Anatomy and Physiology KIDNEY The paired kidneys are reddish, kidney-bean-shaped organs located just above the

waist between the peritoneum and the posterior wall of the abdomen. Because their position is posterior to the peritoneum of the abdominal cavity, they are said to be retroperitoneal. The kidneys are located between the levels of the last thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae, a position where they are partially protected by the eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs. The right kidney is slightly lower than the left because that liver occupies considerable space on the right side superior to the kidney. Kidneys main functions are: Regulation of blood ionic composition - The kidneys help regulate the blood levels of several ions, most importantly sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, chloride ions and phosphate ions. Regulation of blood pH - The kidneys excrete a variable amount of hydrogen ions into the urine and conserve bicarbonate ions, which are an important buffer of hydrogen in the blood. Both of these activities help regulate blood pH. Regulation of blood volume - The kidneys adjust blood volume by conserving or eliminating water in the urine. An increase in blood volume increases blood pressure; a decrease in blood volume decreases blood pressure. Regulation of blood pressure - The kidneys also help regulate blood pressure by secreting enzyme rennin, which activates the rennin- angiotensin- aldosterone pathway. Increased rennin causes an increase in the blood pressure. Maintenance of blood osmolarity - By separately regulating loss of water and loss of solutes in the urine, the kidneys maintain a relatively constant blood osmolarity close to 300 milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/liter). Production of hormones - The kidneys produce two hormones. Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, helps regulate calcium homeostasis, and erythopoeitin stimulates production of red blood cells. Regulation of blood glucose level - Like the liver, the kidneys can use the amino acid glutamine in the gluconeogenesis, the synthesis of new glucose molecules. They can then release glucose into the blood to help maintain normal blood glucose. Excretion of wastes and foreign substances -by forming, the kidneys help excrete wastes- substances that have no useful function in the body. Some wastes excreted in the urine result from metabolic reactions in the body. These include ammonia and urea from the deamination of amoni acids; bilirubin from the catabolism of hemoglobin; creatinine from the breakdown of creatine phosphate in muscle fibers; and uric acid from the catabolism of nucleic acids. The wastes excreted in urine are foreign substances from the diet, such as drugs and environmental toxins.

PANCREAS Is a long, slender gland lying behind the stomach and in front of the first and second lumbar vertebrae. It consists of a head, body, and a tail. The anterior surface is covered by peritoneum. The pancreas contains lobes and lobules. The pancreatic duct extends along the gland and enters the duodenum through the common bile duct. The pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine function. The exocrine function of the pancreas contributes to the process of digestion. Exocrine cells in the pancreas secrete pancreatic enzymes. The endocrine function occurs in the islet of Langerhans, whose beta cells secretes insulin; alpha cells secrete glucagon; delta cells secrete somas statins and f cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide. Glucose metabolism is the central energy carrier of the human metabolism. The brain and red blood cells are fully glucose-dependent. The plasma glucose concentration (blood sugar level) is determined by the level of glucose production and consumption. The following terms are important for proper understanding of carbohydrate metabolism : 1. Glycolysis generally refers to the anaerobic conversion of glucose to lactate. This occurs in the red blood cells, renal medulla, and skeletal muscles . Aerobic oxidation of glucose occurs in the CNS, heart, skeletal muscle and in most other organs. 2. Glycogenesis, i.e., the synthesis of glycogen from glucose (in liver and muscle), facilitates the storage of glucose and helps to maintain a constant plasma glucose concentration. Glycogen stored in a muscle can only be used by that muscle. 3. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, i.e., the opposite of glycogenesis. 4. Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose (in liver and renal cortex) from non-sugar molecules such as amino acids (e.g., glutamine), lactate (produced by anaerobic glycolysis in muscles and red cells), and glycerol (from lipolysis). 5. Lipolysis is the breakdown of triacylglycerols into glycerol and free fatty acids. 6. Lipogenesis is the synthesis of triacylglycerols (for storage in fat depots).

LUNGS The lungs are paired elastic structures enclosed in the thoracic cage, which is an airtight chamber with distensible walls, the lungs contain the bronchial and alveolar structures needed for gas exchange. The lungs consist of five lobes. The right lung has three lobes (upper, middle, lower); the left has two (upper and lower). The lobes are further subdivided by fissures. The bronchial tree, another lung structure, inflates with air to fill the lobes. The primary function of the lungs is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide through respiration. This system also plays a role in maintaining acidbase balance. The physiology of respiration consists of both mechanical and physiological processes. The mechanical process of respiration is accomplished by pulmonary ventilation, the exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere. It consists of two phasesinspiration and expiration. The physiological process occurs on three levels: external, internal, and cellular:

 External respiration is the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the alveoli and the blood through the alveolar-capillary membrane. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the systemic capillaries and the tissue at the cellular level. The cellular physiological process is the exchange of gases within the cell. BLOOD The cellular component of blood consists of three primary cell types: RBCs (red blood cells or erythrocytes), WBCs (white blood cells or leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). These cellular components of blood normally make up 40% to 45% of the blood volume. Because most blood cells have a short life span, the need for the body to replenish its supply of cells is continuous; this process is termed hematopoiesis. The general functions of blood are transportation of oxygen, nutrients, and cellular waste products; regulation of body temperature, pH, and fluid balance; and production of cells that offer the body protection.