ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

189

The negative half cycle is identical in shape to the positive half cycle. Plot the waveform and determine (a) the periodic time and frequency (b) the instantaneous value of voltage at 3.75 ms (c) the times when the voltage is 125 V (d) the mean value, and (e) the r.m.s. value [(a) 24 ms, 41.67 Hz (b) 115 V (c) 4 ms and 10.1 ms (d) 142 V (e) 171 V] 5 Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal curve of maximum value 300 V [212.1 V] 6 Find the peak and mean values for a 200 V mains supply [282.9 V, 180.2 V] 7 Plot a sine wave of peak value 10.0 A. Show that the average value of the waveform is 6.37 A over half a cycle, and that the r.m.s. value is 7.07 A 8 A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of 120 V. Calculate its r.m.s. and average values. [84.8 V, 76.4 V] 9 A sinusoidal current has a mean value of 15.0 A. Determine its maximum and r.m.s. values. [23.55 A, 16.65 A]

If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against angle t (in radians), a sine curve results of maximum value 0A. Any quantity which varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as a phasor. A sine curve may not always start at 0 . To show this a periodic function is represented by y D sin t , where is the phase (or angle) difference compared with y D sin t. In Fig. 14.9(a), y2 D sin t C starts radians earlier than y1 D sin t and is thus said to lead y1 by radians. Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in Fig. 14.9(b) at the time when t D 0.

Figure 14.9

14.5 The equation of a sinusoidal waveform

In Fig. 14.8, 0A represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity of rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor. After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned through an angle t. If the line BC is constructed perpendicular to 0A as shown, then sin t D BC 0B i.e. BC D 0B sin t

In Fig. 14.9(c), y4 D sin t starts radians later than y3 D sin t and is thus said to lag y3 by radians. Phasors y3 and y4 are shown in Fig. 14.9(d) at the time when t D 0. Given the general sinusoidal voltage, v = V m sin.wt f/, then (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Amplitude or maximum value D Vm Peak to peak value D 2 Vm Angular velocity D rad/s Periodic time, T D 2 / seconds Frequency, f D /2 Hz (since D 2 f) D angle of lag or lead (compared with v D Vm sin t)

Problem 9. An alternating voltage is given by v D 282.8 sin 314 t volts. Find (a) the r.m.s. voltage, (b) the frequency and (c) the instantaneous value of voltage when t D 4 ms. (a) The general expression for an alternating voltage is v D Vm sin t . Comparing

Figure 14.8

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v D 282.8 sin 314 t with this general expression gives the peak voltage as 282.8 V. Hence the r.m.s. voltage D 0.707 maximum value D 0.707 282.8 D 200 V

0.25 rads D 0.25

180

D 14.32

Hence phase angle D 14.32 lagging Problem 11. An alternating voltage, v, has a periodic time of 0.01 s and a peak value of 40 V. When time t is zero, v D 20 V. Express the instantaneous voltage in the form v D Vm sin t . Amplitude, Vm D 40 V. 2 hence angular velocity, Periodic time T D 2 2 D D 200 rad/s. D T 0.01 v D Vm sin t C thus becomes
v D 40 sin 200 t C

(b) Angular velocity, D 314 rad/s, i.e. 2 f D 314. Hence frequency, fD 314 D 50 Hz 2

(c) When t D 4 ms,

v D 282.8 sin 314 4 10
3

D 282.8 sin 1.256 D 268.9 V Note that 1.256 radians D 1.256 D 71.96 Hence v D 282.8 sin 71.96 D 268.9 V, as above. Problem 10. An alternating voltage is given by v D 75 sin 200 t 0.25 volts. Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value, (c) the r.m.s. value, (d) the periodic time, (e) the frequency, and (f) the phase angle (in degrees and minutes) relative to 75 sin 200 t. Comparing v D 75 sin 200 t 0.25 with the general expression v D Vm sin t gives: (a) Amplitude, or peak value D 75 V (b) Peak-to-peak value D 2 75 D 150 V (c) The r.m.s. value D 0.707 maximum value D 0.707 75 D 53 V (d) Angular velocity, D 200 rad/s. Hence periodic time, TD 2 2 D 200 D 1 D 0.01 s or 10 ms 100 180

volts.

When time t D 0, v D 20 V i.e. 20 D 40 sin so that sin D 20/40 D 0.5 Hence D sin D Thus
1

0.5 D 180

30 rads D
p 6

30

rads

v = 40 sin 200pt

Problem 12. The current in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is given by: i D 120 sin 100 t C 0.36 amperes. Find: (a) the peak value, the periodic time, the frequency and phase angle relative to 120 sin 100 t (b) the value of the current when t D 0 (c) the value of the current when t D 8 ms (d) the time when the current rst reaches 60 A, and (e) the time when the current is rst a maximum. (a) Peak value D 120 A Periodic time T D 2 2 since D 100 D 100 1 D 0.02 s or 20 ms D 50 1 1 Frequency, f D D D 50 Hz T 0.02

(e) Frequency, f D (f) Phase angle, 75 sin 200 t

1 1 D D 100 Hz T 0.01

D 0.25 radians lagging

ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

191

Phase angle D 0.36 rads D 0.36 (b) When t D 0, i D 120 sin 0 C 0.36 D 120 sin 20.63 D 42.3 A (c) When t D 8 ms, i D 120 sin 100 8 103 C 0.36 180 D 20.63 leading

(in degrees) of the following alternating quantities: (a) v D 90 sin 400 t volts [90 V, 63.63 V, 5 ms, 200 Hz, 0 ] (b) i D 50 sin 100 t C 0.30 amperes [50 A, 35.35 A, 0.02 s, 50 Hz, 17.19 lead] (c) e D 200 sin 628.4 t 0.41 volts [200 V, 141.4 V, 0.01 s, 100 Hz, 23.49 lag] 3 A sinusoidal current has a peak value of 30 A and a frequency of 60 Hz. At time t D 0, the current is zero. Express the instantaneous current i in the form i D Im sin t [i D 30 sin 120 t] 4 An alternating voltage v has a periodic time of 20 ms and a maximum value of 200 V. When time t D 0, v D 75 volts. Deduce a sinusoidal expression for v and sketch one cycle of the voltage showing important points. [v D 200 sin 100 t 0.384 ] 5 The voltage in an alternating current circuit at any time t seconds is given by v D 60 sin 40t volts. Find the rst time when the voltage is (a) 20 V (b) 30 V [(a) 8.496 ms (b) 91.63 ms] 6 The instantaneous value of voltage in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is given by v D 100 sin 50 t 0.523 V. Find: (a) the peak-to-peak voltage, the periodic time, the frequency and the phase angle (b) the voltage when t D 0 (c) the voltage when t D 8 ms (d) the times in the rst cycle when the voltage is 60 V (e) the times in the rst cycle when the voltage is 40 V (f) the rst time when the voltage is a maximum. Sketch the curve for one cycle showing relevant points. [(a) 200 V, 0.04 s, 25 Hz, 29.97 lagging (b) 49.95 V (c) 66.96 V (d) 7.426 ms, 19.23 ms (e) 25.95 ms, 40.71 ms (f) 13.33 ms]

D 120 sin 2.8733 D 120 sin 164.63 D 31.8 A (d) When i D 60 A, 60 D 120 sin 100 t C 0.36 thus 60/120 D sin 100 t C 0.36 so that 100 t C 0.36 D sin 1 0.5 D 30 D /6 rads D 0.5236 rads. Hence time, 0.5236 0.36 D 0.521 ms 100 (e) When the current is a maximum, i D 120 A. tD Thus 120 D 120 sin 100 t C 0.36 1 D sin 100 t C 0.36 100 t C 0.36 D sin D
1

1 D 90

/2 rads

Hence time,

D 1.5708 rads. 1.5708 0.36 D 3.85 ms tD 100

Now try the following exercise

Exercise 75 Further problems on v = Vm sin.wt f/ 1 An alternating voltage is represented by v D 20 sin 157.1 t volts. Find (a) the maximum value (b) the frequency (c) the periodic time. (d) What is the angular velocity of the phasor representing this waveform? [(a) 20 V (b) 25 Hz (c) 0.04 s (d) 157.1 rads/s] 2 Find the peak value, the r.m.s. value, the periodic time, the frequency and the phase angle

14.6 Combination of waveforms

The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two sinusoidal quantities may be determined either:

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically (see worked Problems 13 and 16), or (b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation (see worked Problems 14 and 15) Problem 13. The instantaneous values of two alternating currents are given by i1 D 20 sin t amperes and i2 D 10 sin t C /3 amperes. By plotting i1 and i2 on the same axes, using the same scale, over one cycle, and adding ordinates at intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for i 1 C i2 . i1 D 20 sin t and i2 D 10 sin t C /3 are shown plotted in Fig. 14.10. Ordinates of i1 and i2 are added at, say, 15 intervals (a pair of dividers are useful for this). For example, at 30 , i1 C i2 D 10 C 10 D 20 A at 60 , i1 C i2 D 17.3 C 8.7 D 26 A at 150 , i1 C i2 D 10 C 5 D 5 A, and so on.

The resultant waveform leads the curve i1 D 20 sin t by 19 i.e. 19 /180 rads D 0.332 rads Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant i1 C i2 is given by: iR = i1 + i2 = 26.5 sin.wt + 0.332/ A Problem 14. Two alternating voltages are represented by v1 D 50 sin t volts and v2 D 100 sin t /6 V. Draw the phasor diagram and nd, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression to represent v1 C v2 . Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when time t D 0. Thus v1 is drawn horizontally 50 units long and v2 is drawn 100 units long lagging v1 by /6 rads, i.e. 30 . This is shown in Fig. 14.11(a) where 0 is the point of rotation of the phasors.

Figure 14.11

Procedure to draw phasor diagram to represent v1 C v2 : (i) Draw v1 horizontal 50 units long, i.e. oa of Fig. 14.11(b) (ii) Join v2 to the end of v1 at the appropriate angle, i.e. ab of Fig. 14.11(b) (iii) The resultant vR D v1 C v2 is given by the length ob and its phase angle may be measured with respect to v1 Alternatively, when two phasors are being added the resultant is always the diagonal of the parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 14.11(c). From the drawing, by measurement, vR D 145 V and angle D 20 lagging v1 .

Figure 14.10

The resultant waveform for i1 C i2 is shown by the broken line in Fig. 14.10. It has the same period, and hence frequency, as i1 and i2 . The amplitude or peak value is 26.5 A

ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

193

A more accurate solution is obtained by calculation, using the cosine and sine rules. Using the cosine rule on triangle 0ab of Fig. 14.11(b) gives:
v2 D v2 C v2 R 1 2

from which iR D 26.46 A By the sine rule: 26.46 10 D sin sin 120 from which D 19.10 i.e. 0.333 rads

2v1 v2 cos 150 2 50 100 cos 150

D 502 C 1002

D 2500 C 10000 8660 p vR D 21160 D 145.5 V Using the sine rule, 100 145.5 D sin sin 150 from which sin 100 sin 150 145.5 D 0.3436 D

Hence, by calculation, iR = 26.46 sin.wt + 0.333/ A Problem 16. Two alternating voltages are given by v1 D 120 sin t volts and v2 D 200 sin t /4 volts. Obtain sinusoidal expressions for v1 v2 (a) by plotting waveforms, and (b) by resolution of phasors. (a) v1 D 120 sin t and v2 D 200 sin t /4 are shown plotted in Fig. 14.13 Care must be taken when subtracting values of ordinates especially when at least one of the ordinates is negative. For example 52 D 112 V at 30 , v1 v2 D 60 at 60 , v1 v2 D 104 52 D 52 V at 150 , v1 v2 D 60 193 D 133 V and so on.

and D sin 1 0.3436 D 20.096 D 0.35 radians, and lags v1 . Hence vR D v1 C v2 D 145.5 sin.wt 0.35/ V Problem 15. Find a sinusoidal expression for i1 C i2 of Problem 13, (b) by drawing phasors, (b) by calculation. (a) The relative positions of i1 and i2 at time t D 0 are shown as phasors in Fig. 14.12(a). The phasor diagram in Fig. 14.12(b) shows the resultant iR , and iR is measured as 26 A and angle as 19 or 0.33 rads leading i1 . Hence, by drawing, iR = 26 sin.wt + 0.33/ A

Figure 14.12

(b) From Fig. 14.12(b), by the cosine rule: i2 D 202 C 102 R 2 20 10 cos 120
Figure 14.13

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

The resultant waveform, vR D v1 v2 , is shown by the broken line in Fig. 14.13 The maximum value of vR is 143 V and the waveform is seen to lead v1 by 99 (i.e. 1.73 radians) Hence, by drawing, vR = v1 v2 = 143 sin.wt + 1.73/volts (b) The relative positions of v1 and v2 are shown at time t D 0 as phasors in Fig. 14.14(a). Since the resultant of v1 v2 is required, v2 is drawn in the opposite direction to Cv2 and is shown by the broken line in Fig. 14.14(a). The phasor diagram with the resultant is shown in Fig. 14.14(b) where v2 is added phasorially to v1 .

from which, and

D tan D

6.6013

81.39

D 98.61 or 1.721 radians

Hence, by resolution of phasors, vR = v1 v2 = 143.0 sin.wt + 1.721/ volts Now try the following exercise Exercise 76 Further problems on the combination of periodic functions 1 The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are given by v1 D 5 sin t and v2 D 8 sin t /6 . By plotting v1 and v2 on the same axes, using the same scale, over one cycle, obtain expressions for (a) v1 C v2 and (b) v1 v2 [(a) v1 C v2 D 12.58 sin t 0.325 V (b) v1 v2 D 4.44 sin t C 2.02 V] 2 Repeat Problem 1 using resolution of phasors 3 Construct a phasor diagram to represent i1 C i2 where i1 D 12 sin t and i2 D 15 sin t C /3 . By measurement, or by calculation, nd a sinusoidal expression to represent i1 C i2 [23.43 sin t C 0.588 ] Determine, either by plotting graphs and adding ordinates at intervals, or by calculation, the following periodic functions in the form v D Vm sin t

Figure 14.14

4 10 sin t C 4 sin t C /4 [13.14 sin t C 0.217 ] 5 80 sin t C /3 C 50 sin t /6 [94.34 sin t C 0.489 ] 6 100 sin t 70 sin t /3 [88.88 sin t C 0.751 ]

By resolution: Sum of horizontal components of v1 and v2 D 120 cos 0 200 cos 45 D 21.42 Sum of vertical components of v1 and v2 D 120 sin 0 C 200 sin 45 D 141.4 From Fig. 14.14(c), resultant
vR

14.7 Rectication
2

21.42

C 141.4

and

tan

D 143.0 141.4 D 21.42 D tan 6.6013

The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and voltages from alternating currents and voltages is called rectication. Automatic switching in circuits is carried out by devices called diodes. Half and fullwave rectiers are explained in Chapter 11, Section 11.7, page 132