REAL ANALYSIS II I.

FOREWORDS

Continuous Function

Praise the author prayed the presence of Almighty God for His grace, so the writer can complete the preparation of papers entitled Continuous Function . Writing this paper is a task of Real Analysis II course. In writing this paper, the author feel there are still many shortcomings, lacked both technical writing and the material, remember the capability of the author. In writing this paper the author would like to thank to our Real Analysis II lecturer, my brother, and all my friends in completing this paper. Hopefully this paper can provide greater insight to the reader. This has excess and weakness, advice and criticism is very helpful for author. Thank you.

Medan, May 16th 2012 Author

Maria Priscillya Pasaribu IDN. 4103312018

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REAL ANALYSIS II

Continuous Function

II. CONTENTS

I. II. III.

FOREWORD .................................................................................................1 CONTENTS ...................................................................................................2 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................3 3.1 Continuous Function ................................................................................3 3.2 Min-Max and Intermediate Value Theorem ............................................7 3.3 Uniform Continuity..................................................................................12 3.4 Continuity and Gauges .............................................................................19 3.5 Differentiability........................................................................................20

IV.

REFERENCES ..............................................................................................21

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REAL ANALYSIS II III. DISSCUSSION

Continuous Function

3.1 Continuous Function You have undoubtedly heard of continuous functions in your schooling. A high school criterion for this concept is that a function is continuous if we can draw its graph without lifting the pen from the paper. While that intuitive concept may be useful in simple situations, we require a rigorous concept. 3.1.1 Definition and Basic Property Definition 3.1.1. Let and | | , and let , then | ( ) ( )| be a function. We there is a . such that

say that f is continuous at c if for every whenever When

is continuous at all

, then we simply say that f is

a continuous function.

Figure 2.1: |

, ( ) should be within the gray region

Continuity may be the most important definition to understand in analysis, and it is not an easy one. See Figure 2.1. note that

not only depends on , but also . It is no accident that the

on c; we need not have to pick one

for all

definition of continuity is similar to the definition of a limit of a function. The main feature of continuous functions is that these are precisely the function that behave nicely with limits.
Proposition 3.1.2. Suppose that i. ii. is a function and . Then

If c is not a cluster point of S, then f is continuous at c. If c is a cluster point of S, then f is continuous at c if and only if the limit of f(x) as exists and ( ) ( )

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REAL ANALYSIS II iii. f is continuous at c if and only if for every sequence * , the sequence * ( Proof : )+ converges to f(c). + where

Continuous Function and

Let us start with the first item. Suppose that c is not a cluster point of S. Then there exists a | ( ) ( )| such that | ( ) ( )| ( ) * +. Therefore, for any | is x = c. Then , such that | .

simply pick this given delta. The only

Let us move to the second item. Suppose that c is a cluster point of S. let us first suppose that such that if ( )| * + ( ) | ( ). Then for every | , then | ( ) ( )| there is a . As | ( )

, then the definition of continuity at c is satisfied. On the other , there exists a ( )| . Therefore . Then the ( ) such where | | we have | ( ) * +

hand, suppose that f is continuous at c. for every that for ( ).

statement is, of course, still true if

For the third item, suppose that f is continuous at c. let * such that | ( ) so * ( ( )| we have | and for all | . Let where | . Then for be given. Find a | . Find an

+ be a sequence such that such that for ( )| ,

we have that | ( )

)+ converges to ( ).

let us prove the converse of the third item by contraposition. Suppose that f is not continuous at c. then there exists an an * | ( Now * ) such that | + as follows. Let ( )| | and | ( ) be such that | . Thus * ( such that for all ( )| | and | ( ) , there exists

. Let us define a sequence ( )| .

+ is a sequence of numbers in S such that for all

and such that

)+ does not converge to ( ). It

may or may not converge, but it definitely does not converge to ( ). Example 3.1.3. Proof : Fix ( ). Let * + be a sequence in ( ) such that . Then we ( ) defined by ( ) is continuous.

know that

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REAL ANALYSIS II ( ) (

Continuous Function ( ). ), f is continuous.

Thus f is continuous at c. As f is continuous at all

We have previously shown that

2

directly. Therefore the

function x is continuous. We can use the continuity of algebraic operations with respect to limits of sequences.

Proposition 3.1.4. Let ( ) For some constants Proof : Fix ( ) ( . Let * ( )

be a polynomial. That is , . Then f is continuous. + be a sequence such that ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . Then

Thus f is continuous at c. As f is continuous at all Proposition 3.1.5. Let i. ii. iii. iv. The function The function The function If ( ) for all and defined by ( ) defined by ( ) defined by ( ) , the function

, f is continuous. .

be functions continuous at ( ) ( ) ( ) is continuous at c. ( ) is continuous at c.

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) is continuous at c. defined by ( ) is

continuous at c. Example 3.1.6 : The function sin(x) and cos(x) are continuous. In the following computations we use the sum-to-product trigonometric identities. We also use the simple facts that | | ( ) ( )| ( )| | . | || / ( )| ( | | )| | ( )| .

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REAL ANALYSIS II | | | | ( ) ( )| | | | | . | . | . /| | . . /| | | | / /| | ( . )| /| /| | . /|

Continuous Function

3.2.1 Composition of Continuous Functions You have probably already realized that one of the basic tools in constructing complicated functions out of simple ones is composition. A useful property of continuous functions is that compositions of continuous functions are again continuous. Recall that for two functions f and g, the composition Proposition 3.2.1. Let continuous at Proof : Let * then { * and f is continuous at g(c), then + be a sequence in A such that is defined by ( )( ) ( ( ))

be functions. If g is is continuous at c. . Then as g is continuous at c, ))} converges to

+} converges to g(c). as f is continuous at g(c), then { ( ( is continuous at c. ( )) is a continuous function on (

( ( )). Thus

Example 3.2.2: Claim: (

).

Proof : First note that is a continuous function on ( function on ( composition ) ( actually on all of , but (

) and sin(x) is a continuous

) is the range for ). Hence the

( ) is continuous. We also know that x2 is continuous on the interval (( )) is also continuous on ( ).

1, 1) ( the range of sin ). Thus the composition (

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REAL ANALYSIS II 3.2 Min-Max and Intermediate Value Theorems

Continuous Function

Let us now state and prove some very important results about continuous functions defined on the real line. In particular, on closed bounded intervals of the real line.

3.2.1. | ( )|

Min-Max Theorem , , is bounded if there exists a such that -. We have the following lemma.

Recall that a function for all , -

Lemma 3.2.1. Let

be a continuous function. Then f is bounded.

Proof. Let us prove this claim by contraposition. Suppose that f is not bounded, then for each , there is an , -, such that | ( Now * + is a bounded sequence as }. Let )|

. By the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, . Since for all i,

there is a convergent subsequence { then | ( )| . The limit (

) does not exists as the sequence is not bounded as

. On the other hand f(x) is a finite number and ( ) . /

Thus f is not continuous at x.

In fact, for a continuous f, we will see that the minimum and the maximum are actually achieved. Recall from calculus that ( ) ( ) achieves an absolute minimum at if

for all

On the other hand, f achieves an absolute minimum at ( ) ( )

for all

We say that f achieves an absolute minimum or an absolute maximum on S if such a exists. If S is a closed and bounded interval, then a continuous f must have an absolute minimum and an absolute maximum on S. , -

Theorem 3.2.2. (Minimum-Maximum Theorem). Let

be a continuous

function. Then f achieves both an absolute minimum and an absolute maximum on [a,b]. 7|Page

REAL ANALYSIS II

Continuous Function

Proof. We have shown that f is bounded by the Lemma. Therefore, the set (| * ( ) | and infima, there exist sequences in the set (| sequences * (

|)

|+ has a supremum and an infimum. From what we know about suprema |) that approach them. That is, there are )+ and * ( )+, where xn, yn are in [a,b], such that ( ) (| |) ( ) (| |)

and

We are not done yet, we need to find where the minimum and the maximum are. The problem is that the sequences * * + and * + need not converge. We know that * } and { + and }. Let + are bounded ( their elements belong to a bounded interval [a,b]). We apply Bolzano-

Weierstrass Theorem. Hence there exist convergent subsequences {

and

Then as

, we have that

. Similarly

, so x and y are in

[a,b]. we apply that a limit of a subsequence is the same as the limit of the sequence, and we apply the continuity of f to obtain

(| Similarly,

|)

( )

(|

|)

( )

Therefore, f achieves an absolute minimum at x and f achieves an absolute maximum at y. Example 3.2.3: The function ( ) minimum at x=0 when ( )

defines on the interval [-1,2] achieves a . Do

. It achieves a maximum at x = 2 where ( )

note that the domain of definition matters. If we instead took the domain to be [-10,10], then x = 2 would no longer be a maximum of f. instead the maximum would be achieved at either x = 10 or x = -10.

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REAL ANALYSIS II 3.2.2 Bolzanos Intermediate Value Theorem

Continuous Function

Bolzanos intermediate value theorem is one of the cornerstones of analysis. It is sometimes called only intermediate value theorem, or just Bolzanos Theorem. To prove Bolzanos Theorem we prove this following simpler Lemma. Lemma 3.2.4. Let ( ) , be a continuous function. Suppose that ( ) , - such that ( ) + inductively : and

. Then there exists a number

Proof. We define two sequences * i. ii. iii. Let If If . . and / / , let , let .

+ and *

and and

. . , then and for all n. .

From the definition of the two sequences it is obvious that if Thus by induction finally we notice that . By induction we see that ( As * + and * . As ). for all n. furthermore,

+ are monotone and bounded, they converge. Let for all n, then . Furthermore, as

and is

is increasing and . Thus

decreasing, c is the supremum of for all n . So | For all n. As have ( We use the fact that inequalities to get ( ) ( ) ) ( ) | as

and d is the infimum of the

, we see that c=d. by construction, for all n we

and

and the continuity of f to take limits in those

and

( )

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REAL ANALYSIS II As ( ) and ( ) , we conclude ( ) .

Continuous Function

Notice that the proof tells us how to find the c. the proof is not only useful for us pure mathematicians, but it is a useful idea in applied mathematics. Theorem 3.2.5. ( Bolzanos intermediate value theorem ). Let ( ) ( ). then there exists a , - such that ( ) , be a ( ) or .

continuous function. Suppose that there exists a y such that ( )

The theorem says that a continuous function on a closed interval achieves all the values between the values at the endpoints. Proof. If ( ) and ( ) ( ), then define ( ) ( ) . Then we see that ( ) , then ( ) .

and we can apply Lemma 2.2.4. to g. if ( ) ( ), then define ( )

Similarly if ( ) and ( )

( ). Then again ( ) , then ( ) .

and we can apply Lemma 2.2.4. again if ( )

If a function is continuous, then the restriction to a subset is continuous. So if is continuous an d , , then |,

-

is also continuous. Hence, we

generally apply the theorem to a function continuous on some large set S, but we restrict attention to an interval. Proposition 3.2.6. Let f(x) be a polynomial of odd degree. Then f has a real root. Proof. Suppose f is a polynomial of odd degree d. We write ( ) Where . We divide by ( ) Where large n. So | | | | | | | | | | . We look at g(n) for . We wish to show it is positive for some to obtain a polynomial ,

| |

| |

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REAL ANALYSIS II (| | | | | |)

Continuous Function

(| Therefore

| |

| |).

hus there exists an

such that | | ,

Which implies ( Therefore g(M) > 0. Next we look at g(-n) for such that ( ) . Now we appeal to the intermediate value theorem, which implies that there must be a , done. - such that ( ) . As ( )
( )

. By a similar argument we find that there exists some ) ( ) and therefore g(-K) < 0. In the )

proof make sure you use the fact that d is odd. In particular, if d is odd then (

, we see that ( )

, and the proof is

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REAL ANALYSIS II 3.3 Uniform Continuity 3.3.1 Uniform Continuity we made a fuss of saying that the

Continuous Function

in the definition of continuity depended on the point c. independent of any point. Let us

there are situations when it is advantageous to have a give a name to this concept.

Definition 3.3.1. Let there exists a

, and let

be a function. Suppose that for any and | | , then | ( ) ( )| .

such that whenever

Then we say f is uniformly continuous.

It is not hard to see that a uniformly continuous function must be continuous. The only difference in the definitions is that for a given . That is, we pick a that works for all

can no longer depend on c, it only depends on . The domain of

definition of the function makes a difference now. A function that is not uniformly continuous on a larger set, may be uniformly continuous when restricted to a smaller set. ( ) | | Or | | . , defined by ( ) is not uniformly

Example 3.3.2. The function

continuous, but its is continuous. Proof: Given , then for | to hold we must have | | | | | | |

Therefore, to satisfy the definition of uniform continuity we would have to have for all x, y in (0,1), but that would mean that Example 3.3.3. Let be a half open interval and let be defined for each in by the . Therefore there is no single .

formula ( )

. It is uniformly continuous on . To prove this observe that we have ( ) | | ( )| || | | | |

If |

then | ( )

( )|

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REAL ANALYSIS II

Continuous Function

Hence if is given we need only to take | ( ) Thus 3.3.1 ( )| for every with |

to guarantee that

is uniformly continuous on the set . Uniform Converges . We say that converges to ( ) ( ). - as ( ) .

Definition 3.3.4. Let ( ) be a sequence of function and in every

Example 3.3.5. Consider the sequence of functions defined on , for Hence ( ) and 0 otherwise. Then but ( ) , where ( )

and ( ) = 0 if

. In other words, ( ) ( ).

Definition 3.3.6. Let Then we say | ( ) ( )| .

be a sequence of functions uniformly in if for all

and , there exists

be a function. and ,

Similarly, if the sequence of partial sums series Note. If uniformly in , then also in converges uniformly in .

converges uniformly in , then

in the usual sense

Theorem (Cauchys Criterion for Uniform Convergence). Let then uniformly if for all | Proof. Suppose ( )| uniformly on , then for all for all | ( ) . Hence if ( )| | ( ) , ( )| | ( ) ( )| there exist such that | ( ) ( ) ( )| . there exist such that

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REAL ANALYSIS II

Continuous Function

Conversely, suppose that the Cauchy Criterion holds for ( ). Then ( ( )) is Cauchy for any and hence convergent; define ( ) to be the limit. Now for any > 0, choose | ( ) ( )| and let to obtain | ( ) ( )|

such that .

Theorem 3.3.7. Let ( ) be a sequence of functions . If | ( )| for all and

converges. Then ( ) converges uniformly in . Proof. If ( ) is convergent, it is also Cauchy, so for fixed for any | i.e. | ( )| . Then for any , ( )| | ( )| , is also Cauchy, and hence there exists such that

. As above, this means that

uniformly convergent. Note. In fact, | Example 3.3.8. The series | ( ) converges to

(

( )|

| ( )|

in (
)

), but not uniformly :

However, it converges uiformly in [ Theorem 3.3.9. If . uniformly in and every

] for

by the Weierstrass M-test.

is continuous at

, then

is continuous at

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REAL ANALYSIS II Proof. Fix for all ( | ( ) For all Note. The above theorem says that under the stated conditions, ( ) Note. Translating the theorem for series, we obtain that if and 3.3.2 are continuous, then Continuous Extension is continuous. ( ) ( . By uniform convergence of and all , there exists ,| ( )

Continuous Function

such that | ( ) ( )|

( )| for all

. By continuity of

). Using the triangle inequality. ( )| | ( ) ( )| | ( ) ( )| | ( ) ( )|

). In other words,

is continuous at

( ).

converges uniformly in

Before we go to continuous extension, we show the following useful Lemma. It says that uniformly continuous function behave nicely with respect to Cauchy sequences. The main difference here is that for a Cauchy sequence we no longer know where the limit ends up and it may not end up in the domain of the function. be a uniformly continuous function. Let * )+ is Cauchy. such that | ( ) ( )| whenever | . Then we have | + be a Cauchy

Lemma 3.3.10. Let sequence in S. then * ( Proof: Let | for all |

be given. Then there is a . Now find an we have | ( ) ( )|

such that for all .

3.3.3

Lipschitz Continuous Functions be a function such that there exists a number K such that | ( ) ( )| | |.

Definition 3.3.11. Let for all x and y in S we have

Then f is said to be Lipschitz continuous.

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REAL ANALYSIS II

Continuous Function

A large class of function is Lipschitz continuous. Be careful, just as for uniformly continuous functions, the domain of definition of the function is important. See the examples below and the exercises. First let us justify using the word continuous.

Proposition 3.3.12. A Lipschitz continuous function is uniformly continuous. Proof: Let have | ( ) Let that | ( ) ( )| | | ( )| be a function and let K be a constant such that for all x, y in S we | |. . For any x and y in S such that | | we have

be given. Take

Therefore f is uniformly continuous.

We can interpret Lipschitz continuity geometrically. If f is a Lipschitz continuity function with some constant K. the inequality can be rewritten to say that for have |
( ) ( )

we

( )

( ) |

The quantity

is the slope of the line between the points (x, f(x)) and (y, f(y)).

Therefore, f is Lipschitz continuous if and only if every line that intersects the graph of f in at least two distinct points has slope less than or equal to K. Example 3.3.13. The function sin(x) and cos(x) are Lipschitz continuous. We have seen the following two inequalities : | ( ) ( )| | | and | ( ) ( )| | |.

Hence sin and cos are Lipschitz continuous with K = 1. Example 3.3.14. the function continuous. Proof: | | | | | | , ) defined by ( ) is Lipschitz

As

and

, we can see that

. Therefore

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REAL ANALYSIS II

Continuous Function

| , )

On the other hand

defined by ( )

is not Lipschitz continuous. Let

us see why: suppose that we have | For some K. let y = 0 to obtain This cannot possibly be true for all Lipschitz continuous. The last example is a function that is uniformly continuous but not Lipschitz continuous. To see that is uniformly continuous on , ) note that it is uniformly continuous on ). [0,1]. It is also Lipschitz ( and therefore uniformly continuous ) on , | . If | |, , then for we then get can exist and f is not .

. Thus no such

3.3.4

Approximation By Polynomials , on a closed, bounded interval [a,b] is a function of the form

A polynomial

( )

Where the coefficients ck are real numbers. If , -

, the integer

is called the

degree of p. The Weierstrass Approximation Theorem states that every continuous function can be approximated by a polynomial with arbitrary accuracy in

the uniform norm.

Theorem 3.3.12 (Weierstrass Approximation) The set of polynomials is dense in C(|a,b|). Proof: We need to show that for any (pn) such that uniformly. (| |) there is a sequence of polynomials

We first show that, by shifting and rescaling x, it is sufficient to prove the theorem in the case [a,b] = [0,1]. We define ( (, )( ) -) ( (, ( -) by ) ).

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REAL ANALYSIS II Then T is linear and invertible, with inverse ( Moreover, T is an isometry, since )( ) . /.

Continuous Function

, and for any polynomial p both -), then for any (, in (,

and -)

are polynomials. If polynomials are close in (, we have polynomials such that -). converge to f in (,

-). It follows that the polynomials

To show that polynomials are dense in (, (,

-), we use a proof by Bernstein, which

gives an explicit formula for a sequence of polynomials converging to a function f in -). These polynomials are called the Bernstein polynomials of f, and are defined by

( ). /

Notice that each term (

, attains its maximum at

. The value of

) for x near , is therefore predominantly determined by the values of f(x) near . We use the standard notation for the binomial coefficients, . /

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REAL ANALYSIS II 3.4 Continuity and gauges

Continuous Function

We will now introduce some concepts that will be used later-especially int chapter 7 and 10 on integration theory, however, we wish to introduce the notion of a gauge now because of its connection with the study of the continuous functions, we first define the notion of a target partition of an interval. Definition 3.4.1 A partition of an interval * +, where , - is a collection * + of non-overlapping

closed intervals whose union is [a, b]. we ordinarily denote the intervals by

The points

) are called the partition points of P. if a point t1, has been , then the points are called the tags and the

chosen from each interval , for set of ordered pairs *(

)+

Is called a tagged partition of . ( the dot signifies that the partition is tagged ) The fineness of a partition P refers to the lengths of the subintervals in P. instead of requiring that all subintervals have length less than some specific quantity, it is often useful to allow varying degrees of fineness for different subintervals accomplished by the use of a gauge, which we now define. in P. this is

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REAL ANALYSIS II 3.5 Differentiability Definition 3.5.1. Let ( ) and ( ( ) ). if the limit ( ) ( ) or

Continuous Function

exists, them it is called the derivative of f at is differentiable at ( ) ( . ). ( )

, denoted

( ). Then we say f

Note. Similarly as for limits, we can define left and right derivatives denoted as

Theorem 2.5.2. Let

. If f is differentiable at , then ( ) ( ) (

, then it is continuous at

Proof: If f is differentiable at ( ( ) ( ))

( )

Theorem 2.5.3. If f, g are differentiable at ( At . Moreover if ( ) ) , then ( ) (

, then and ( )

Proof: the first statement is easy to prove. For the second, notice that ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )) ( ). Then ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) ( ) If ( ) that ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Now we just take the limit ( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ) ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ). ( ( ) ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )

( ) ( )

, then by continuity it is nonzero in some neighborhood of

as well. Notice

to obtain the desired result.

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REAL ANALYSIS II REFERENCES

Continuous Function

Bartle, Robert G. and Donald R. Sherbert. 2000. Introduction To Real Analysis Third Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc

http://www.scribd.com/doc/162111138/chap-03-real-analysis-limit-and-continuity

http://www.edupub.gov.lk/Maths%20Gr%208(E)/Chapter%2011.pdf

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