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MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The benefits of civilization which we enjoy today are essentially due to the improved quality of products available to us The improvement in the quality of the goods can be achieved with proper design that takes into consideration the functional requirement as well as its manufacturing aspects. This would ensure a better product being made available at an economical cost. Manufacturing involves turning raw material to finished products to be used for various purposes. In the present age there have been increasing demands on the product performance by way of desirable exotic properties such as resistance to higher temperatures, higher operating speeds and extra loads. These in turn would require a variety of new materials and its associated processing. Also exacting working conditions that are desired in the modern industrial operations make large demands on the manufacturing industry. Further, the economics of the manufacturing operation is a very important consideration. To be viable in the modern environment, a product has to be competitively priced besides having the functional and aesthetic appeal. Therefore, it is necessary for the engineer to give a proper thought to various aspects of manufacturing. Manufacturing process is a very fundamental subject since it is of interest not only to mechanical engineers but also to those from practically every discipline of engineering. A detailed understanding of the manufacturing process is thus essential for every engineer. This helps him appreciate the capabilities, advantages and also the limitations of the process. This in turn helps in the proper design of any product required from him. Firstly he would be able to assess the feasibility of manufacturing from his designs. He may also find that there are more than one process available for manufacturing a particular product and he can make a proper choice of the process which would require the lowest manufacturing cost and would deliver the product of desired quality. He may also modify his slightly to suit the particular manufacturing process he chooses. Manufacturing Processes are classified into four categories Casting Processes : Ex: Sand casting, die casting ,centrifugal casting, precision investment casting etc

Forming Processes : Ex: Rolling , press forging, wire drawing, sheet metal operations etc Fabrication Processes : It is a secondary manufacturing process. Ex: Electric arc welding, gas welding, soldering, brazing etc Material removal processes: It is also the secondary manufacturing process. It is the expensive process. This process delivers good dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Ex : Turning , milling, drilling, grinding etc Importance of material removal process : These are also the secondary manufacturing processes where the additional unwanted material is removed in the form of chips from the blank material by harder tool so as to obtain the final desired shape. Material removal is normally the most expensive manufacturing process because more energy is consumed, and also a lot of waste material is generated in the process. Still this is widely used because it delivers very good dimensional accuracy and good surface finish. It also generates accurate contours. Material removal process are also called machining process. Various processes in this category are: Turning Milling Drilling Grinding etc All the manufacturing processes have been continuously developed so as to obtain better products at a reduced cost. Of particular interest is the development of computers and their effect on the manufacturing processes. The advent of computers has made a remarkable difference to most of the above manufacturing processes. They have contributed greatly to both automation and designing the process.

DEVELOPMENT OF MACHINE TOOLS

To stay in business, the main motive is profit. Better services offered on schedule, reliable, improved and consistent quality of product also mean profit. Productivity in manufacturing is a parallel term to profit in business. Productivity is a positive difference between output and input. To increase the productivity therefore one has to maximize the output and while keeping the input as low as possible. To meet the objective of consistency of quality particularly required in accurate and complex components calls for use of special purpose or automatic equipment. The cost of such equipment could only be met if the quantity of production and the productivity is very high. Thus if quantity and quality and delivery schedule are prime importance, the answer is mass production. However on the entire spectrum of production activities around 1520% of demand desires the use of mass production. The remaining requirements can be met only by batch production. Automation has been associated with advancement in technology. In the process of automation for small batch production, hydraulic tracer controlled machine tools and programmed special purpose machine tools have been evolved. However these require cams, templates, stops, electrical trip dogs etc, calling for a longer set up time while changing over to new jobs. These problems of automation of small lot (batch) production have been overcome by Numerical control machine tools to a great extent. NC has long been considered a technology to produce engineering goods of good quality and accuracy. NC is not a particular machining and forming method but only a better and effective way of controlling machine tool functions and performance independent of operator skill. It does not substitute good tools or production engineering practices but supplements them both.

DEVELOPMENT OF MACHINE TOOLS

GENERAL PURPOSE MACHINES (GPM) (CONVENTIONAL MACHINES)

SPECIAL PURPOSE MACHINES (SPM) (AUTOMATICS)

NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES

COMPUTER NUMERICAL CNTROL MACHINES

ADVANCED CAM TECHNIQUES LIKE FMS & CIM Comparison of GPM / SPM / CNC : GPM - Completely manual SPM - Built in automatic cycles / For mass production / Changes are difficult CNC - Highly flexible / Suitable for batch production / Job production as per requirement

COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS

By controlling the relative movements between the tool and the work piece geometrical shapes are machined. Control of these relative movements through coded letters numbers is known as Numerical Control of machine tools. NC is simply a way of electronically controlling the operations of a machine. In conventional machine operator directly controlling the machine functions. Where as in NC machine a separate media which is in between machine and operator is controlling the machine functions. These NC machines do not have any memory of their own and hence capable of only executing a simple block of information fed to it at a time. Hardware automation gave way to computer controlled automation in manufacturing process. Computer numerical control is the term used when the control system of an NC includes a computer. The availability of a dedicated computer permits new control features to be made available on CNC machines. BASIC COMPONENTS OF NC
Program of instructions MCU Machine tool

Program of instructions: The program instructions is the detailed step by step of directions which tell the machine tool, what to do. Machine control unit: This consists of the electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool. Machine tool: It is the part of the NC system which performs the useful work.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE : Conventional machine tool Operators brain Hands Eyes = = = NC machine tool NC controller DC servo drives Feed back system

ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES : CNC machines offer the following advantages in manufacturing. Higher flexibility. Increased machine utilization Increased productivity. Consistent quality. Reduced scrap rate. Reliable operation. Reduced non-productive time. Reduced man power. Shorter cycle time. Higher accuracy. Reduced lead time. Automatic material handling. Lesser floor space. Increased operational safety. Machining of advanced material. Savings in jigs and fixtures. Changes in the design can be easily incorporated. Ability to combine operations. Stored programs Editing facility near the machine Graphic simulation User written programs First step in CIM

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF COMPONENTS FOR NC MACHINING:

Number of operations per component - MANY Complexity of the operations carried out - HIGH Size of batches MEDIUM Repetition of batches OFTEN Labor cost of the component HIGH Skill required by the operator HIGH Ratio of cutting time to non cutting time HIGH Variety of components to be produced - MORE Cost of special tooling involved HIGH Design changes FREQUENT Number of dimensions to be maintained MANY Setup time and inspection time HIGH Precision involved in the component HIGH Time lag between the operations HIGH Non- uniform cutting conditions - REQUIRED

EMERGING TRENDS AND NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN CNC TECHNOLOGY Special purpose machine tools Coordinate measuring machine and Inspection probes Adaptive control Tool condition / collision monitoring DNC / Windows based CNC systems Work oriented program (WOP) / Conversational programming (CAP ) CAD / CAM Flexible manufacturing systems ( FMS ) Robotics Computer integrated manufacturing ( CIM )

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Special purpose machine tools :

Because of the CNC technology new types of machines are being made like machining centers which are predominantly made for prismatic components. Turning centers are being made for machining components which have more of turning operations but also having operations which call for milling, drilling and tapping. These machines are also called CNC lathes with driven tools or live tools. These machines have turret which has independent drive, programmable through CNC system and some of the tool positions can have tools which will rotate. Using these machines, the operations like slotting, key way milling, drilling and tapping can be completed after completing the turning operations. Similarly, the machining centers are equipped with CNC controlled facing and turning attachments to complete the turning operations in the prismatic components. Coordinate measuring machine and inspection probes : One of the types of CNC machine is coordinate measuring machine and it is used mainly to inspect components which come out of CNC machines. The machine has a touch probe which will measure the dimensions as per program and can give out the deviations in the form of a chart or plot the actuals against the acceptance band. These machines can also be linked to the CNC machines to give suitable offsets to correct for the dimensional variations. The use of in-process inspection probes is becoming more common in modern NC machine tool systems. These inspection probes are sophisticated dial indicators which can be mounted in the machine tool spindle or holder. In machines with automatic tool changers, the probe would be placed in the tool storage drum and loaded in to the spindle or holder when needed, just like any of the regular cutting tools. Sensors in the probe detect when contact has been made with a surface of the work part being checked. The software in the controller performs the necessary computations to interpret the signals from the probe. The principal benefits that drive from the use of inspection probes are time savings and improved accuracy. Measurements taken with the probe are generally more accurate than traditional techniques used to measure part dimensions. Adaptive controls

For machining operations, the term adaptive control denotes a control system that measures certain output process variables and uses them to control the process. Some of the process variables that have been used in adoptive control are spindle deflection ,torque, cutting temperature, Vibration, amplitude and horse power. The motivation for developing an adaptive machining system lies in trying to operate the process more efficiently. The typical measure of performance in machining have been removal rate cost per volume of metal removed. Benefits of adaptive control machining: 1. Increased production rates 2. Increased tool life 3. Greater part protection 4. Less operator intervention 5. Easier part programming Tool condition / Collision monitoring : There is a possibility of collision of tool to work-piece or any stationary part of machine due to incorrect offsets. Anti-collision devices are used which will sense the collision by the load on the tool turret and stop the feed sufficiently fast to avoid permanent damage to the machine. Some times same or similar devices are used to find out the condition of the tool and give indication when the tool is worn out and needs replacement as blunt tool needs more power. An extension of this facility is to automatically change over to a sister tool (a new tool of same type ) once the useful life of the tool is completed. Direct numerical control ( DNC ) Direct numerical control is defined as a manufacturing system in which a number of machines are controlled by a computer through direct connection and in real time. The evolution in the configuration of DNC and its inclusion of computer numerical control have resulted in the introduction of the term Distributed numerical control for the initials DNC. Advantages of DNC

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- NC part programs are stored conveniently in files - Greater computational capability and flexibility - Reporting of shop performance

Work Oriented Programming ( WOP ) / Conversational automatic programming ( CAP ): The WOP / CAP user interface has been designed to carry out the different types of machining like turning, drilling and milling by programming the Tool geometry Work piece geometry Raw material contour Machining technology graphically

The programming process is usually carried by the machine operator. The WOP / CAP systems are designed to facilitate the part programming process by using an interactive mode to assist the operator through the programming steps. It queries the operator about the details of the machining job so that the operator types in the program responding to the sequence of questions. The system use shop language rather the alphanumeric codes. This removes some of the mystery usually surrounding the programming activity. Basically, the operator must able to read an engineering drawing and be familiar with the machining process. No extensive training is required in NC part programming. The great advantage of WOP / CAP is its simplicity. It represents a relatively easy way for small shop to make the transition to numerical control. The limitation is that the programs should be relatively short and simple. This means that the machining jobs should be uncomplicated. There are several reasons for this limitations. First, since there is no paper copy of the program, there is a limit on the length and complexity of program that the operator is capable of visualizing. Finally one of the

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biggest disadvantage is that the machine tool itself is not productive while programming is being accomplished. One way of overcoming this last disadvantage is by operating the machine tool in background mode. The function program WOP / CAP allows The definition of work piece, tools, tool magazines and material lists Creation of tool geometry Programming of the machining technology Definition of a face or peripheral surface Graphic simulation of programmed traversing movements and Generation of a part program by the system using system built in subprograms etc

Example : Shop turn interactive graphic package developed for turning centers with Sinumerik system. CAD / CAM : CAD / CAM is a term which means computer aided design and computer aided manufacturing. It is the technology concerned with the use of digital computers to perform certain functions in design and manufacturing. This technology is moving in the direction of greater integration of design and manufacturing. CAD : CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. The CAD soft ware consists of the computer programs to implement computer graphics on the system plus application ( soft wares ) programs to facilitate the engineering functions of the user company. CAM: CAM can be defined as the use of computer systems to plan, manage and control the operations of a manufacturing plant through either direct or indirect computer interface with the plants production resources.

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Flexible Manufacturing System Computer control machines are the building blocks for FMS. Whereas through computer numerical we are able to improve the productivity of the individual machines by fairly high margin there is a tremendous scope to improve the actual utilization of the shop. This is possible through FMS by making the movement of components and their loading / unloading more efficient. It is the extension of CNC in to these areas which helps in improving the productivity of system in batch manufacturing. Robotics: In terms of control technology and programming, industrial robots share in common with numerical control machines. Robotics are used for moving parts and tools in the performance of industrial tasks. An important number of these tasks are concerned with the loading and unloading of production machines, including NC machines. Computer Integrated Manufacturing ( CIM ) Computer integrated manufacturing systems incorporate many of the individual CAD/CAM technologies and concepts. These include: Computer numerical control ( CNC ) Direct numerical control ( DNC ) Computer process control Computer integrated production management Automated inspection methods Industrial Robotics

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CONCEPT OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

P R O D N V 0 L TRANSFER LINES LEAST FLEXIBLE CIM

MOST FLEXIBLE PART VARIETY

STAND ALONE NC M/C

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NC PROGRAMMING: A program of instructions for a NC machine tool is termed as a part program. A NC part program is a series of coded instructions that direct the operations of a numerically controlled machine. These instructions contains all the machine and control functions necessary to make the machine perform a specific task. The NC machine recovers the directions for operations from program. The program is prepared by listing coordinates values. The coordinate values are prefixed with preparatory with preparatory codes to indicate the type of movement required from one coordinate to the next and supplemented with feed rate figures. The coordinates are suffixed with miscellaneous codes for initiating the machine tool function like start, stop etc. All these elements in a time of information form one meaningful command for the system / machine to execute and is called a block of information. The preparation of a set of instructions to carry out the machining of a work piece is called part programming. This work is carried out by a part programmer. He prepares the planning sheet and write the instructions in a coded form which is acceptable to the controller of the machine tool. Part programming is of three types 1. Manual part programming 2. Computer assisted part programming using NC programming languages 3. Generation of program using CAD / CAM package
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Manual part programming:

While making the part program for a component the programmer first studies the drawing and decides upon the sequence of operations, cutting tools, speeds and feeds at various points, other necessary information like starting and stopping of machine tool etc. Manual programming is ideally suited for applications like drilling and turning . Regarding manual part programming further details are given at later pages.

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2. Computer assisted part programming: Most parts machined on NC systems are considerably more complex. In the more complicated and contouring applications, manual part programming, becomes an extremely tedious task and subject to errors. In these instances it is much more appropriate to employ the high speed digital computer to assist the part programming process. Many part programming language systems have been developed to perform automatically most of the calculations which the programmer would otherwise be forced to do. This saves time and results in a more accurate and more efficient part program. NC part programming languages : NC part programming language consists of a software package plus the special rules, conventions, and vocabulary words for using that software. It to make it convenient for a part programmer to communicate the necessary part geometry and tool motion information to the computer so that the desired part program can be prepared. The vocabulary words are typically mnemonic and English like, to make the NC language easy to use. APT programming language: APT ( Automatically Programmed Tools ) is the most widely used of the more than 50 NC programming languages available. In APT programming, the work part is defined with geometric elements such as lines, planes, and circles. These lines, planes, and circles are unbounded geometry in the sense that the lines and planes are infinite and the circles are complete circles. The work part, of course, is bounded, so the APT geometry elements do not really provide an accurate and comprehensive definition of the part geometry. It is by means of a sequence of APT motion statements that the tool is directed around the actual surface of the part, ignoring the portions of the circles and lines that do not relate to the part. The best known systems which are based on APT(APT compatible)are EXAPT, ADAPT, IFAPT, BASIC- APT, FAPT etc. Systems which have been developed by machine tool manufacturers include EASY-PROG, PROGRAMAT, H100 AND AUTOFIT.

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APT is a powerful and versatile language, but has three potential disadvantages. The first is that the user must learn a language with its own syntax and grammar. Unless he already has computer programming experience , he is exposed to some concepts which are entirely alien to him. A second disadvantage is that the part programmer must interpret the engineering drawings ( with the possibility of error ) and define the geometry of the part for APT . The third disadvantage is that the programmer has to mentally visualize the tool path as he is programming. 3. Generation of part program using CAD / CAM packages. In the CAD/CAM approach to geometric modeling, the part is defined by surfaces and edges that construct a solid geometric description of the part. The surfaces and edges do not extend infinitely in their respective directions. The term given to this method of part definition is bounded geometry. Which contrasts with the unbounded approach used in APT. Many of the concepts of APT geometry definition were utilized to develop the current geometric modeling technology of CAD/CAM. In many respects, developments in computerized geometric modeling have outpaced the APT geometry concepts. Various CAD / CAM soft wares available in the market are Pro Engineer Master Cam Unigraphics etc IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL PROGRAMMING : In manual part programming a programmer completes the programming task without any computer assistance. The only aids used are a scientific calculator, the programming instructions for the specific machine-tool controller/controller combination, a tape preparation device and experience. Programmers should always begin and conclude their

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training by manual part programming , since it is essential that they be able to readily understand, read, and modify part programs. A programmer must feel confident to correct programs both at the CNC machine and in the office. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CNC PROGRAMMER WHILE PREPARING THE MANUAL PART PROGRAM : The programmer studies the engineering drawing and translates the operations to be performed into a manuscript in a prescribed format. The individual who programs the job for NC machine generally Study the relevant component drawing thoroughly Chooses the NC machine tool to be used Identify the type of material to be machined Knows the specifications and functions of machine tool and features of the CNC system Check the tooling required Establish the sequence of machining operations Determine the cutting parameters for the job/tool combination Prepares the program Decide the mode of storing the part program once it is completed

While preparing the part program, depends upon the availability of the features in the system, the below shown system features or the combination of different features can be used advantageously depending upon the amount of material to be removed, machining sequence, machine and the programmers convenience. Some of the CNC system features are listed below. System features used in manual programming. 1. Work piece dimensioning, input system 2. Absolute coordinate system 3. Incremental coordinate system 4. Combination of Absolute and incremental ( In Fanuc system only ) 5. Polar coordinate system ( Useful in machining centers ) 6. Programming with Constant RPM or constant Cutting Speed 7. Tool nose radius compensation ( TNRC )

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8. Parametric programming ( Also called Variable programming ) 9. Blue print programming ( Also called Contour definition Programming ) 10.System built in machining cycles for stock removal in roughing and 11.finishing cuts ( In turning, drilling and Threading ) 12.Developed, user sub programs ( Also called macros in Fanuc system ) 13.Subroutine nesting 14. Mirroring one of the axis ( Z axis in Turning ) 15.Programming with @ Functions Some of the basic features exits readily in the machine switch on condition. VARIOUS OPERATOR AND PROGRAM CONTROL PANNEL OF A CNC MACHINE Manual program editing Back ground editing Single mode / Auto mode Cycle start Dry run Feed control ( 0 120 % ) Feed hold RPM control ( 50 120 % ) Reset Block search Optional stop Block skip MDI (Manual data input) Mirror image in selected Axis Reference Preset position Reposition incremental Jog continuous Chuck ON / OFF Direction of rotation CONTROLS ON

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Gear change Coolant ON / OFF Emergency Indicators for machine / system alarms Program verification by graphic simulation

RESPONSIBILITIES OF CNC MACHINE OPERATOR WHILE EXECUTING THE JOB : Job loading and setting as per the job layout Program entering manually/ through punched tape / through DNC / calling from memory Loading the required cutting tools into the turret / tool magazine as per the tools layout and entering the tool data into the memory Fixing the work zero with reference to the machine zero Verification of correctness of the program from graphic simulation if the system allows Machining the job in single mode as per the program. Dimensional inspection while machining and correction of tool offset if necessary. Replacement of inserts, cutting tools whenever required. Optimization of the program i.e. correction of feeds, speeds, idle movements etc VARIOUS CNC SYSTEMS : Various types are CNC systems are available in the market. These systems are having their own advantages and disadvantages. SINUMERIK / HINUMERIK FANUC GE MARK ++ FAGOR GE-FANUC ANILAM KONGSBERG CRUSADOR LAXMI etc

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The popular systems are Sinumerik from Siemens, Germany and Fanuc from Fanuc corporation , Japan.