Causes of disease

01 June 2012 09:16

Micro-organisms are single celled organisms. Disease causing MOs are called pathogens. The word disease suggests malfunction of the body and mind, having an adverse effect on overall health. Pathogens o Gain entry to the host o Colonise their tissues o Resists their defences o Cause damage to their tissues They get into the body by crossing barriers, interfaces with the outside world. These include o Skin o Gas exchange systems o Digestive systems The body tries to prevent this by providing enzymes that break down the bacteria, mucous that traps any trying to get through and stomach acid which kills them straight away. These pathogens cause disease by damaging tissues or by producing toxins which disrupt bodily function.

Enzymes and digestion

01 June 2012 09:28

The long tube that takes food from ingestion to excretion is called the alimentary canal. It stretches from the oesophagus to the rectum. The stomach is a muscular sack which churns the food and produces enzymes to break it down (particularly proteins) and the food is mainly absorbed in the small intestine where the epithelial cells have microvilli projections which increase the surface area for absorption. The large intestine absorbs water and the rectum stores the faeces. There are two main parts to digestion. Physical digestion is when large chunks are broken up into smaller bits which gives a larger surface area for the next part, chemical digestion. This involves enzymes which hydrolyse the large molecules into their monomer units. These are small enough to be absorbed through the membrane and taken through the blood, to the tissues that need them. The body gets the energy it needs from food when it's absorbed in the small intestine. The walls of the intestine are folded into villi which are projections of tissue made up of smaller epithelial cells, these cells have their own projections called microvilli which further increase the surface area. Glucose diffuses into the blood through these cells as a strong concentration gradient is maintained by constant blood flow to remove the saturated blood and the food being churned around so fresh glucose is available.

As diffusion is passive, it, at best, equalises concentrations on either side. Cotransportation ensures that more glucose is taken into the body. o Sodium ions are pumped into the blood, creating a concentration gradient between the cells and the intestine o Sodium ions from the intestine flow into the epithelial cells, "piggybacking" a cheeky glucose molecule across with it (energy from this coming from the difference in concentration) o The glucose can diffuse into the blood now Some people don't have the correct enzyme to digest food. For example, the lactose intolerant. Because the body can't hydrolyse it, bacteria do. However, in doing so, they release lots of gas which isn't the best really as it leads to bloating or diarrhoea. Enzymes are biological catalysts that reduce the activation energy required for a reaction to take place without being used up themselves. They are globular proteins (look in the proteins section) that have a highly folded and very specific tertiary structure. Within this is an active site which is complimentary to the substrate that it breaks down. It was proposed that this worked much like a lock and key but other molecules can fit in too (if they have a similar shape) so scientists thought that the substrate fit in more like a hand in a glove which was the induced fit theory. It said that the bonds on the enzyme are a little more flexible than thought and they help reduce the energy needed to break it apart by applying pressure and distorting the bonds. Enzymes are really affected by temperature. All have a different optimum where they work at their best. Too much and the enzymes denature, the hydrogen bonds are weak and can easily be broken by heat. Too cold and the enzyme becomes inactive as the bonds on the active site can't move at all. This goes for pH too as changes in H+ concentration affect the ionic bonds and the bonding at the active site. Enzymes can be inhibited by other molecules in various ways. They work because a substrate with a specific shape can bind to the active site. Fine. But what if a molecule comes along with a really similar shape? It too can sort of fit in the site and so there is competition for the active site. This type of inhibition is called, well, competitive inhibition. Another possibility is that another molecule, not the substrate, can bind to another place in the enzyme and inadvertently change the shape of the active site which means it's unable to form an enzyme substrate complex. This is called non-competitive inhibition. Sometimes, the body wants some sort of inhibition, to stop there being a ridiculous amount of substrate made. This happens when the product of enzyme catalysis becomes a non competitive inhibitor for the active site once more. This is called end product inhibition.

Carbohydrates
01 June 2012 09:33

Carbohydrates are polymers, long molecules made of small repeating units called monomers. Take, for example, starch. It is made from monomers of alpha glucose. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars and turn Benedict's solution brick red. Because it's made of alpha glucose, long molecules of starch form an alpha helix which is tightly coiled, to its advantage as it can pack tightly for storage. The monomers are held together with glycosidic bonds. Another important carbohydrate to humans is glycogen. It is similar in shape to starch but has shorter chains and is much more branched. Glycogen is used for energy as is starch but because of its structure, it is much easier to hydrolyse than starch. In plants, Starch, along with cellulose are the most important carbohydrates. Cellulose is similar in structure to starch but uses beta glucose as monomer units. Because the OH and H groups are on opposite ends this time, the molecule forms straight chains which pack tightly into microfibrils and the little "periscope" group of CH2OH on top can form hydrogen bonds across the chains further adding to the stability. Cellulose is used for cell walls as it has high tensile strength which is useful for keeping plants turgid as it stops them bursting when there's too much water in. This is what helps plants stand up.

Proteins & protein synthesis

01 June 2012 09:47

Proteins are another example of bodily polymers and are made from repeating units called amino acids. The basic structure of an alpha amino acid is H2NCH(R)-COOH where R is the variable group that determines which amino acid it is. Proteins are formed in condensation reactions like the others as water is removed to form a peptide bond between the COOH groups and the NH2 groups. They are made in the nucleus and the synthesis can be broken down into two major steps, transcription and then translation. During transcription: o DNA helicase "unzips" the two strands of DNA o Transcription factors can the bind to the promoter region and signal RNA polymerase to start transcription o Free RNA nucleotides line up according to complementary base pairing (remember, where DNA has base T, RNA has base U) o RNA polymerase joins up these nucleotides to make pre-mRNA o As the pre-mRNA contains introns; non coding regions of DNA, these are spliced out to make proper mRNA o The mRNA can now leave the nucleus and bind to a ribosome. During translation: o tRNA molecules carrying specific amino acids bind to the ribosome if their anticodon (series of 3 bases on the outside of tRNA) is complimentary to the codon (series of 3 bases that codes for an amino acid) on the mRNA. o Another tRNA joins on to the next free codon

o Peptide bonds can form between the amino acids o The tRNA detaches from and leaves the ribosome to collect another amino

acid o The ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule This process forms the primary structure of the protein. From here, proteins have a secondary structure which is normally an alpha helix because the chain form hydrogen bonds across itself and twists into the 3D structure. Then there's the tertiary structure which determines whether the protein will be globular or fibrous. Globular proteins become even more folded in their tertiary structure, forming a very specific shape due to more hydrogen, ionic and disulfide bonds. Fibrous proteins are usually structural ones like collagen in your skin or keratin in your nails. Their tertiary structure comes from further twisting of the alpha helix and a quaternary structure from three of these twisting together into what almost looks like a rope, hence the insane tensile strength.

Looking at cells
01 June 2012 10:29

There are various techniques scientists have developed to be able to ponder the inner workings of the micro molecular. Fractionation is breaking down of the cell and extracting particular organelles that you want. Before you can do this, you need to put cells in a cold (to prevent enzyme action), isotonic (to stop organelles shrinking or bursting due to osmosis) and buffered (to maintain a constant pH). o Cells are homogenised; blended and broken to free all the organelles o They are put in a centrifuge at a slow initial spin and then faster and faster The heaviest organelles are forced to the bottom where they form a pellet Lighter organelles remain in the upper liquid called the supernatant which can be further centrifuged.

Cell structure
01 June 2012 10:35

The nucleus is essentially the little "brain" of the cell and contains: o The DNA in a form called chromatin which is the unwound form it takes when not diffusing o The nucleolus which makes RNA The mitochondria are the next biggest organelle. They have their double membrane called cristae which provides a large surface area for respiration.

The matrix that makes up the rest of the organelle contains some DNA (mitochondrial DNA is only inherited from the mother!), protein and lipids. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum are curvy wavy structures which are dotted with ribosomes which control protein synthesis. Their structure provides a large surface area for protein synthesis. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum looks like naked RER as it's not covered in ribosomes. It's main purpose is the synthesis and transport of lipids and carbohydrates. Golgi apparatus are like bigger versions of RER in terms of structure but their functions are: o Modify and store proteins and lipids o Produce and secrete enzymes and carbohydrates o Form lysosomes Lysosomes are vesicles containing enzymes. The enzymes are contained within vesicles (circles of membrane) so that they don't damage the other organelles in the rest of the cell.

Lipids
01 June 2012 10:55

The main types of lipids looked at are triglycerides. They are made from a molecule of propan-1,2,3-triol (glycerol) bonded to three fatty acid chains by an ester bond. They are used, in the body, mainly for waterproofing, energy, insulation and protection. Depending on whether or not the fatty acid chains are saturated or unsaturated, the lipid will either be a fat or an oil because when the molecule is saturated then the chain is straight and the molecules pack really tightly. With the introduction of a c=c bond in the chain, making it unsaturated, you make kinks in the chain. A phospholipid is like a lipid but one of the fatty acids is replaced with a phosphate group. This is charged so likes water, unlike the carbon chain tails which hate it. This is what makes up the phospholipid bilayer or the plasma membrane that surrounds cells and organelles.

The cell membrane

01 June 2012 11:00

Cholera
01 June 2012 12:16

Cholera is a disease caused by a water borne bacterium, vibrio cholerae. Bacteria are prokaryotic cells with these differences to our cells: o no nucleus o Circular DNA called plasmids o No organelles o Smaller ribosomes o Peptidoglycan cell walls When ingested, the ones that survive the harsh stomach acid corkscrew their way into the small intestine where they release a toxin which is complimentary to come cell receptors. Once it binds to these receptors, it causes the ion channels to open so lots of sodium ions flow into the intestinal lumen. Water follows down the water potential gradient. This is what causes diarrhoea and dehydration as it causes water to be lost from the blood too. .

The lungs
01 June 2012 22:53

Lungs are the main gas exchange surface In mammals. Air goes in through the trachea, a tube ringed with cartilage to stop it collapsing in on itself. It secretes mucus to trap nasties that pass through an the ciliated epithelial cells waft the mucus up to the throat and into the stomach to get destroyed. This splits into two bronchi which split further into bronchioles. Bronchioles have no cartilage (too small) but have circular muscle which can be expanded or contracted to control the flow. At the end of the journey are the alveoli where the main gas exchange takes place. They are tiny sacs made of collagen (a protein) and some elastic tissue to let them expand when air comes in. They are specially adapted to their job in various ways which all maximise diffusion. o Large surface area to volume ratio o Very thin - short diffusion distance o Well ventilated (air and blood) - maintains the concentration gradient When blood passes near them in the capillaries (which are just big enough to let a RBC through and it's still a squeeze to fit in), the blood is slowed down to give more time for diffusion and the cells are squeezed right up against the alveoli to really cut down on the diffusion pathway. The lungs help us breathe by altering the pressure inside to draw air in or blow it out. This is a cycle. To breathe in, inspiration, the external intercostal muscles contract whilst the internal ones relax. This pulls the ribcage upwards and outwards. This along with the fact that the diaphragm contracts, moving downwards, increases the volume which causes the pressure in the lungs to fall. The opposite happens during expiration (breathing out ) Diseases TB is a disease caused by a bacterium, mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is airborne and travels in little droplets let out when people sneeze. Thus, when living in cramped quarters, watch out. The bacteria have two strands of infection. The primary happens quickly:

o They divide in the upper lung o The body's immune system takes care of them o Some bacteria remain

Many years later, they come back with a vengeance, the bacteria that remained destroy the lung tissue and leave scar tissue and holes In the lung. Scar tissue doesn't have the same properties as normal tissue so isn't as elastic or thin. This makes it hard to breathe. Scar tissue is the main cause of pulmonary fibrosis. The tissue is so thick and inelastic that expulsion of air is difficult and diffusion of that air itself is very hard because the length of the diffusion pathway is much increases. Therefore, sufferers find it hard to breathe and are always weak and fatigued because their cells don't get enough oxygen as a result. Asthma is another really common lung disease and is caused by allergens such as pollen. These allergens cause an autoimmune response as white blood cells release histamines which cause o Inflammation o Bronchiole constriction o Excess mucus in the already tiny airways o Tissue fluid all over the place These make it very hard to breathe as there is an increased resistance to airflow. Emphysema is the last disease looked at and it's when the elastin becomes permanently stretched meaning that breathing out is really difficult.

The heart
02 June 2012 10:53

The heart is the pump that sends blood whizzing around our body every day. It is made of two separate pumps because as mammals, we have a double circulatory system. It's better than pumping blood to the lungs and that blood then carrying on to the body for a few reasons: o Blood has to pass through tiny capillaries when near the alveoli, this means a huge drop in pressure so the blood (at this pressure) wouldn't make it around the entire body. o If the body were to pump the blood at the pressure required, the vessels in the lungs would burst Points of interest in the heart: The aorta is the largest artery in the body and serves the entire body The pulmonary arteries and veins are the only veins and arteries in the body to take blood to and from the heart (arteries normally take blood from and veins to the heart) The coronary arteries serve the heart itself The way the heart pumps blood around the body is also a cycle. Initially, the entire heart is at rest, full diastole, then, the atria both contract to pump the little blood left in them into the ventricles in atrial systole. Finally, the two ventricles contract, pumping blood to the body and lungs in ventricular systole. This cycle is controlled by nodes in the walls of the heart.

Actual cardiac muscle contraction happens normally, myogenic. The nodes help control this and get it into a nice rhythm. The SAN which sits in the atrial wall sends a wave of electrical impulse that only reaches the atria because the atrio-ventricular septum stops the impulse from spreading even further. This gets the atria contracting. Now at the base of the atria is another node called the AVN. This picks up that impulse and transmits it down the bundle of His to the apex of the heart. Here, it's unleashed upon the ventricles, letting them contract from the base upwards so blood is shot up into the pulmonary vein and the aorta. Disease Diets consisting of lots of trans fats or LDL's aren't great for the ol' ticker because they lead to atheromatic deposits under the endothelial lining. These occur because the LDL's leave fatty streaks which accumulate into atheromatous plaques (big fat fatty streaks). These narrow the lumen which make it hard for blood to get through. If it's that bad, the plaque can rupture the endothelial lining and become a thrombus. Because the endothelial lining is now no longer smooth, the rough thrombus can make clots grow on it, further narrowing the lumen and it can even detach and go to block thinner arterioles, depriving tissue further down of oxygen which can cause it to die. An aneurysm is a weakened area of blood vessel which has the potential to swell up into a blood filled balloon. These can burst and cause internal bleeding and so loss of blood. A myocardial infarction is more commonly referred to as a heart attack and happens when regions of the heart are starved of blood and so die.

Immunity
02 June 2012 12:16

Think of a disease as a game of pac man between the pathogen and the body's defence systems. The pathogen is pac man and is trying to eat all the body's coins but the ghosts are trying to stop him. If the ghosts have never played before then the pathogen has a field day but if they're prepared and know what to expect, the pathogen, no matter how many 1UP's it has, has no chance. The initial phase (as the ghosts get used to how the pac plays) is the non specific defence. These don't distinguish between one baddie and another; they're all bad and are dealt with in the same way, om nom nom. The bodily barriers talked about in the disease page also count as non specific defence. The non specific response involves phagocytosis of the pathogens. To do this, the body should be able to tell between nasties and friendlies. The recognise the unique pattern of proteins on the plasma membrane (antigens) and then take action if it's a pathogen.

Upon initial infection, phagocytes are on the scene, attracted by the toxins of the pathogen. The phagocyte then binds to the pathogen where it's engulfed in phagocytosis. Inside the cell, lysosomes which contain enzymes join to the phagosome were they hydrolyse the pathogen. The antigens of whatever it was that's just been eaten are shown up to trigger specific responses from other white blood cells much like calling for backup. Specific responses T cells respond to the body's own cells that have either been taken over by pathogens or in response to phagocytes presenting the offending antigens. "helper T" cells bind to these antigens and trigger the production of other T cells. Killer T cells riddle the pathogenic membrane with holes so the cytoplasm leaks out and they die. Other T cells stimulate the production of B cells and the last kind stay around in the body to provide lasting immunity. B cells act a little differently. They take up the antigens and present them, T cells give them a helping hand by binding to the antigens and so activate the b cell. The b cell can now divide into a plasma b cell or a memory b cell. Plasma b cells create antibodies and memory b cells remain in the blood so that they can divide straight away into plasma cells if that pathogen ever invades the body again. Antibodies are proteins that are produced by B cells which are complimentary to antigens on pathogens. They clump the pathogens together, essentially pinning them down so they can be taken down by other white blood cells.

Genetic diversity
03 June 2012 17:25

All organisms of a species, for example, have the same genes. What makes them different from each other, unique, is the alleles they possess. Alleles are different versions of the same gene. The greater the number of alleles, the greater the genetic diversity. The founder effect is what happens when a few individuals from the group wander off and make their own little population. The problem is, as a whole, the founder population will have a much smaller gene pool because they have fewer alleles to choose from. Therefore, they show less genetic diversity. Genetic bottlenecks are when population numbers drop all of a sudden which leave a small surviving population with a much smaller variety of alleles. As they breed, the variety remains constricted. Populations with small gene pools and low variety in alleles are less adapted to survive changes in the environment because there is a smaller chance of an individual having an allele that helps them survive the change.