising sea level and rainfalls have forced sea water to be transgressed on lowlands around the Mediterranean and hence all CroMagnon people sink in the oceanic water. On the other hand, Arabian Sea water forced to flow on the lowlands of the Yemeni coasts and pushed toward the valley of Southern Mesopotamia between Hormes Strait and Southern Iraq (Fig. 4) and formed the present Arabian Gulf. Transgressed water had covered most parts of Iraq as evidenced by the records of dinoflagellate cysts in Euphrates River upstream near the cities of Ramadi and Qaem. These cysts are recorded also in South Iraq with equivalent carbon isotopes dating (C12 and C13) of 10,000 years ago. It have been retreated to form coasts near the present locations of Amara and Nasiriyah cities with formation of the Tigris and Euphrates delta in Southern Iraq instead of Hormes Strait locality (Aqrawi and Evans 1994; Al-Ameri et al. 2000). That transgressed oceanic water and the heavy rainfall have covered the lowlands and killed their Cro-Magnon occupants around the Mediterranean Ocean, while such deluge in the Arabian Gulf site and Mesopotamia was also catastrophic as it said in the Holy Bible and Holy Qur'an. Those who lived in that valley sunk below the deluged water and hence killed the occupants. Excepted from that catastrophe was God's messenger Noh who built a ship made of wood and floated with his followers in the northern

direction of oceanic water currents to a safe place, probably stopped by the Northern Iraq mountains where there was no evidence of marine influence 10,500 years ago. The ocean water currents and climate stabilized after their long journey and the ship settled at last in the retreated transgressed water and evolved coast of the Northern Amara and Nasiriya localities where the birds inhabited in the Ahwar (wetland) region. That transgressed water could have filled the depressed areas in the middle and Southern Iraq during its retreat (Fig. 3) with passage connections to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and good soil to be ready for cultivation and domestication. Hence, Noh's followers might have dispersed in the localities of the ancient cities, Ur, Arido, and Legash, to initiate the first known world civilization of the Sumerian's. That deluge time ranged in time before, during, and after shipment and might had spanned between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago. It was called the Nohian Time in this study to characterize the earliest known civilized culture in Southern Mesopotamia. The subsequent culture in Mesopotamia during that warm and humid climate was Ubaid culture which is equivalent to Neolithic and Chalcolithic terms used in Europe. The Ubaid culture involved evolution of highly civilized culture in ancient cities like (Al-Ubaid), Ur, and Legash. An equivalent culture was Halaf and Hassuna on Tigris River between the present locations of Mosul and Baghdad cities. Environmental and cultural changes toward present time This constitutes the depth interval in borehole 18 of 13 m up to the surface with time interval of 7,500 years B.P. up

Arab J Geosci Fig. 5 Pollen records and their plant affinity of Ahwar soil cores of <1 m depth in Southern Mesopotamia: 1 Graminidites (Poacea), 2 Graminea cerealea (Corn), 3 Tricalysia (Rubiacea), 4 Typha (Typhacea), 5 Isonandra (Sapotacea), 6 Campanula (Campanulacea), 7 Alnus (Betulacea-Alder), 8 Bursera (Burseracea), 9 Artocarpus (Moracea), 10 Pinanga (Palmae), 11 Iriatria (palmae), 12 Crinum (Liliacea), 13 Navia (Bromeliacea), 14 Tofieldia (lilliacea), 15 Nuphar (Numphacea), 16 Chnopodium (Chenopodacea), 17 Moras (Moracea). Scale bar=20 m

to present time. Sediment of this interval is mainly clay and sand and characterized by slow progradation of shore line and gradual changes in climate in South and Southwestern Iraq by slight increase in temperate and increase of average annual evaporation rates to more than rainfall precipitation rate (Starkel 1993) and the formation of evaporates bed. In general, the paleoclimate was semiarid warm. Within this climate cycle, there were time intervals where increasing rainfall precipitation and decreasing temperate which adapted vegetation cover of palms, poaceae, Artemisia, and Graminea cerealia. Climatic interruption includes events of arid cold that produced Artemisia shrubs. Climatic change and vegetation collapse and shortage of food were equivalent to short ice age in the northern hemisphere and

volcanic activity in the Jordanian Desert, while an event of increased rainfall precipitation with increased poaceae and cultivated plants was during the Sumerian and Babylonian cultures. On the other hand, many sea level oscillations (Larcomb et al. 1995) have caused many floods such as floods of Ur (5,400 years B.P.) and Kish (4,850 years B.P.) evident by flood plain deposits (Yacoub et al. 1985) and the archeological records reported from Sumerian mud plate scripts. During that flood time, the Atonabishtem legend has been written. It said that he is the immortal who voyaged through the flood and floated with his group in a ship that saved them from the flood. Succeeded that climatic cycle is the last 3,000 years where the shore line regressed to its present location in the

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city of Fao (Fig. 4) and evidenced by the disappearance of marine inhibitors such as dinoflagellate cysts in the sediments of Southern Iraq. That was due to sediment accumulation and gradual isostasy affect after the main transgression of 10,500 years B.P. The main result was changing location of ocean and land stabilization of Ahwar to force the Euphrates and Tigris rivers to unite in Qurna city and flow together in shatt Al-Arab which discharges their water in the Arabian Gulf in Fao city while climates of semiarid warm continued till the present except the time equivalent to the little ice age which spanned 950200 years before present and expressed semiarid and cold climate with abundant Artemisia up to 79% in a depth of 0.60.8 m with decrease in poaceae down to 3%.

Arabian sea sediments (Zonneveld 1996; D'Albore 1998), Weavermille Formation from Northwestern California (Barnet 1989), and pollen analysis of Northwest Europe (Moore and Webb 1978). Accordingly, the recorded palynomorphs are the following: Pollen types These are reproductive grains of land and aquatic vascular plant. They are listed below with general description and affinities for each genus (Fig. 5). Alnus They are tetrazonoporate with shallow pores connected within each two pores in a line. They are of Betulacean affinity of alder trees and hence their presence is an indication that they are wind derived, especially if we know their rare records in Mashab locality only (Fig. 5, 7). Artocarpus They are trizonoporate with thick wall and of punctuate sculptures. They belong to Moracea of large trees cultivated in Southwest India (Tissot et al. 1994) and are present in this study in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Atheim and Ummulnaage; Fig. 5, 9). Brocchinia They are ellipsoidal-shaped monocolpate with large colpus, thin exine, and reticulate sculpture. They belong to Bromeliaceae of tubular herb that grow in meadows and shrubs lands in Eastern Venezuelan Guyana (Rull 2003). They are present in this study in Ahwar of Baghdadia and Abo Zarak (Fig. 5, 10). Bursera They are tetrazonoporate with thick wall and high structure elevation of each pore. They have affinity to Burseracea and with wind transport and records in Ahwar of Baghdadia (Fig. 5, 8). Campanula They are spherical tetrazonoporate with echinate sculpture. The pore is located in the slightly sunken area of the exines. Their affinities are Campanulaceae and are recorded in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 5, 6). Chenopodium They are spherical polypantaporate and used as index for desertification (El-Muslimani 1987) with affinities to chenopodacea (Fig. 5, 16; Barnet 1989). Crinum Oval forms of monosulcate and with echinate sculpture. They have affinity to lilliacean flowers (Willard et al. 2004) and are of aquatic habit. They mainly occur in Ahwar Al-Hawiza (Fig. 5, 12). Graminidites Spherical forms of thin exine, crumbled wall, and one pore. They are an index of rainfall and wettability. Their affinity is poaceae (grass; Fig. 5, 1).

Palynomorph records of recent soil Many organic matters are recorded through microscopic studies of the prepared slides from the studied sediments (refer to Figs. 1 and 2) of 1 m cores (2, 1A, 11A, 8C, 11C, K6A, AZ5, and AZ11) within the wetland locality of Ahwar of Southern Iraq (Athem and Uummilnaage in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza, Al-Baghdadia, Al-Mashab, AlKurmashiya, and Abo Zarak). These are mainly taxa of pollen and fungi with some occurrences of many others dispersed organic matter that have hard carotene parts such as algae, FTL, plant cuticle and tracheids, algal filament, and merostome arthropods (Figs. 5, 6, and 7). These organic matters are mainly preserved in this study as peat layer and formed high plant fragments within the load of the flood to this wetland as well as the aquatic inhibitors of the fungi in Ahwar stagnant basin within sand and clay. Other deposits of this studied area is either brownish gray sandy clay, greenish gray or black silty clay, brown or black clay, or brown or black peat that formed from successive flooding to the Ahwar. The deepest layer is fossiliferous (with mainly small gastropods) greenish gray marl and clay. Pollen and mainly fungi are not transported far from their source and hence deposited within one specific wetland area called hoar (singular of Ahwar in local language) and could be grouped into a statistical community for each specific hoar. Finding their affinities could help in the clarification of contemporaneous vegetation and hence the responses to environmental changes leading to reconstructing the paleoecological framework for each time interval. These analysis relay on accurate identification by comparison with palynomorph records from Amazon sediments (Horn 1994; Absy 1979; Rull 2003), wetland of southwest India (Tissot et al. 1994; Ramanujam and Rao 1978; Keddy et al. 1982; Patil and Ramanujam 1988), river deposit of Zambia (Jarzen and Elsik 1986), Florida Everglades (Willard et al. 2004), Eastern Mediterranean and

Arab J Geosci Fig. 6 Fungi records of Ahwar soil cores of <1 m depth in Southern Mesopotamia: 1 Glomus, 2 Polyadosporites, 3 Trichothyrites 4 Involutisporites, 5 Fusiformisporites, 6 Ostiole of Plochmopellinites, 7 Spegazzinites, 8 Diporisporites, 9 Dyadosporites, 10 Plochmopellinites, 11 Lycoperodon, 12 Pluricellaesporites, 13 Ascus for sexual reproduction, 14 Miliolinites, 15 Diporisporites. Scale bar= 20 m

Graminidites cerealia Spherical forms of thick exine and clear one pore. They have affinity to poaceae and mainly are cultivates for food (Fig. 5, 2). Iriantea They are spherical to oval shaped with one sulcus and clavate sculpture. They have affinity to the tribe Irianteaceae of the palmae (Fig. 5, 11).

Isonandra Ovoid form with tetrazonocolporate and scabrate exine. They have affinity to sapotaceae with marsh habit. Previous records are from wetlands of Southwest India (Tissot et al. 1994) and the present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 5, 5). Morus Spherical form of diporate and psilate exine. They have affinity with Moracea. Previous occurrence is in the wetlands of

Arab J Geosci Fig. 7 Dispersed organic matters of Ahwar soil cores <1 m depths in Southern Mesopotamia: 1 Pediastrum simplex (Chlorococale algae), 2 and 3 tracheid of plant branches, 4 spine detached from an insect, 5 plant cuticle, 6 piece of Limulus wing, 7 aquatic merostomes Limulus, 8 termination of the appendices of Limulus, 9 band of fungal filaments, 10 chitinous part of an insect carapace, 11 and 12 FTL of Trochoapiral and Planispiral. Scale bar=20 m

Florida Everglades (Willard et al. 2004), while its present occurrence is mainly in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 5, 17). Navia They are heteropolar of bilateral symmetry with monocolpate of long colpus up to equatorial diameter and tectateperforate exine. They have affinities with Bromeliaceae. Previous records are lowland shrubs or tree savannas of Eastern Venzuelan Guayana (Rull 2003), while present occurrences are mainly in Ahwar Al-Baghdadia (Fig. 5, 13).

Nuphar Ovoidal grain, monosulcate, and echinate sculpture. They have affinity with Nymphaceae of palm. Previous occurrence is in wet prairies of Florida Everglades (Willard et al. 2004), while present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza and Al-Baghdadia (Fig. 5, 15). Toffildia They are subprolate, dicolpate with very long colpi, and reticulate sculpture. Their affinities is liliaceous of meadow habit (Rull 2003; Willard et al. 2004), while

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present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza and AlBaghdadia (Fig. 5, 1418). Typha Circular forms mainly in tetrads with monoulcerate and reticulate sculpture. Previous occurrence is in the wetlands of Florida Everglades (Willard et al. 2004), while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza and Abo Zarak. Their affinity is typhaceae of aquatic habit of mainly marshes (Fig. 5, 4).

was in Lake Tanganyika in Kenya (Rouse 1962) and in the river deposit in Zambia (Jarzen and Elsik 1986), while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 6, 11). Miliolinites nivalis Circular shield-shaped fruit body with circular detached area at the center and hyphen pseudopodia arise from the outer circle to form connections. Exine is of fine granulate sculpture. Their affinity is family Meliolaceae, order Miliolatles. They are highly distributed in Ahwar such as southwest India (Ramanujam and Rao 1978). Its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza, AlBaghdadia, and Abo-Zarak (Fig. 6, 14). Plochmopellinites Circular shield-shaped fruit body with circular detached central body to form circular cross striate (Fig. 6, 6) and reticulate sculpture. They have affinity with Microthyriaceae. Previous occurrence is in the wetlands of southwest India (Patil and Ramanujam 1988), while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 6, 6 and 10). Pluricellaesporites Four- to six-celled fungal spore, cells linear along axis, monoapeturate at one end of long axis, and spore surface psilate. This specimen is possibly a germinating case in which the septa are very faint. Previous occurrence is in river deposits of Zambia (Jarzen and Elsik 1986), while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 6, 12). Polyadosporits Fungal spore colony composed of numerous individual subspherical cells, colonies generally globosely; cells 815 m diameter, psilate sculpture, inaperturate, diameter of colonies up to 100 m. Previous records were from river deposits of Zambia, while a present record is Ahwar of South Mesopotamia (Fig. 6, 2). Spegazzinites indicus Spore of inaperturate, 823 m in diameter, crucially septet to form four subcircular cells, and sharp-pointed spines. Previous records were from wetlands of Southwest India (Ramanujam and Rao 1978), while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Baghdadia (Fig. 6, 7). Trichothyrites Ascomata of flattened, rounded, prominent ostiole, and radiating hyphae interconnected cells squarish toward ostiole. Previous records were from wetlands of Southwest India (Ramanujam and Rao 1978), while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza, Al-Baghdadia, and Abo Zarak (Fig. 6, 3).

Fungal spores They are spore grains of the reproductive stage of the multicellular, nonvascular, heterotrophic organisms belong to the kingdom Fungi. They could adapt to wet and aquatic media (Ramanujam and Rao 1971 and Rao and Ramanujam 1976). In the studied area, a wide variety is recorded (Fig. 6) and forms local communities to make them an index for environmental assessment. Ascus It is sag for sexual reproduction and dispersal of fungal spores (Elsik 1983). They are recorded from Ahwar of Al-Hwaiza and Al-Baghdadia (Fig. 6, 13). Diporisporites conspicua Oval, aseptate, and finely granulate spore with two pores truncated at their ends. Previous records were river deposits from Zambia (Jarzen and Elsik 1986) while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 6, 815). Dyadosporonites Fungal spore with two cells, single septa, and two apertures of one at each end. Previous records were from Neogene of Southern India (Ramanujam and Rao 1978), while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 6, 9). Fusiforma sp. nov. Oval grain with one cell having one pore at one end and rounded at the others with striated sculpture. They are endemic taxa to Ahwar of Southern Mesopotamia and recorded from Ahwar Al-Baghdadia (Fig. 6, 7). Glomus Fungal chlamydospore aseptate and inapeturate. The subspherical vesicle is a woolen hyphal tip and retains a short segment of hypha. Previous records were river deposits from Zambia (Jarzen and Elsik 1986), while its present occurrence is in Ahwar Al-Baghdadia (Fig. 6, 1). Involutisporites sp. nov. Fungal spore of nine-celled, monoporate, trochospiral, individual cell, subspherical to cuneate, scabrate sculpture, and some cells with large germination. Recorded from Ahwar of Abo zarak (Fig. 6, 4). Lycoperodon Fungal spore aseptate, aporate, shape spherical with elongate and sinuous spines. A previous record

Miscellaneous organic matters There are other dispersed organic matters excepted from pollen and fungi; these are:

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Pediastrum simplex They are multicellular algae of chlorococcale affinity which are recorded in this study from Ahwar Abo Zarak and Kurmashiya (Fig. 7, 1). Trachied Fragments of plant branches with a variety of surface spines (Fig. 7, 2 and 3). Cuticle Fragments of plant surfaces that show polygonal interconnected (Fig. 7, 5). Arthropod pieces Some of the chitinous parts of phylum arthropods are hard enough and hence preserved and resist palynological preparations They could have affinities to probably merostome arthropods of the limuloid forms (e.g., limulus) and crustaceous forms of the worms and gastropods (Tash 1973; Clarkson 1979) These are detached spine, pieces of limulus wing, aquatic merostomes limulus of complete view, termination of appendices of limulus, and carapace of limuloids (Fig. 7, 4, 68, and 10). Foraminifera test lining There are inner lining of the calcareous test of benthic foraminifera. Recorded forms are from Ahwar Al-Baghdadia of specimens' morphtypes trochospiral (Fig. 7, 11) and planispiral (Fig. 7, 12). Charcoal They are dark (black) plant pieces that are mainly indicators of fire and human settlement.

Present climatological and environmental changes Ahwar of Southern Iraq is a continuity of the Southern Mesopotamian wetland since 10,000 years ago, i.e., since the historic deluge time, after which this region became warm and humid within a semiarid region and hence any aerial change in this water surfaces will lead to desertification of the same locality. Furthermore, the aquatic ecosystem of this wetland posses food chain that produce high quantity and quality of food for humans. This food could be based on the Ahwar primary producers, mainly of fungi who make their foods from dissolved mineral substances. These fungi could form the food for omnivorous and deposit feeders' invertebrates that consequently form food for predator feeder fishes within the water and birds on the water surface (Wicander and Monroe 2004), while plants could grow as aquatic and land plants nearby the wetland. Accordingly, the main bases for environmental and climatic changes are (1) water cover, (2) fungal growth, and (3) aquatic and land plants. Hence, changes in water cover either natural or human effect will change the ecosystem stability, decrease the humidity of the air and, hence, destroy the primary food producers of the fungi. Accordingly, collapse of all the food chain in this ecosystem will lead to death of fish while birds escape to other places for survival. On the other hand, aquatic and

Fig. 8 Pollen diagram of 1-m depth in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza in the localities of Al-Athem (cores 2 and 1A) and Ummulnaage (core 11A)

Arab J Geosci

land plants will change from humid-adaptive plants to more arid-adapted plants. Based on this scenario, our wetland area could be classified into two main environments during the 1990s, which is the time of dryness activity. The first case is Ahwar with continuous aquatic submergence (Ahwar AlHwaiza), while the second case is partial dryness (Ahwar Al-Baghdadia and Al-Kurmashia) by irrigation plan performed during the 1990s of this century. These differences might be stored in the sediments as fossil records of the contemporaneously deposited pollen and other disseminated organic matters with each sediment layer. Pollen diagram is constructed in Fig. 8 for the first case and Fig. 9 for the second case. From these pollen diagrams, it

appears that aquatic assemblages of fungi and land plant with poaceae and palmae is predominant in all the cases but the generic form will be changed as controlled by the newly evolved limiting factors of the ecosystem, e.g., salinity and temperature changes. Other palynomorphs could be used as index of environmental changes according to the following: 1. Stable aquatic submergence: The indicator forms for such case could be taken from Ahwar Al-Hwaiza (Fig. 8) where there are excellent preservation of the fungal genera: Plochmopellenites, Pluricellaesporites and the aquatic plants of typhaceae (genus Typha), the floating lilliacean flowers (genera Crinum and Toffieldia), and the sapotacean marsh plant (genus Isonandra;

Fig. 9 Two pollen diagrams of 1-m cores of Ahwar Baghdadia (core 8C; a) and Kurmashia (core K6A; b)

Arab J Geosci

Fig. 8). Another indicator, but for oceanic influence, is the FTL, which have been recorded from depths of more than 40 cm in the substrates of Ahwar AlBaghdadia (Fig. 9). This ecosystem is predominantly associated with continuous deposition of peat and clay or clay with high total organic carbon. 2. Desertification indicators: The indicator forms for this case could be taken from substrates of Ahwar AlBaghdadia and Al-Kurmashiya (Fig. 9) where there was partial dryness on them during the 1990s. Aquatic ecosystem changes to indicate that this dryness is the disappearance of the FTL and the fungal genera Plochmopellinites and Pluricellaesporites and the evolution of the adaptive fungi of the striate forms Fusiforma and the echinate form Spegazzinites, while the land indicator is overwhelming of the desert plant pollen chenopodiaceous between depths of 5 and 20 cm (Fig. 9) in the substrate. More sand deposits will be of equivalent lithology. Such desertification in the land area could destroy the shrubs and hence domesticated animals will die by hunger and cultivated plants will diminish. Accordingly, loss in the human food resources will occur. Furthermore, typhacean aquatic plants (genus Typha) will be missed (Figs. 5 and 9) and hence affected local people because they used these woody tubes in building their accommodation, which have local term Chbisha and in constructing their boat, which have extended anterior and have local term Mashhoof. 3. Human settlement indicators: Charcoals have been considered as settlement indicators resulting from fire and cooking processes (Jacobs et al. 1985). Although people settled there all the time, there is a clear settlement phase before dryness of the 1990s in Ahwar Al-Baghdadia as a special case. These settlements decreased with increase desertification, i.e., peoples migrated from this locality, while settlement in Ahwar Al-Hwaiza is sporadic but continuous with time because water supply is continued. 4. Aquatic ecosystem collapse: The main cause for the aquatic ecosystem collapse is the food web (Stanley 1989; Raup and Stanley 1978; Al-Ameri 2000). In Ahwar of Southern Iraq, the main base as primary producers is the fungi as well as algae and detritus of land plants. This first level in the food web builds their biologic body from dissolved mineral materials. The second level in this food web is limulid merostome, crustacean arthropods, and zooplankton who consume their food from the first level, i.e., mainly from fungi. This second level of the food web contain intermediate organisms that transfer food to the fishes and birds and hence played the role as a factory for producing human food resources of fishes and birds (Fig. 13). Therefore,

any dryness that change the environmental limiting factors, viz temperature, salinity, and water holding the dissolved substances, will harm the fungi and force them to die as it may happen to the Plochmopellinites, and lilliacea (Crinum and Toffieldia) in Ahoar AlHwaiza (Fig. 8) or adapt themselves to evolve different species and hence become hard to eat as it has happened to the Fusiforma and Spegazzinite in Ahwar Al-Baghdadia and Al-Kurmashiya (Fig. 9). This last case could destroy the first level of nutrition or the primary food producers and hence collapsing all the food chain with decreases of the human food resources of fishes and birds.

Case study of ancient wetland destruction To assess the relation of ecologic and climatic changes with the dawn and demise of cultural development in Sumerian and Babylonia cities, especially related with Ahwar dryness and wetland destruction, a palynological study was developed on the archeological site of Tel Ummulakareb 25 km west of Al-Riffaee city within Al-Nasiriyah region and within location 4548 to 3125 (Fig. 2). Our astonishing observation is that the desert area and sand dunes creep around this archeological site although it is in the middle of river tributaries within Mesopotamia, Ahwar, and lakes (Fig. 10). Hence, soil samples from the vertical section of 3 m depth in an ancient river channel passing through the ancient city and soil samples from the walls and the ground of the royal house of the same city are subjected to this study. Palynological analysis for these samples based on pollen analysis taking into consideration the environmentally index pollen of the terrestrial plants and dinoflagellate cysts of marine inhibitors (Fig. 11) as well as archeological drawings carved on clay plates for Ahwar ancient settlement live near

Fig. 10 Desertification and sand dunes creep on beni rchap villagers near Tel Ummulakareb archeological site

Arab J Geosci Fig. 11 Environmental index palynomorphs of the Holocene, Tel Ummulakareb archeological site between Diwania and Nasiriyah cities: 1 Escalonia, 2 Pinus, 3 palmae of Retimonocolpites, 4 Graminidites, 5 Chenopodium, 6 Typha, 7 Lingulodinium, 8 Selenopemphix, 9 FTL. Scale bar=20 m

that ancient city. These drawings showed hunting, collecting foods within Ahwar, and using boats similar to the present woody boat, locally called Mashhoof. Pollen count of the environmentally index palynomorphs are presented in a pollen diagram of percentages of each taxa from the total palynomorphs to show changing abundances through time (Fig. 12). Comparison with present analogs of their plant affinities; the changes of environmental habitat, paleoclimates, plant community during the time of evolution (4,900 years before present), city development (4,9004,100 years B.P.), and the demise (4,100 years B.P.) could be evaluated and hence tabulated in Table 1. Age assignments of the samples are calculated from sedimentation rates, carbon 14 dating, and the documented words on clay tablets. To confirm settlement and cultural development of that city, remote sensing techniques have showed main ancient rivers were flowing within the city and around. On the other hand, the tools, pottery, and jewelers of gold, copper, gems, and shells stored in the Iraqi Museum of Mesopotamian history were also recorded as well as the high architecture quality of the

royal house within that ancient city. Palynological evidences are the dominance of cultivated plant pollen such palms (Palmidites, Phoenix, and Retimonocalpites), wheat (Graminia cereala), and zinnia flower (Escalonia) during the time interval 2,9002,100 years B.P. (Table 1) Dinoflagellate cysts occurrences are used to indicate shore line proximity of that city which was during the interval 3,5002,200 years B.P. while shore line retreat is an evidence for dryness of that wetland area. The charcoal presences of 100% dominance is evidence for fire in 2,100 years B.P. and have added more evidence for dryness and soil destruction. Ahwar dryness and/or major fire have collapsed the food chain resources to that ancient city and destroyed their soil and hence sand dunes crept on it. That environment had made very difficult, or no, chances for their plant to grow again or it may take a longer time than ordinary for growing again. Palynological evidence for desertification is increasing dominance of chenopodacean pollen because their mother plants could adapt to very low moisture in the present time according to El-Muslimani (1987).

Arab J Geosci Fig. 12 Pollen diagram of 3 1/2 m depth in the flank of an ancient river within the Tel Ummulakareb archeological site

Conclusion and suggestions Analysis of this study have indicated that Ahwar were formed during deluge time 10,500 years B.P. which attracted nice qualities of birds and formed an ecosystem of vegetative area with fishes and different types of aquatic inhibitors to form foods for human settlement. In such area, a bird appeared to God's messenger Noh in his voyage on his ship with his followers to inform him that this place is good for settlement, and hence, he anchored his ship and started to rebuild the civilized culture of this new world following the deluge time. Wetlands of Ahwar have best soil for food cultivation and animal domestications through the Mesopotamian

cultures in semiarid area in between oak forest in the north, palm forest in Southern Mesopotamia, and pine forest in the northwest with deserts toward Saudi Arabia in the south and Jordon in the west. Accordingly, any misused land or Ahwar dryness could change the climate to arid with sand dunes creep to destroy this nature as it have happened on Sumerian people of Tel Ummulakareb ancient city where it had been destroyed by dryness of their river and hoar by foreigner invaders in about <2,100 years B.C. Palynological studies of organic matters in Ahwar's recent soil have clarified that Ahwar area have stabilized ecosystem especially in Hoar Al-Hwaiza with continuity of growing plants in the soil and many phytoplanktons and

Table 1 Case study of an ancient city (Tel Ummulakareb), evolution, development, and demise according to natural environmental changes that ended with fire and sand dune creep Dating years B.C. 3,5002,900 2,9002,100 Habitat Near shore with wetland Near share with wetland and river channel Share retreat with wetland Land become dry and progressed desertification Sand dunes Paleoclimate Cold Temperate Plant community Wild and some cultivated plants Dominance of cultivated plants such as palms (Palmidites, Phoenix, Retimonocalpites), corn (Cerialia), and Zinia flowers (Escalonia) Continuous dominance of cultivated plants 100% charcoal in the royal house showing burning phenomena that indicate probable historic fire that destroyed all the community Rare shrub vegetation of mainly chenopodacea Human settlements Human gathering City evolution

~2,100 >2,100

Temperate Temperate

Town development The demise

Present

Warm and dry

Few settlement

Arab J Geosci

fungi made their fertilization from the soil. The fungi formed the main base as primary food producers for the food web that produced the human food resources in Ahwar region (Fig. 13). Limuloids and crustacean arthropods are the intermediate organisms in the food chain that transfer food to the human food resources of fishes and birds. On the other hand, the wetlands of Mashab, Baghdadia, Kurmashyia, and Abo Zarak were subjected to dryness during the 1990s and hence have a nonstable ecosystem. Accordingly, their fungal constituents changed to more adaptive forms for more aridity and, hence, the food chain have collapsed and caused decreases in the human food resources of fishes and birds. In land plants, extinction of the aquatic and humid forms was performed with evolution or increased percentages of the more arid plants, viz chenopodacean. This desertification phase could destroy the cultivated plants, harm domesticated animals, and remove agricultural soil into dunes within many decades as it have happened to Tel Ummulakareb ancient city. For these reasons, human settlements are forced to immigrate away from their land (Fig. 12). Accordingly, we could suggest the following: 1. Reactivation of the Ahwar regions by water from Tigris and Euphrates rivers to give wettability to the soil and hence stacked against the wind dunes. Water cover could rejuvenate the ecosystem and the return to the initial food chain before dryness. Ten years of dryness might be very short and hence the Ahwar situation could be returned by getting more water. 2. Cultivate the area with shrubs, vegetable, and palm in order to rebuild the agricultural soil, improve the climate, and get fruits and vegetable out of it, as well as animal domestication on these vegetation to increase food resources

Fig. 14 Dreamland of Ahwar region with mini-multi-islands, Chbishas accommodation sites, and Mashhoof boat for transport

3. Reconstruct accommodation sites from the typhacean tubes abundantly present in this wetland to build Chbishas for the local human settlements and living on the dispersed mini-island in the Ahwar region (Fig. 14). 4. Develop the transportation media between these multiislands by improving the local boat (Al-Mashhoof) as well as different types of ridges.
Acknowledgements This study is performed in cooperation with Nature Iraq Institute by getting their help with the field work and using their laboratory facilities. Accordingly, we gratefully acknowledge and thank them.

Appendix Locations and statistical count of the pollen analysis for the studied sections (Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Table 2 Drill core locations of the studied section in Southern Mesopotamia (ex. Fig. 1) Core number Location Coordinates Latitudes Core 2 Core 1A Core 11A Core 8C Core 11C K6A AZ5 AZ11 Deep borehole 18 Tel Ummulaqareb Hwaiza-Udaem Hwaiza-Ummulnaage Hwaiza-Ummulnaage Al-Baghdadia Al-Mashab Al-Kurmashiya Abu Zarak Abu Zarak West of Qul'at Saleh West of Al-Rifae 314253 313653 313526 310209 304004 304947 3109 3105 3102 3135 Longitudes 474529 473422 474002 470208 473825 463433 4638 4637 4725 4548

Fig. 13 Food web for the production of human food resources in Ahwar region

Table 3 Pollen counts in number of specimens for Ahwar Al-Hwaiza Ummulnaag (cores 11A and 2; ex. Fig. 8) Graminae Fungi Cuticle Charcoal FTL Chenopodacea Plochmopelinites Palmae Typha Isonandra Lilliacea Lycopods 9 12 7 8 3 52 9 5 7 8 3 12 30 8 70 29 40 5 5 8 8 2 6 5 8 12 15 18 10 5 22 15 12 12 28 22 15 10 15 18 6 2 5 13 4 6 6 4 6 6 4 4 8 5 2 2 7 2 7 6 4 33 3 18 20 15 6 14

Arab J Geosci

Sample no. Depth (cm) Lithology

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

56 1011 1920 2930 3334 3940 4546 5051

Brownish gray sandy clay Brownish gray sandy clay Peat in brownish gray sandy clay Peat in brownish gray sandy clay Black peat Brown peat Brown peat Greenish gray silty clay

9 10 11 12

5960 6667 7071 7780

Greenish gray silty clay Greenish gray silty clay Greenish gray silty clay Green marl and gastropods

Table 4 Pollen counts in number of specimens for Ahwar Al-Baghdadia (core 8C; ex. Fig. 9a) Graminae 34 28 18 15 38 24 26 12 18 12 15 18 15 9 9 10 23 8 12 5 18 18 10 8 18 28 20 12 7 10 15 25 7 10 11 6 Fungi Cuticle Chenopodacea Fusiforma 4 7 7 Charcoal 12 8 Palmae 4 5 3 2 FTL 3 3 29 Spegazzinites 8 8 Lycopodium 3 9 8 12 12 12 7 6

Sample no.

Depth (cm)

Lithology

1 2 3 4 5 6

02 67 1112 1617 2223 2930

Gray silt Gray silt Brownish gray silt Brownish gray silt Brownish gray silt Gray silty clay

7 8 9 10 11

3536 4041 4546 5051 5758

Gray silty clay Black silty clay Black silty clay Greenish gray marl and gastropods Greenish gray marl and gastropods

Arab J Geosci Table 5 Pollen counts in number of specimens for Ahwar Al-Khurmashiya (K6A; ex. Fig. 9b) Sample no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth (cm) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 Lithology Black peat with sand Black peat with sand Black peat with sand Greenish silty clay Brownish gray silt Brownish gray silt Brownish gray silt Light and dark gray clay silt Greenish clay and marl Greenish clay and marl Brown and gray clay Graminae 3 9 4 3 Fungi 12 7 6 7 2 6 9 2 2 2 Cuticle 20 40 12 15 10 35 12 8 12 2 Chenopodacea 18 6 5 Charcoal 10 Algae 2 2 2 2 2 Palmae 2 9 10 2 Typha 18 20 15

Table 6 Pollen count of 3-m depth sediments in the flank of Ancient River with Tel Ummulakareb archeological site (ex. Fig. 12) Sample Depth Typha Palm Phoinex Carpinus Chenopod Graminea Escallonia Ambrosia Fungi Bisaccatepollen Dinoflagellate no. (m) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 15 18 20 20 22 17 16 20 24 25 25 22 25 20 28 25 23 5 9 10 8 4 6 5 3 5 8 5 4 0 3 6 8 1 7 8 6 10 15 20 15 18 21 23 23 28 30 32 22 25 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 9 6 8 5 2 0 0 0 9 10 7 2 3 5 2 5 0 2 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 32 15 11 24 22 31 26 27 22 29 25 26 23 22 22 25 27 10 16 20 18 12 18 14 19 13 14 11 12 7 6 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 2 6 9 8 15 12 10 14 15 12 8 14 9 11 6 4 5 3 7 6 2 5 9 6 4 3 10 5 6 0 4 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 3 2 0 4 2 0 3

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