Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
TO THE FIELD OF TEFL OR SLA
By: Widayanto*
Key words:
Language, Language Acquisition Device (LAD), TEFL
Language
The possession of language is the major distinction between human beings and other
animals. It is this language that makes human communication special. There are other
systems of communication for other lower animals. But, none of these other systems of
communication is as creative and as complex as language.
Language is fundamental to being human but a short and clearly stated, accurate
definition of language is difficult to find. Language is an arbitrary vocal symbol which a
member of society can interact each other. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
defines language as “the whole body of words and of methods of combining them used
by a nation, people or race”. Essentially language involves an arbitrary system of vocal
and visual symbols, and gestures by which ideas and feelings are communicated to
others. Communication or exchange of information takes place simultaneously on three
levels: the verbal, the nonverbal and the cultural.
However, a simple definition does not represent the complexities accurately
involved in using a language. In order to communicate an idea or feeling verbally,
people must first have the physical skills to produce the complex and difficult sound and
sound patterns needed to make the words of which language is composed. They have to
understand semantics – the meanings of words separately and in combination – and know
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that a group of words can have literal and nonliteral meaning (as with metaphors and
idioms).
It is also necessary to know that there are finite and infinite potential
combinations of words and word groups or phases, but certain structural rules (syntax)
must be followed when putting words together. Furthermore, language exists within, and
varies according the context in which it is being used. Language taken out of context can
have its meaning changed or lose its meaning in every way. A language can be slightly
modified by the regional differences and social variation of its users. Yet, despite of
complexities, most of us learn our first language effortlessly as small children. Why is it
so? The next part will clarify the problem.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Physiologically, there are certain features of human beings which are understood
to be adapted for human language, especially speech productions, and which no other
animals possess. For instance, human teeth are upright, human lips have much more
sophisticated muscle formations than is found in other animals, even primates; the human
mouth is relatively smaller and can be opened and closely rapidly. The tongue is also
very flexible with the larynx very specially made. All these facilitate speech production.
The human brain is also lateralized such that the left hemisphere is used for speech
production.
There is a theory held by some philosophers and linguists says that human
knowledge develops from structures, processes, and “ideas” which are in the mind at
birth (i.e. are innate), rather than from the environment, and that these are responsible for
the basic structure of language and how it is learned. This theory has been used to
explain how children are able to learn language using “innate knowledge” in their mind.
Then a question arises: what is the “innate knowledge”? The nativist approach proposes
that humans have a favorable attitude to language learning. The nativist approach also
proposes that the “innate knowledge” is a kind of language acquisition. It is a
biologically innate ability of these feature of language.
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Chomsky and others claimed that every normal human being was born with
Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Chomsky argues for the existence of a Language
Acquisition Device (LAD), a latent biological structure that allows children to
systematically understand or comprehend the language around them, and internalize the
language system. This would explain why children are able to learn the complexities of
language in such a relatively short time, simply by being exposed to it. This approach
suggests the concept of a basic language structure, a Universal Grammar (UG), the
principles of which all human languages. The Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
included basic knowledge about the nature and structure of human language.
UG which was proposed by Noam Chomsky is a theory which claims to account
for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.
The theory underlying UG assumes that language consists of a set of abstract principles
that characterize core grammar of all natural languages. If children have to learn a
complex set of abstractions, there must be something other than the language input to
which they are exposed that enables them to learn language with relative ease and speed.
UG is assumed to be true and exists as an innate language faculty that limits the
extent/area to which language can vary. That is, it specifies the limits of a possible
language. The task for learning is greatly reduced if one is equipped with an innate
mechanism that limits possible grammar formation. So, according to UG theory,
acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular
language.
There are a number of striking aspects of first language acquisition: the learners
involved are very young and cognitively undeveloped, and yet they learn a very rich and
highly complex hierarchically structured communication system; they learn this system in
the absence of sufficient evidence about basic properties of the system; they are
insensitive to correction or instruction; individual cognitive ability, motivation, social
status, etc. play no role; learning involves no visible effort; they can learn any language
they are exposed to, with equal ease; all learners unfailingly manage to acquire complete
competence; the whole process is largely uniform in terms of starting and completion
times, developmental sequences, etc. across cultures and environments. In the light of
these facts, the nativist position that language acquisition is guided by an innate domain
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specific mental faculty (UG) seems highly believable and appearing likely to be true in
the absence of proof and has been the current position in the last fifty years or so.
One of the principles of UG is structure dependency. It means that knowledge of
language depends/relies on knowing structural relationships in a sentence rather than
looking at it as a sequence of words, e.g.:
not
The/mechanic/repairs/my/motorcycle
but
S
NP VP
DET N V NP
DET N
the mechanic repairs
my motorcycle
In the field of second language acquisition in recent years one of the most debated
and investigated issues has been whether L2 learners have access to UG, the same way as
L1 learners do. Those assuming continued access to UG have argued that input
limitations pose the same learnability problems for both first and second language
learners suggesting that language learning outside of UG would be impossible. In
addition, there have been proposals pointing to the undeniable advantage of a unified
theoretical account of language acquisition (first, second, etc.) and arguing that
theoretically ‘access to UG’ is the failure position, i.e. the one that must be assumed in
absence of evidence to the contrary.
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While nativist approaches have strongly dominated the field, there have been a
few disagreeing voices asserting that an ‘access to UG’ position for SL learning is
justified neither empirically, nor theoretically. They provide attracting interest and
argument that from a theorybuilding point of view an ‘access to UG’ position is in no
way more justified than a ‘no access to UG’ position.
In this paper, I will try to provide some hypothesis about the alternative position
of UG in relation to second language acquisition.
Can Second Language Learners Use Chomsky’s LAD?
Even if we accept that Chomsky is right about the LAD and Universal Grammar in first
language acquisition (and many researchers do not), there are still some big questions
regarding how his ideas fit into second language learning. Four possible hypotheses have
been proposed:
1) No access hypothesis. UG is only used in first language acquisition. L2 learners
have to use other ways of learning.
UG General learning mechanisms
L1 L2
2) Full access hypothesis. UG can be used first and second language learning. In
essence, it is possible to learn an L2 the same way we learn an L1.
UG
L1 L2
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3) Indirect access hypothesis. UG is not directly involved in L2 learning. But the
learner can use what he or she knows of UG in their L1 to aid them in learning an
L2.
UG
L1
L2
4) Partial access hypothesis. Some aspects of UG are usable but others are not. The
learner can use UG for some things but not for others.
UG
L1
L2
From all four hypotheses, it can be noted that at least we can predict different
outcomes for L2 language learning.
The first position (Full UG Access) proposes that as long as the language faculty
(or possibly the LAD) has been activated normally within due course for L1, then there is
no reason to believe that it can't become active in the exact same way again. This model
would suggests that adults do not necessarily need to be handicapped in learning L2
since not only is their Language faculty fully engaged (as was for L1), but also in
addition so is their more cognitive problem solving system mature. It is quite clear that
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this should make for relatively easy access to L2without any substantial interference
from L1.
The second position (Indirect UG Access) initial gains the advantage in being able
to report for the well known facts concerning L2 leaning difficulty, fossilizing, and
general lack of success regarding acquisition. Clearly a qualitative difference must apply
to the adult learning L2. Although this position also assumes UG to remain active in the
adult via the L1 grammar, UG doesn't however interact directly with the L2 input, but
simply indirectly (as a filter) via the previously set parameterization of L1. In other
words, parameters do not get reset here, but simply serve as a guideline in how to learn
and develop a strategy for dealing with the parameter. Adults never loss their L1
parameterization for specific items, what they do is consciously manipulate what they
know of the input and map it onto an L1 UG. This model has the benefit in accounting
for the many language transfer type errors. This is due to the fact that the learner will
more often than not assume that the newly acquired language is similar to that of the
native language. In other words, the learner simply assumes the L1 value of the
parameter setting still holds for L2.
The third position (A Partial UG Access) challenges the position that UG remains
in a stable state throughout the speakers' lifetime and adds the strongest support yet to
Critical Period. Taking a biological attitude where maturation is most certainly the
failure, this view suggests that other cognitive means must be responsible for any
language learning.
Teachers who accept the no access hypothesis might feel that it is impossible for
learners to acquire a second language naturally. On the other hand, teachers who believe
the full access hypothesis might feel that learners can acquire language naturally if they
are exposed to lots of communicative activities.
Dealing with the relationship between “innate knowledge” or UG and SLA, Krashen
implicitly claimed in his “Monitor Theory” that the LAD works for L2 just as it works for
L1. That theory may be considered to be the best interpretation Chomsky’s LAD/UG for
the benefit of Second Language Acquisition. So, second language learners may also
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learn the target language in the same way as in first language, although just like
Chomsky, Krashen did not explain what the nature of Language Acquisition Device
(LAD) was. Below is the illustration of Krashen’s Monitor Theory.
Accordingly, as Krashen claimed that fluency in second language performance is
due to what learners have acquired (in which acquisition takes place: input à innate
knowledge/LAD à acquisition), not what learners have learned, so, they should, there
fore, do as much acquiring as possible in order to achieve communicative fluency. For
the purpose of enhancing TEFL, it necessary for teachers to help their students develop
their L2 competence by exposing them as much as they can to comprehensible input used
in a natural setting or making the classroom a learning community in the target language.
To gain a successful process of second language learning, making the classroom a
learning community in the target language is one of the most important things teachers
can do, even more important perhaps than the practices used in the more formal aspects
of instruction. The target language classroom community influences student engagement
and achievement, and it determines how a teacher’s class will develop gradually from a
collection of individuals into a unified group characterized by high expectations, caring
relationships, and productive inquiry. Creating positive target language learning
communities, however, is no simple task, nor are there easy recipes that will ensure
success. Instead, it is a process of doing many things right and well and of having the
courage or bravery to create classrooms that are different from many now found in many
schools.
Widayanto: a doctoral student at State University of Malang, Indonesia
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REFERENCES
Arens, R. I. 2004. Learning to Teach. New York. The McGrawHill Companies, Inc.
1221 Avenue of the Americans, NY 10020.
Galasso, J. 1999. A Working Paper on Second Language Acquisition Research:
Some Notes on Theory and Method. San Diego State University. Available on
http://www.clp.ox.ac.uk/pages/publications.html. Accessed in 12 December 2007.
Cooper, D. E. 1973. Philosophy and the Nature of Language. London. Longman.
Klein, Wolfgang. 1986. Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge. Cambridge
University Press.
Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2004. © 19932003 Microsoft Corporation. All
rights reserved.
Richard, Jack C & Plat, Heidi & Plat, John. 1992. Longman Dictionary of Language
Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Longman Group UK Limited.
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