Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model

The OSI Reference Model

In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. The original document applied to systems that were open to each other because they could all use the same protocols and standards to exchange information. In 1984, the ISO released a revision of this model and called it the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The 1984 revision has become an international standard and serves as a guide for networking. The OSI reference model is the best-known and most widely used guide for visualizing networking environments. Manufacturers adhere to the OSI reference model when they design network products. It provides a description of how network hardware and software work together in a layered fashion to make communications possible. The model also helps to troubleshoot problems by providing a frame of reference that describes how components are supposed to function.

A Layered Architecture
The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication into seven layers. Each layer covers different network activities, equipment, or protocols. Figure 5.1 represents the layered architecture of the OSI reference model. (Layering specifies different functions and services as data moves from one computer through the network cabling to another computer.) The OSI reference model defines how each layer communicates and works with the layers immediately above and below it. For example, the session layer communicates and works with the presentation and transport layers. Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for delivery over the network to another computer. The lowest layers1 and 2define the network's physical media and related tasks, such as putting data bits onto the network interface cards (NICs) and cable. The highest layers define how applications access communication services. The higher the layer, the more complex its task.

Figure 5.1 The seven-layer OSI reference model

The layers are separated from each other by boundaries called interfaces. All requests are passed from one layer, through the interface, to the next layer. Each layer builds upon the standards and activities of the layer below it.

Relationships Among OSI Reference Model Layers

Each layer provides services to the next-higher layer and shields the upper layer from the details of how the services below it are actually implemented. At the same time, each layer appears to be in direct communication with its associated layer on the other computer. This provides a logical, or virtual, communication between peer layers, as shown in Figure 5.2. In reality, actual communication between adjacent layers takes place on one computer only. At each layer, software implements network functions according to a set of protocols. Before data is passed from one layer to another, it is broken down into packets, or units of information, which are transmitted as a whole from one device to another on a network. The network passes a packet from one software layer to another in the same order as that of the layers. At each layer, the software adds additional formatting or addressing to the packet, which is needed for the packet to be successfully transmitted across the network.

Figure 5.2 Relationships among OSI layers

At the receiving end, the packet passes through the layers in reverse order. A software utility at each layer reads the information on the packet, strips it away, and passes the packet up to the next layer. When the packet is finally passed up to the application layer, the addressing information has been stripped away and the packet is in its original form, which is readable by the receiver. With the exception of the lowest layer in the OSI networking model, no layer can pass information directly to its counterpart on another computer. Instead, information on the sending computer must be passed down through each successive layer until it reaches the physical layer. The information then moves across the networking cable to the receiving computer and up that computer's networking layers until it arrives at the corresponding layer. For example, when the network layer sends information from computer A, the information moves down through the data-link and physical layers on the sending side, over the cable, and up the physical and data-link layers on the receiving side to its final destination at the network layer on computer B. In a client/server environment, an example of the kind of information sent from the network layer on computer A to the network layer on computer B would be a network address, with perhaps some error-checking information added to the packet. Interaction between adjacent layers occurs through an interface. The interface defines the services offered by the lower networking layer to the upper one and

further defines how those services will be accessed. In addition, each layer on one computer appears to be communicating directly with the same layer on another computer. The following sections describe the purpose of each of the seven layers of the OSI reference model, and identify the services that each provides to adjacent layers. Beginning at the top of the stack (layer 7, the application layer), we work down to the bottom (layer 1, the physical layer).

Application Layer
Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer. This layer relates to the services that directly support user applications, such as software for file transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which application processes can access network services. A message to be sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point and exits the OSI reference model's application layer on the receiving computer. Application-layer protocols can be programs in themselves, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP), or they can be used by other programs, such as Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), used by most e-mail programs, to redirect data to the network. The lower layers support the tasks that are performed at the application layer. These tasks include general network access, flow control, and error recovery.

Presentation Layer
Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked computers. Think of it as the network's translator. When computers from dissimilar systemssuch as IBM, Apple, and Sunneed to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte reordering must be done. Within the sending computer, the presentation layer translates data from the format sent down from the application layer into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At the receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary format into a format that can be useful to that computer's application layer. The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics commands. The presentation layer also manages data compression to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted. The redirector, which redirects input/output (I/O) operations to resources on a server, operates at this layer.

Session Layer
Layer 5, the session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is responsible for managing this dialog. It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed to allow two applications to communicate over the network. The session layer synchronizes user tasks by placing checkpoints in the data stream. The checkpoints break the data into smaller groups for error detection. This way, if the network fails, only the data after the last checkpoint has to be retransmitted. This layer also implements dialog control between communicating processes, such as regulating which side transmits, when, and for how long.

Transport Layer
Layer 4, the transport layer, provides an additional connection level beneath the session layer. The transport layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or duplications. At the sending computer, this layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several packets and collecting small packets together in one package. This process ensures that packets are transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the packets, reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it. The transport layer provides flow control and error handling, and participates in solving problems concerned with the transmission and reception of packets. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) are examples of transport-layer protocols.

Network Layer
Layer 3, the network layer, is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into physical addresses. This layer also determines the route from the source to the destination computer. It determines which path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also manages traffic problems on the network, such as switching and routing of packets and controlling the congestion of data.

If the network adapter on the router cannot transmit a data chunk as large as the source computer sends, the network layer on the router compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At the destination end, the network layer reassembles the data. Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are examples of network-layer protocols.

Data-Link Layer
Layer 2, the data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the electrical impulses that enter and leave the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into data framesThe electrical representation of the data (bit patterns, encoding methods, and tokens) is known to this layer only. Figure 5.3 shows a simple data frame. In this example, the sender ID represents the address of the computer that is sending the information; the destination ID represents the address of the computer to which the information is being sent. The control information is used for frame type, routing, and segmentation information. The data is the information itself. The cyclical redundancy check (CRC) provides error correction and verification information to ensure that the data frame is received correctly.

Figure 5.3 A simple data frame

The data-link layer is responsible for providing error-free transfer of these frames from one computer to another through the physical layer. This allows the network layer to anticipate virtually error-free transmission over the network connection. Usually, when the data-link layer sends a frame, it waits for an acknowledgment from the recipient. The recipient data-link layer detects any problems with the

frame that might have occurred during transmission. Frames that were damaged during transmission or were not acknowledged are then re-sent.

Physical Layer
Layer 1, the bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of establishing and maintaining a physical link between communicating computers. The physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of the higher layers. This layer defines how the cable is attached to the NIC. For example, it defines how many pins the connector has and the function of each. It also defines which transmission technique will be used to send data over the network cable. This layer provides data encoding and bit synchronization. The physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits (zeros and ones) from one computer to another, ensuring that when a transmitting host sends a 1 bit, it is received as a 1 bit, not a 0 bit. Because different types of media physically transmit bits (light or electrical signals) differently, the physical layer also defines the duration of each impulse and how each bit is translated into the appropriate electrical or optical impulse for the network cable. This layer is often referred to as the "hardware layer." Although the rest of the layers can be implemented as firmware (chip-level functions on the NIC), rather than actual software, the other layers are software in relation to this first layer.