Machine Tool Spindle Units

Machine tool spindle units
E. Abele (2)
a,
*, Y. Altintas (1)
b
, C. Brecher (2)
c
a
Institute of Production Management, Technology and Machine Tools (PTW), Technische Universitat Darmstadt, Germany
b
Manufacturing Automation Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
c
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering (WZL), RWTH Aachen, Germany
1. Introduction
Machine tool spindles basically fulll two tasks:
rotate the tools (drilling, milling and grinding) or work piece
(turning) precisely in space
transmit the required energy to the cutting zone for metal
removal
Obviously spindles have a strong inuence on metal removal
rates and quality of the machined parts. This paper reviews the
current state and presents research challenges of spindle
technology.
1.1. Historical review
Classically, main spindles were driven by belts or gears and the
rotational speeds could only be varied by changing either the
transmission ratio or the number of driven poles by electrical
switches.
Later simple electrical or hydraulic controllers were developed
and the rotational speed of the spindle could be changed by means
of innitely adjustable rotating transformers (Ward Leonard
system of motor control).
The need for increased productivity led to higher speed
machining requirements which led to the development of new
bearings, power electronics and inverter systems. The progress in
the eld of the power electronics (static frequency converter) led to
the development of compact drives with low-cost maintenance
using high frequency three-phase asynchronous motors.
Through the early 1980s high spindle speeds were achievable
only by using active magnetic bearings. Continuous developments
in bearings, lubrication, the rolling element materials and drive
systems (motors and converters) have allowed the construction of
direct drive motor spindles which currently fulll a wide range of
requirements. A historical review of spindle technology is given in
Fig. 1.
1.2. Principal setup
Today, the overwhelming majority of machine tools are
equipped with motorized spindles. Unlike externally driven
spindles, the motorized spindles do not require mechanical
transmission elements like gears and couplings. A motor spindle
mainly consists of the elements shown in Fig. 2.
The spindles have at least two sets of mainly ball bearing
systems. The bearing system is the component with the greatest
inuence on the lifetime of a spindle. Most commonly the motor is
arranged between the two bearing systems.
Due to high ratio of power to volume active cooling is often
required, which is generally implemented through water based
cooling. The coolant ows through a cooling sleeve around the
stator of the motor and often the outer bearing rings.
Seals at the tool end of the spindle prevent the intrusion of chips
and cutting uid. Often this is done with purge air and a labyrinth
seal.
Astandardized tool interface such as HSKand SKis placed at the
spindles front end. A clamping system is used for fast automatic
tool changes. Ideally, an unclamping unit (drawbar) which can also
monitor the clamping force is needed for reliable machining. If
cutting uid has to be transmitted through the tool to the cutter,
adequate channels and a rotary union become required features of
the clamping system.
Today, nearly every spindle is equipped with sensors
for monitoring the motor temperature (thermistors or thermo-
couples) and the position of the clamping system. Additional
sensors for monitoring the bearings, the drive and the process
stability can be attached, but are not common in many industrial
applications.
CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 59 (2010) 781802
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Spindle
Mechatronic
Machine tools
A B S T R A C T
This paper presents the state-of-the-art in machine tool main spindle units with focus on motorized
spindle units for high speed and high performance cutting. Detailed information is given about the main
components of spindle units regarding historical development, recent challenges and future trends. An
overviewof recent research projects in spindle development is given. Advanced methods of modeling the
thermal and dynamical behavior of spindle units are shown in overview with specic results.
Furthermore concepts for sensor and actuator integration are presented which all focus on increasing
productivity and reliability.
2010 CIRP.
* Corresponding author.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology
j ournal homepage: ht t p: / / ees. el sevi er. com/ ci rp/ def aul t . asp
0007-8506/$ see front matter 2010 CIRP.
doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2010.05.002
The focus of this paper is the spindle technology. To clearly limit
the topics of this paper the chosen system boundaries are
illustrated in Fig. 3.
1.3. State of the art
Current spindle manufacturers offer wide variety of spindle
solutions for the application areas shown in Fig. 4.
Spindles with high power and high speeds are mainly
developed for the machining of large aluminum frames in the
aerospace industry. Spindles with extremely high speeds and low
power are used in electronics industry for drilling printed circuit
boards (PCB).
1.4. Actual development areas in industry
Current developments in motor spindle industrial application
focus on motor technology, improving total cost of ownership
(TCO) and condition monitoring for predictive maintenance (see
Fig. 5). Another central issue is the development of drive systems
which neutralize the existing constraints of power and output
frequency while reducing the heating of the spindle shaft.
Particular attention was paid to the increase of the reliable
reachable rotational speeds in the past. However, the focus has
changed towards higher torque at speeds up to 15,000 rpm.
Because of Increased requirements in reliability, life-cycle and
predictable maintenance the condition monitoring systems in
motor spindles have become more important. Periodic and/or
continuous observation of the spindle status parameters is
allowing detection of wear, overheating and imminent failures.
Understanding the life cycle cost (LCC) of the spindles has
steadily gained importance in predicting their service period with
maintenance, failure and operational costs.
2. Fields of application and specic demands
Spindles are developed and manufactured for a wide range of
machine tool applications with a common goal of maximizing the
metal removal rates and part machining accuracy. Fig. 6 gives an
overview regarding the application areas, material grades and the
resultant requirements concerning rotational speed, power, torque
and accuracy.
The work materials range from easy to machine materials like
aluminum at high speeds with high power spindles, to nickel and

Fig. 1. Historical review.

Fig. 2. Sectional view of a motor spindle [courtesy: GMN].

Fig. 3. Overview of the spindle system and its integration into the machine tool.

Fig. 4. Spindles available on the market [PTW].

Fig. 5. Main trends in industry on spindle development.

Fig. 6. Application areas and branches.
E. Abele et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 59 (2010) 781802 782
titanium alloys which require spindles having high torque and
stiffness at low speeds. Cutting work materials with abrasive
carbon or ber-reinforced plastics (FRP) content need good seals at
the spindle front end.
Spindles for drilling printed circuit boards operate in the
angular speed range of 100,000 to 300,000 rpm. The increase in
productivity and speed in this application eld over the last few
years was possible with the development of precision air bearings.
Spindles used in die and mould machining have to fulll the
roughing operations (high performance cutting, HPC) at high feed
rates as well as the nishing processes (high-speed cutting, HSC) at
high cutting speeds. Depending on the strategy and the machinery
of the mould and die shop either two different machine tools
equipped with two different spindles are used or one machine is
equipped with a spindle changing unit. Another possibility is to use
a spindle which can fulll both, HSC and HPC conditions, but this
still remains a compromise regarding overall productivity.
Aerospace spindles are dened by high power as well as high
rotational speeds. Todays spindles allow a material removal rate
(MRR) of more than 10 l of aluminum per minute.
Grinding is a nishing operation where high accuracy is
necessary, which requires stiff spindles with bearings having
minimum runout. The present internal cylindrical grinding
spindles have a runout requirement of less than 1 mm.
Spindle units which are used mainly for boring and drilling
operations require high axial stiffness, which is achieved by using
angular contact bearings with high contact angles. On the contrary,
high-speed milling operations use spindles with bearings having
small contact angles in order to reduce the dependency of radial
stiffness on the centrifugal forces.
Contemporary machining centers tend to have multi functions
where milling, drilling, grinding and sometimes honing operations
can be realized on the same work piece. The bottleneck for the
enhancement of the multi-technology machines is still the spindle,
which cannot satisfy all the machining operations with the same
degree of performance. Recongurable and modular machine tools
require interchangeable spindles with standardized mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical interfaces.
3. Spindle analysis
The aim of modeling and analysis of spindle units is to simulate
the performance of the spindle and optimize its dimensions during
the design stage in order to achieve maximum dynamic stiffness
and increased material removal rate with minimal dimensions and
power consumption. Modeling of the cutting process and the
prediction of chatter stability can be found in previous key note
articles [10] and are not covered in this article. The mechanical part
of the spindle assembly consists of hollow spindle shaft mounted
to a housing with bearings. Angular contact ball bearings are most
commonly used in high-speed spindles due to their low-friction
properties and ability to withstand external loads in both axial and
radial directions. The spindle shaft is modeled by beam, brick or
pipe elements in nite element environment. The bearing stiffness
is modeled as a function of ball bearing contact angle, preload
caused by the external load or thermal expansion of the spindle
during operation. The equation of motion is derived in matrix form
by including gyroscopic and centrifugal effects, and solved to
obtain natural frequencies, vibration mode shapes and frequency
response function at the tool attached to the spindle. If the bearing
stiffness is dependent on the speed, or if the spindle needs to be
simulated under cutting loads, the numerical methods are used to
predict the vibrations along the spindle axis as well as contact
loads on the bearings. The model allows the simulation of
interaction between the cutting process and spindle structure
(Fig. 7).
Spindle simulation models allowfor the optimization of spindle
designparameters either to achieve maximumdynamic stiffness at
all speeds for general operation, or to reach maximum axial depth
of cut at the specied speed with a designated cutter for a specic
machining application. The objective of cutting maximummaterial
at the desired speed without damaging the bearings and spindle is
the main goal of spindle design while maintaining all other quality
and performance metrics, e.g. accuracy and reliability.
3.1. Experimental modeling
The dynamic behavior of an existing spindle is most quickly
obtained by measuring its frequency response function (FRF)
between force and displacement at the tool tip. The measured FRF
can be curve tted to estimate the natural frequencies, damping
ratios and stiffness values at a range of frequency where the
spindle structure may cause vibrations during machining. The
experimental measurement of FRFs is practical to assess the
dynamic stiffness and identify chatter free cutting conditions in
process planning of part machining operations. However, the
following difculties need to be kept in mind:
only a small part of the rotating shaft is accessible for testing,
hence modeling of entire spindle is not possible
operational speed and temperature mainly inuence the
eigenvalues, but the measurement of FRFs when the spindle
rotates is quit difcult
curve tting or other methods to extract parameters out of the
measured input and output data does not always lead to accurate
identication of the spindles dynamic parameters.
Traditionally, the FRF is measured by exciting the spindle at the
tool tip by impact hammers or shakers manually. There have been
several attempts to measure the FRFs automatically. The authors in
[20] use a piezo actuator connected in series with a force
measurement sensor and a displacement sensor to estimate the
FRF at tool tip at standstill. The authors in [2,121] use an
electromagnetic actuator to excite the shaft and measure the
displacement with a non-contact probe at various rotating speeds.
Various authors use an impact hammer for exciting the shaft. This
type of excitation is also used for hitting the rotating shaft under
high speeds as presented in [80]. In this work a special mechanism
was designed to hit the shaft with the impact hammer under
repeatable conditions.
The measured data can also be used to verify or update the
results from theoretical models especially to adjust damping
coefcients as shown in [87]. Direct methods to achieve parametric
models for further simulations are an issue of systemidentication
and cause problems like selecting the order of the model, models
without minimum phase and stability issues [123].
3.2. Theoretical modeling
Theoretical models are based on physical laws, and used to
predict and improve the performance of spindles during the design
stage. The models provide mathematical relation between the
inputs F (force, speed) and the outputs q (deections, bearing
loads, and temperature). The mathematical models can be

Fig. 7. Flowchart of spindle analysis.
expressed in state space forms or by a set of ordinary differential
equations. In both cases linear or nonlinear behavior of the
spindles can be modeled.
3.2.1. Mechanical modeling of shaft and housing
Finite element (FE) methods are most commonly used to model
structural mechanics and dynamics of the spindles. The method is
based on discretization of the structure at nite element locations
by partial derivative differential equations. The analysis belongs to
the class of rotor-dynamic studies where the axis-symmetric shaft
is usually modeled by beam elements, which lead to construction
of mass (M
e
) and stiffness (K
e
) matrices.
Timoshenko beam element is most commonly used because it
considers the bending, rotary inertia and shear effects, hence leads
to improved prediction of natural frequencies and mode shapes
[165] of the spindle and was applied by the authors [48,128,
156,161,177]. The element PIPE16 of the commonly known FEA
software ANSYS is also an implementation of the Timoshenko
theory and use the mass matrix from [178] and stiffness matrix
from [120].
As an example in the nite element model in Fig. 8, the black
dots represent nodes, and each node has three Cartesian
translational displacements and two rotations [7]. The pulley is
modeled as a rigid disk, the bearing spacer as a bar element, and
the nut and sleeve as a lumped mass. The spindle in this case has
two front bearings in tandem and three bearings in tandem at the
rear. The ve bearings are in overall back-to-back conguration.
The tool is assumed to be rigidly connected to the tool holder
which is xed to the spindle shaft rigidly or through springs with
stiffness in both directions translation and rotation. The exibility
of the spindle mounting has to be reected in the model of the
spindle-machine system. Springs are also used between the
spindle housing and spindle head, whose stiffness is obtained
from experience.
M q CVG q K V
2
M
V
VC
V
q F
The vector q is the generalized displacement vector which
includes the movement of all nodes in the chosen degrees of
freedom. The reference frame of the vector q can be xed to the
rotating shaft of the spindle or be an inertial frame xed to space.
The symmetric matrices M and K are assembled out of the single
element matrices M
e
and K
e
as described in detail in [49]. These
matrices are independent of the chosen reference frame. The
stiffness matrix K
B
of the bearing support is also added in K. The
symmetric matrix C is also independent of the chosen reference
frame and contains structural damping of the shaft (rotating) and
the damping of the housing (non-rotating). The skew symmetric
matrix G is often named as gyroscopic matrix but in fact only
includes the case of inertial reference frame for pure gyroscopic
effects. In the case of rotating reference frame, the matrix G also
includes the coriolis acceleration coupling terms which are
proportional to the mass as shown in [99]. The term V
2
M
V
only
exists in the rotating reference frame and adds centrifugal forces to
the system. The matrix M
V
is symmetric and positive denite and
so reduces the stiffness of the system. Therefore the authors in
[47,99] describe this term as spin-softening effect. The skew
symmetric matrix C
V
in case of rotating reference frame carries the
damping of the rotating parts and in the other case carries the
damping of the non-rotating parts.
One way to match the model to the physical system is to solve
the eigenvalue problem of the undamped system and then t the
analytical solution to the experimental data by adding empirical
modal damping ratios [87] and/or by changing geometrical
parameters to match the natural frequencies which result from
experimental measurements described in the previous section
[7,99]. Therefore the system can be rewritten in state space
notation and transformed to a Jordan canonical form.
Fig. 9 shows the result of the modeled FRF at tool tip as
compared with the experimentally measured FRFs for the spindle
given in Fig. 10. The closeness of the experimentally measured and
simulated FRFs determine the accuracy of the theoretical models in
analyzing the spindle behavior during the design stage. Several
researchers have developed FE packages dedicated to the virtual
design and performance analysis of spindles [26,7,27].
3.2.2. Mechanical modeling of toolspindle interfaces
The FRF at tool tip is important for stability predictions of the
machine tool. The exibility of the assembly/interface tool-holder
and spindle usually dominates the dynamics of the spindle. Due to
the large number of spindle, holder, and tool combinations that
may be available in a particular production facility, the required
testing time for experimental modeling can be signicant. There
are approaches to model the shaft and housing with nite element
theory as mentioned above and to couple different tool holder and
tools. Ertu rk et al. [41,42,108] use a receptance coupling and
structural modication method to connect the tool-holder to the
spindle shaft. Schmitz et al. [135] presents a receptance coupling
substructure analysis method for modeling a shrink t tool holder.
This work considers distributed springs and dampers between the
tool and holder along the interference contact surface. In difference
to that the conventional modeling uses one concentrated spring
damper element between the portions of the tool inside and
outside the holder.
3.3. Modeling of angular contact ball bearings
Angular contact ball bearings (Fig. 11) are commonly used in
high-speed spindles. The bearings require preloading to prevent
skidding in order to maintain rotational accuracy and sufcient

Fig. 8. The nite element model of the spindle-bearing-machine-tool system from
Fig. 10 [7].

Fig. 9. Comparisons of experimentally determined tool-tip FRF and simulated FRF
[7].

Fig. 10. Example of a spindle sketch for modeling [7].
stiffness in both the radial and axial directions to support the basic
operational requirements. Basically, there are two types of bearing
preloads: rigid preload and constant preload (see Fig. 22).
Modeling of the bearing support of the spindle shaft is
important in predicting the spindles structural deformations
during machining. The bearing parameters can vary during the
operation, which in turn affect the stiffness. For example relative
displacement of raceways curvature centers, relative speed
between inner and outer ring, axial and radial load, temperature
difference between inner and outer rings and contact angles may
vary during cutting.
The basic equations to evaluate the tangential stiffness matrix
K
B
for each bearing under working conditions are based on the
models proposed by Jones [76] and De Mul et al. [33]. The theory of
contact between balls and rings was based on Hertz [61]. The
effects of cutting loads [25,78], frictional moments [112,157] and
thermal deformations [63,95] have been incorporated to the
classical bearing models by spindle researchers [64,81,25,100,
60,11].
The bearing models considers the following conditions:
relative speed between inner and outer rings
speed-related centrifugal forces and gyroscopic moments acting
on rolling elements
relative displacement of centers of ring groove curvatures due to
thermal expansion
The resulting bearing stiffness K
B
depends on the size of the
bearing balls or rollers, curvature of the bearing rings, and contact
angle. However, the bearing dynamics changes with preload,
cutting forces, spindle speeds and thermal expansion. These factors
lead to a nonlinear modeling of the spindle system. The tangential
stiffness matrix K
B
of the bearings is only valid at one operating
condition; hence the system dynamics become nonlinear and
appear non-repeatable.
Because of the nonlinear dependency of the radial bearing
stiffness on the axial or radial load, the bearing stiffness changes
with cutting force dynamically. In [25] it is shown that the axial
force has a larger effect in the bearing stiffness than radial forces
and therefore the variation of bearing stiffness is matched with the
frequency of cutting forces in axial direction. It can be shown that
in case of periodic cutting loads the matrix K
B
(t) is periodic at the
harmonics of the shaft speed. In Fig. 12 this effect is shown for
different preload mechanism.
Besides the aspects of preload and load of bearings in high
spindle speeds, the bearing ball centrifugal forces and gyroscopic
moments can be of signicant magnitude such that inner ring
contact angles tend to increase and outer ring contact angles tend
to decrease. The natural frequency of the system is related to the
bearing stiffness, hence it increases with preload due to increased
bearing stiffness, but decrease with spindle speed due to
centrifugal forces as experimentally demonstrated in
[25,2,99,121]. Fig. 13 shows one result of experimental measure-
ments of the dynamic behavior of a motorized spindle over a range
of speed.
3.3.1. Thermal modeling of motorized spindle units
Limits of a spindles speed, reliability and performance are
usually constrained by properties of its bearings, which are
affected by the uneven thermal expansion of spindle parts and
degraded condition of lubricants due to high temperature [22].
The product of mean bearing diameter D
m
[mm] and the speed n
[rpm] called the specic speed coefcient is commonly used for the
estimation of limiting speed of rolling bearings. When the product
D
m
times n exceeds 0.5 10
6
mm/min, the operation is considered
as high-speed and the spindle design must be able to deal with the
heat produced and subsequent thermal expansion. In extreme
cases, the D
m
n value can be as high as 4 10
6
mm/min (jet
lubrication). The limiting speed of each application depends on the
amount of heat produced by a particular design and on the
mechanical sensitivity of the design to already developed
temperatures (thermal expansion affecting bearings). The impor-
tant factors are: bearing type/size, lubrication, bearing congura-
tion, type of preload and overall heat management within the
spindle.
There is a link between thermal and mechanical behavior of
spindles. Uneven thermal expansion changes the mechanical
condition of bearings which in turn affects the amount of heat
produced, which is fed back to the systemand further increases the

Fig. 11. Geometry of an angular contact ball bearing [27].

Fig. 12. Radial stiffness changing with cutting forces for spindle-bearing-system
Fig. 10 [25].

Fig. 13. Experimentally estimated 1st () and 2nd (*) radial eigenfrequencies
of a motorized spindle vs. spindle speed [2].
thermal load and heat. The system can be unstable, and increasing
thermal expansion and resulting bearing preload can damage the
bearings (see also Fig. 20). Spindle builders use three basic
principles to avoid excessive preloading of bearings:
Constant preload of bearings by springs, hydraulic or piezo
actuators ([158,36,105])
Rigid preload, theoretically thermally symmetric design
Radial exible housing [104]
3.3.2. Heat sources in spindles
Principally, there are three main sources of heat in spindles:
friction within the bearings
power losses by the motor depends on type (asynchronous or
synchronous) motors and frequency converter [127]
cutting power since most heat is transferred to the chip or
localized at the tools cutting edge, it usually does not play an
important role. This is a more signicant effect in materials with
low thermal conductivity like titanium
friction in tool clamping device
The heat generation in bearings is challenging to predict.
Theories presented in [115,55] and [74] distinguish three main
sources of friction which occur in ball-groove contact:
load friction caused by rolling and proportional to contact forces
viscous friction caused by viscosity of lubricant nonlinearly
proportional to speed and mean diameter of bearing [115]
spinning friction (spin/roll ratio) caused by kinematics of rolling
elements. If contact angles differ from zero value, the rolling
element necessarily spins in one of the bearing grooves.
Currently none of these theoretical analyses have predicted the
temperature distribution and resulting thermal deformations of
the spindle bearings with sufcient accuracy. Some authors tried
to derive dedicated formulations by using coast tests [19,62] (see
Fig. 14), or by other experiments [77] measuring passive moments
of bearings. However, generalized models applicable to a wide
range of bearings, lubrications and operating conditions have not
yet been developed.
3.3.3. Heat sinks and heat transfer
Heat transfer by conduction within spindle parts can be
modeled using 2D or 3D FEM elements, once the boundary
conditions are known. It is difcult to model heat transfer correctly
at thermal joints between surfaces mounted with clearance
which changes during thermal expansion, for example the
interface between the bearing outer race and the inner diameter
of the housing. The authors in [104] show an example of the
relationship between bearing temperature and working clearance
as a function of spindle speed. In such cases dedicated nonlinear
thermal resistance elements with properties based on heat transfer
theories must be created [69].
Heat sinks are usually caused by convection, conduction and
radiation on spindle surfaces with the following sources:
convection to coolant uids (motor and bearing cooling)
convection and radiation to surrounding air or oilair lubrication
conduction through the housing ange to the spindle head
Specically the coefcients of heat convection between
surfaces and uids (air, coolant) are difcult to predict and
depend on many parameters, hence care must be taken to specify
these boundary conditions according to established thermal
theories [69].
3.3.4. History of thermal preload prediction
There has been a need to predict temperatures and thermal
stability in the past, e.g. to avoid thermally induced seizure of
bearings. In 1967 Burton and Staph [22] derived a general theory of
thermal stability of angular contact ball bearings where the
authors distinguished temperatures of various parts of a simple
bearing assembly as stabilizing or destabilizing factors. In 1970
and 1972 Carmichael and Davies [29,28] investigated experimen-
tally the effect of cooling of stationary outer parts of a two-bearing
rigid assembly on preload experimentally. In 1974 Sud and Davies
[153] investigated the effect of speed and the similarity of thermal
preload with displacement of mechanical systems in time. They
suggested a rst order differential equation and a method to
calculate its constant terms. These terms are based on thermal
capacity, conductivity and convection as well as geometry and
thermal expansion coefcients of a particular assembly. In 1983
Lacey et al. [92] conducted extensive experimental research on
operational preload of rigid spindles. They investigated the effect
of speed, lubricationand initial preload and indicated various types
of behavior based on the most important parameter, speed.
3.3.5. Current models to predict thermal effects
There have been several groups of authors investigating and
publishing results on the thermo-mechanical behavior of high-
speed spindle units:
1. Stein, Bossmanns, Lin, Tu, Harder: In 1994 they presented a
predictive model of a simple two-bearing assembly [149]. The
mechanical part of the model was based on simplied
calculation of relative distance of bearing rings. The paper
was followed by more detailed investigation of heat transfer in
spindles [19] and its interface with bearing ring model [99].
2. Jo rgensen, Li, Shin determine the steady state heat transfer by
gradually introduced boundary conditions [77,96,97]. They use
deMuls bearing model [33] for calculating condition and
properties of bearings.
3. Kim-Lee focused on the effect of radial bearing t [82,83].
4. Kowal, Jedrzejewski, Kwasny, Winiarski: programbased on FEM
and FDM [71,88,89,73]. The papers showed the results with
comments, but the adopted bearing models were not presented.
5. Zverev, Eun, Chun, Lee: their model published in [180] and [181]
has the same approach to the mechanical part of the problemas
in [27], but they added a simplied heat transfer and thermal
expansion model based on beam elements.
6. Holkup, Holy: model [63] and [62] used Jones bearing model,
axis-symmetric heat transfer in 2D nite elements, effect of
bearing and spacer radial t, transient heat transfer (see Fig. 15).
The common structure of the past models can be listed as:
Rolling bearings are modeled with Jones or deMuls bearing
formulations (Groups 2, 5, 6).
Steady state and transient analysis which also captured preload
peaks are considered by all groups except (2).

Fig. 14. Frictional moment measured on a single SKF 7010CD bearing, constant
preload F
a0
introduced by springs [62].
Good model of heat transfer and thermal expansion based on
FEM with 2D or 3D elements all groups except (5).
The nonlinear effect of bearing and spacer radial t, radial
exibility of supporting structure (rings, housing, shaft) inuen-
cing heat transfer between parts as well as mechanical stiffness
(3, 6).
In principal, the structure of a predictive thermo-mechanical
model must be integrated to simulation which updates mechanical
as well as thermal nonlinearities during transient simulation [63]
as shown in Fig. 16.
Boundary conditions of thermal models are crucial for the
correct prediction of thermal loads on the spindle. Since no general
theory has been proven to be applicable for the estimation of
bearing heat sources, they still need to be identied experimen-
tally as performed by groups 1, 2 and 6.
The displacement distribution in the spindle assembly caused
by the temperature elds in the system is also studied in high-
speed machining centers as shown in Fig. 17 [75,72].
3.3.6. Summary on thermal aspects
Thermal issues signicantly affect properties (stiffness, life,
accuracy) of spindles.
Modeling, prediction and optimization of spindles with respect
to thermal issues has not been studied sufciently in the
literature.
It is possible to [62] to build a model which performs a closed
loop thermo-mechanical simulation using best available theories
in each eld.
Special care must be taken when introducing thermal boundary
conditions of such model (bearing friction and surface-uid heat
convection).
Thermal displacements resulting from thermo-mechanical
simulation can be passed to nonlinear bearing models of purely
mechanical models [27] and provide improved prediction of
structural dynamic behavior of spindles.
4. Mechanical design
Depending on the machine tool application area, the spindle-
bearing systems are subject to a complex array of requirements.
For example, in high-speed cutting (HSC) applications on
aluminum components, there is a need to combine high speeds
with low stiffness [67] whereas heavy-duty machining of
titanium- or nickel-based alloys require that the bearings must
be able to absorb high cutting forces at low speeds of rotation
[167]. Apart fromthe choice of a suitable type of bearing, optimum
design of the bearing conguration makes a decisive contribution
to the performance and service life of the main spindle [65].
4.1. Bearing solution
The following bearing types are used depending on the
application requirements as shown in Fig. 18 [65]:
rolling bearings,
electromagnetic bearings,
aerostatic bearings,
hydrostatic bearings,
hydrodynamic bearings.
4.1.1. Ball bearings
At specic speed coefcient (D
m
n value) up to a maximum of
3.0 10
6
mm/min (e.g. milling operations), main spindles with
high axial and radial stiffness are generally mounted on rolling
bearings. High-precision spindle bearings combine good radial
run-out and stiffness properties with low assembly and main-
tenance effort, and a good cost-effectiveness ratio [133,142,50].
Modern ball bearings produce less friction losses with easier
lubrication ow since they have smaller contact surfaces
[157,150]. Increased speed requirements have led to the devel-
opment of special types of high speed (HS) and hybrid bearings.
The HS bearings have a larger number of smaller balls. Frictional
behavior improves due to the consequent improvement in contact
parameters.

Fig. 15. Example of heat transfer model in mounted bearing [62].

Fig. 16. Closed loop of thermo-mechanical transient analysis.

Fig. 17. Measurements of displacements in Z-axis over time at different speeds on a
high speed machining center [72].

Fig. 18. Comparison of bearing system properties [167].
Hybrid bearings possess silicon nitride balls (Si
3
N
4
) with a
lower density of 3.16 g/cm
3
and a higher modulus of elasticity of
320,000 N/mm
2
(as compared to the usual roller bearing steel
100Cr6 with a density of 7.85 g/cm
3
and a modulus of elasticity of
210,000 N/mm
2
). The modulus of elasticity crucially affects
resilience. The higher modulus of elasticity results in increased
stiffness at the same preload for hybrid bearings, but also in higher
Hertzian stresses and lower acceptable loads. In order to keep the
Hertzian stresses in hybrid bearings at a level comparable to that
for steel bearings, preloading of the hybrid bearings is reduced. The
ceramic material has excellent tribological properties in combina-
tion with steel, resulting in lower friction and reduced wear
[133,142,50,16,173,151]. It is also possible to improve perfor-
mance by using special high-nitrided bearing steel (HNS). The
much ner microstructure of this stainless steel, combined with its
greater toughness as compared to 100Cr6 roller bearing steel,
enables a higher load level to be attained [162].
One of the most recent developments tends towards coating the
rolling surfaces with hard thin lms. The coatings are intended to
improve the wear resistance further while reducing the friction
coefcient of contact surfaces [40,132].
Despite their many advantages, the rolling bearings also have
performance limitations, partly due to the geometry of the angular
ball bearing. Radial displacement of the rolling bodies, or radial
widening of the inner ring due to centrifugal forces or thermal
expansion can lead to a relative axial displacement of the rings in
the case of a bearing adjustment with constant preload. In the case
of a rigid bearing congurationit will lead to rising internal bearing
loads [157,55]. Any reduction in the bearing stiffness due to
changes in the contact angle of the bearing will reduce the dynamic
stiffness of the spindle, which will in turn reduce the chatter free
material removal rates [1,3]. Development of new bearing
concepts is aimed at countering the disadvantages of conventional
spindle bearings described above. These concepts are based on the
notion that axial and radial displacement of the balls (and also the
inner ring) can be prevented by an additional rolling contact in the
outer bearing raceway [147,172]. Bearing types with this kind of
inner geometry are being used experimentally, for example in the
aerospace sector (aircraft engines). These applications, however,
require different lubrication and rolling contact parameters.
Fig. 19 provides an overviewof concepts. Apart fromthe 3-point
bearing with two rolling contacts on the outer ring, two variants of
the 4-point bearing are shown. In the 3-point bearing, the
problems associated with migration of the balls to the apex as
the speed of rotation rises are prevented by the double contact on
the outer ring. Preloading of the inner ring by appropriate loading
of the bearing continues to be necessary. The rigid 4-point contact
can be used as a solid bearing. At high speeds, however, the loads at
the contact points increase strongly due to elastic and thermal
expansion of the spindle, and limit the allowable spindle speed.
The elastically loaded bearings with 4-point contacts do not suffer
from this drawback. If a change in contact kinematics due to
thermal expansion or centrifugal forces occurs the divided halves
of the inner ring will change their axial distance until the new
equilibrium is achieved. This bearing is safeguarded against
overload by springs. It is also possible to cool the outer ring
without endangering the bearing through a build-up of bracing
forces and bearing heat by mutual feedback (known as the suicide
loop, Fig. 20). The spring force, in all cases, must be larger than the
maximumaxial spindle load in the direction in which the rings are
pulled apart [147].
4.1.2. Roller bearing
Cylindrical and tapered roller bearings with single or multiple
arrangements are most commonly used on machine tool spindles.
High-precision cylindrical roller bearings have been used particu-
larly as movable bearings on spindles, but can likewise be mounted
to increase radial stiffness in the region of the spindle nose [102].
Cylindrical roller bearings are radially preloaded via adjustment of
bearingclearanceintheinstalledstate[133,23]. Duetomuchgreater
contact area between the rolling elements and the races, cylindrical
roller bearings are much stiffer than ball bearings, and are able to
carry heavier loads [61,174]. However, the increased contact area
produces higher friction and is more difcult to lubricate. As
compared to that of balls in angular ball bearings, they rotate only
about one direction, which is kinematically favorable [139]. Critical
operating conditions occur especially when there are temperature
gradients between the inner and outer rings. The outer ring can
usually dissipate heat signicantly better via housing components
than the inner ring via the spindle body and by convection.
Thermally induced radial expansion of the inner ring directly
changes the preload set during mounting. An increased preload in
turn increases heat generation in the bearing. When a threshold
preloadvalueis reached, thebearingisnolonger abletodissipatethe
generatedheat quickly, especially fromthe inner ring. The bearingis
in a suicide loop (Fig. 20) which can result in destruction of the
bearing within a few seconds [23,22,163].
A number of different approaches have been adopted to
increase the reliability of cylindrical roller bearings [23,122,
118,119,56]. Systematic weakening of rollers, inner and outer rings
makes the bearing less sensitive to the changes in radial preloads.
Smaller roller-ring contact zones, proled rolling bodies, and the
use of ceramic rollers are used to reduce the friction and hence the
excessive generation of heat in the bearings (Fig. 21). By optimizing
such design variables, it is possible to increase the operating
speeds of the bearings prior to reaching the suicide loop. The
reduction in radial stiffness for roller bearings which accompanies
modication of the bearing components may be regarded as
unproblematic from the viewpoint of statics and dynamics in a
spindle-bearing system [23] because its initial stiffness is always
higher than that for ball bearings.
4.1.3. Magnetic bearings
Spindles operating with electromagnetic bearings cover a wide
range of applications at high speeds. Because of the relatively large

Fig. 19. New kinematic concepts for spindle bearings.

Fig. 20. Events leading to failure of a cylindrical roller bearing [23].
air gaps between the rotor and stator of the axial and radial
bearings, the friction is negligible, and the bearings can be operated
with minimal wear [65]. Because magnetic bearings are actively
controlled, stiffness and damping properties can be adjusted as a
function of the feasible control loop dynamics [155]. Due to the
integral behavior of the controller, the maximum possible static
stiffness of a magnetic bearing is higher than that of a comparable
rolling contact bearing. However, the maximum load rating is
signicantly lower than that of rolling bearings. Even at high
speeds of rotation, the rotor in the magnetic bearing can be moved
to eccentric paths, permitting a certain degree of self-balancing
[52]. Due to the high costs of a complex control system and
peripherals these spindles are currently used only in special
applications. In the research eld, for example, magnetic bearings
are used as actuator for contactless application of static or dynamic
loads to the spindle-bearing system or as additional bearings
mounted with conventional spindle bearings to provide an active
inuence on the bearing of a motor spindle [81,94].
4.1.4. Fluid bearing
Depending on the desired speed of rotation, spindles with
hydrostatic or hydrodynamic bearings are frequently used for high
precision production tasks in the metalworking sector. By
comparison with rolling contact bearings, and given good damping
and high stiffness, these have the advantage of achieving minimum
radial and axial runout. As a result of increased heating of the uid,
due to internal shearing effects, there is, a limit on the speeds with
spindles having larger tool interfaces (e.g. HSK 63; approximately
10.000 min
1
) [65,124]. Recent developments show the use of
water as the hydrostatic bearing uid to minimize frictional losses
and optimize rotational speed performance [43]. Compared to
hydrostatic bearings, hydrodynamic applications in machine tool
construction have lost much interest. Hydrodynamic bearings are
used only where operation conditions are in the purely uid
friction range without speed variations. On slow running spindles
or spindles with frequent starts and stops (e.g. tool changes),
operation in the mixed friction range causes increased wear and
large frictional losses [65].
Aerostatic bearings are employed when much higher rotational
speeds need to be achieved. These work on the same principle as
liquid-lubricated bearings, but the active medium is gaseous air,
with a lower viscosity than that of the liquids by two to three
orders of magnitude. In order to realize a high load capacity and
stiffness, very small clearances must be used within the bearings.
The air fed into the system is blown off to the surrounding
environment by balancing the design of the bearing land for
the correct ow resistance for stiffness and length for load
carrying capacity. Due to the low mass ows and small specic
thermal capacity of air, the frictional heat produced by shear forces
cannot be dissipated completely at high relative speeds of the
bearing components. High-speed spindles with aerostatic bearings
therefore require additional cooling. The viscosity of the air is
virtually independent of its temperature. At certain pressures, the
compressibility of air causes pneumatic instabilities, meaning that
aerostatic bearings with feed pressures between 4 and 10 10
5
Pa
should preferably be operated in the laminar ow range. The low
pressures entail relatively low rated loads and stiffness, require
much larger dimensions than hydrostatic bearings [15,175].
4.1.5. Floating bearing and preload mechanisms
The properties of a rolling contact bearing and of the complete
spindle-bearing systemdepend greatly on the chosen preload force
and preload mechanism [157,65].
In terms of design, the preload can be realized in different ways,
a fundamental distinction being drawn between rigid and elastic
behavior. A rigid conguration is the simplest engineering design
solution, since the sole need is to x the outer and inner rings
axially, either by direct opposition of the two bearings or by means
of matched spacer rings. Depending on the orientation of the
bearing, one differentiates between X and O arrangements. In an X
arrangement, an axial thermal expansion of the shaft is trans-
formed into an increase in internal loads, and may lead to failure of
the bearing. Analogously, in an O arrangement the preload is
relieved (Fig. 23).
Elastic preloads keep the bearing preload constant, even when
thermally induced relative movements take place between the

Fig. 21. Constructive increase of bearing compliance and reduction of friction [167].

Fig. 22. Preload mechanisms and inuence of a temperature difference DT [167].

Fig. 23. Arrangements of movable bearing units [167].
spindle and the housing. This can be achieved by using disk springs,
by distributing coil springs around the circumference, via
hydraulic or pneumatic pistons or via high dynamic piezo-
actuators.
When designing an elastic bearing mounting, space must be left
for the bearing rings to move axially. The simplest solution is the
use of slide bushings, which are inserted in the housing, where
they contain the outer rings of the spindle bearings. To performthe
function of a movable bearing, it is necessary to provide a
minimum radial clearance, whose size depends on the collective
load and on the construction of the spindle. If the clearance is lower
than this minimum size due to thermal expansion of the sleeve, or
if fretting corrosion occurs, sliding may become impossible or
moves in a slip-stick fashion, the bearing may be destroyed.
Possible solutions are to use non-ferrous metal or to coat the sleeve
or the housing bore. The advantages of the bushings are simplicity
of design and good heat dissipation from the bearing to the
housing. To make the movable bearing with sliding bushing
insensitive to radial seizing, a hydraulic counter-pressure bushing
can be inserted. Here the housing and bushing are separated from
one another by an oil lm. Additional pressure is applied to
compensate thermally or kinematically induced ball counter-
forces which could lead to radial seizing. Design effort is increased
as opposed to a simple sliding bushing.
In order to reduce friction between the elements of the movable
bearing unit which move in relation to one another, it is also
possible to employ an axially mobile ball-bearing linear bushing. It
should be noted, that if the sleeve expands radially due to heating
or centrifugal force, high Hertzian stresses may occur in contact
with the housing, due to the small diameter of the balls. This can
make the balls exceed the allowable stresses and penetrate the
surface of the housing, leading to failure of the linear bearing
function. Another disadvantage is poor heat dissipation due to the
reduced surface contact.
A completely different design solution is to integrate the
movable bearing in a membrane spring bushing, consisting of two
nested but radially independent sleeves supported in the housing
by radially stiff but axially compliant membrane-spring-type
elements. The axial and radial stiffness of the movable bearing can
be inuenced via the spring characteristic. A disadvantage of this
solution is the greater difculty in dissipating heat loss induced by
the bearing [23]. If it is possible to dispense with spindle bearings,
the use of cylindrical roller or oating displacement (FD) bearings
provides a very simple option to realize movable bearings in terms
of engineering design. Thanks to the at outer or inner ring, an
axial compensating movement for thermal expansion of the shaft
can take place in the form of spiral rolling directly in the bearing
itself. Disadvantages are the complex mounting procedure and
high sensitivity to radial seizing [65,23].
4.1.6. Lubrication
The tribology system of a rolling contact bearing is character-
ized by a heavily loaded rolling contact and, in the normal case, low
loaded sliding contacts (rolling body/cage, cage/bearing ring).
The main task of the lubricant (interfacial medium) in a rolling
contact bearing is to form a lubricating lm in the respective
contact zones of the rolling bodies, bearing rings and cage, so that
contact between surfaces resulting in friction and wear (DIN
50322) is reduced [167]. It also serves to reduce corrosion and to
dissipate frictional heat [142]. In principle, methods are available
for lubricating the main spindle of a machine tool, depending on
the range of speeds involved: grease lubrication and grease
relubrication, oilair lubrication and oil injection lubrication.
Roughly 90% of all rolling contact bearings are operating with
grease lubrication [86,17]. In this form of lubrication, the bearings
are lled with grease prior to mounting, and it is also referred to as
lifetime lubrication. Speed coefcients of up to 2.0 10
6
mm/min
can be achieved by optimizing the chemical composition of the
greases and adjusting lubrication to the ceramic ball materials
employed in modern high-speed spindle bearings [133]. To
improve high-speed performance and service life in grease
lubrication systems, relubricating systems, in which fresh grease
is introduced via feed lines to points near the bearings or to the
bearings themselves, are also commonly used in addition to
lifetime lubrication.
Oilair lubrication (Fig. 24) can be used for applications with
speed coefcients of up to 3.0 10
6
mm/min. The principle of
lubrication is based on continuous dosing of compressed air mixed
with oil to the bearing. Depending on the size of the bearing,
quantities of oil lower than 60200 mm
3
/h per bearing are
sufcient lubrication. Oils with viscosities between 32 and
100 mm
2
/s can be used and the pressure range is between 2
and 6 bar, depending on the manufacturers recommendations and
design [133].
In these assemblies, pressure is previously built up in a
distribution system by a pump, or static pressure is exerted by the
reservoir weight applied to the dosing valves. The valves feed a
dened quantity of oil (usually 10 mm
3
) to a mixing chamber,
which is then passed via lubricant feed lines to form a streak of oil
in a constantly passing air ow in a narrow tube. This is then fed
axially or radially via a feed nozzle to the bearing. In oilair
lubrication, the volumetric ow rate is determined by the cycle
time, which establishes the length of time between individual
lubricating pulses or valve switching times. If the selected period
between cycles is too long, the streak of oil may be interrupted.
Some systems in use currently, use sensors to monitor the oil level,
oil pressure and air pressure, together with the dosing valves and
oil streak themselves [111,21].
The lubricant feed to the rolling contact differs depending on
the type of bearing concerned. Lubricant can either be provided by
a reservoir directly on the bearing itself (capped bearing for
lifetime lubrication) or supplied to the vicinity of the bearing by
feed lines. Lubricant is fed axially or radially to the bearing through
a hole. In the case of spindle bearings, different types of feed are
employed, varying in their geometries and surrounding compo-
nents. Fig. 25 provides an overview of the types in use [133].
4.2. Cooling
4.2.1. Motor cooling
Motor spindles are equipped with high power motors which
produce a large amount of lost heat. Therefore, in most
applications the spindle housing is own through by a liquid
cooling medium in a closed cooling circuit (see Fig. 26, top).

Fig. 24. Layout of an oilair lubricating system for machine tool spindles.

Fig. 25. Lubrication variants.
Hence this cooling method is quite complex due to its
peripherals (cooling unit, circulating pump). Newly developed
solutions like [126] suggest a different consideration with an
angular spindle housing. The housings backend is extended and
equipped with a separately driven fan. The housing has drains in its
corners where an air ow in axial direction is generated caused by
the fan. An additional cooling effect is achieved by generating an
air ow through the air gap of the motor.
4.2.2. Bearing cooling
To minimize the thermal deformation of an aerostatic spindle
system, the control of supply air temperature based on the concept
of thermal balance has been proposed [179]. The systemdeveloped
provides the thermal balance between heat generation in bearing
clearance and the cooling effect of supply air, therefore, it is possible
to eliminate the thermal deformation of the overall aerostatic
spindle system including the surrounding parts of the system.
4.2.3. Shaft cooling
A newly developed spindle (Fig. 27) is based on an interior
cooled shaft [137]. The central component is a rotary union with at
least three separate connections. Cooling can be applied through
an axial interface and dissipated by a radial hand-over-point. By
this means a cooling circuit through the shaft is realized. A
substantial advantage of this system is the noticeably shortened
time till a steady thermal condition is achieved and through this a
reduced heat input from the spindle into the tool is reached.
Therefore a thermally induced spindle extension is noticeably
reduced [166].
4.3. Internal coolant supply
So-called rotary unions are needed for passing a liquid medium
through the rotating shaft to the cutting tool. There are basically
contacting and non-contact solutions. On the one hand Frisch
[46,45] describes a contactless rotary union for use in motor
spindles equipped with an air seal. This system is suitable for a
rotational speed up to 60,000 rpmand media-pressure upto 4 MPa
with minimal leakage [46]. He also provides discussions on
emerging techniques for rotational speeds up to 90,000 rpm [45].
Sykora [154] points out that many sealing materials utilized in
non-contact rotary unions are designed for operating with either a
cooling lubricant or minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). Chan-
ging the type of lubrication supply may damage the seals. In such a
case a solution is provided which allows switching between both
cooling systems.
MQL has grown in popularity in recent years in an effort to
minimize environmental impact. Different works illustrate that
the inner supply with pre-mixed aerosol is quite problematic:
Schneewei et al. [136] as well as Aoyama et al. [13] noticed that
an increasing rotational speed leads to demixing of the aerosol.
This is mainly the result of the centripetal force acting on the oil
droplets which leads to an oil dispersal at the walls of the
lubrication circuit [13]. For analyzing the inuence of the
centripetal force Aoyama et al. [13] also concentrated on the
droplets size; the smaller the droplets the lesser the forces.
Furthermore the decomposition is less intense. At the same time
the lubricating effect is inuenced because the droplets poorly
stick to the cutting edge.
Schneewei et al. [136] and Palm and Fuchs [114] identied
volatile changes in cross-section, dead spaces and leakage as
reasons for a signicant oil losses inside the spindle. Aoyama et al.
[13] invented a solution with a pivot-mounted pipe inside the
spindle. While the spindle rotates the pipe stands still. In this
manner the aerosol inside of the pipe is not affected by centripetal
forces. A contactless rotary union provides for the transfer of the
medium to the rotating tool. Air and oil are led through two
separated ducts within the spindle and mixed just before the tool
as shown in Fig. 28 [32].
4.4. Tool clamping and release mechanism
In most instances the clamping force is provided by axially
stacked disk springs or spiral springs. However these springs are a
source of unbalance in operation because the allocation of the
masses may vary. One possibility is to use gas-pressurized springs
instead of steel springs as shown in [70]. The benet of this
variation is the homogeneous mass distribution. One problemwith
gas springs is the loss of pressure resulting in a loss of clamping
force. Hence it is necessary to monitor the spring load permanently
[70].
A system which realizes the tool clamping with an electrical
linear motor instead of a hydraulic system or spring assembly was
introduced in [90,103]. In addition to shortened tool change times
and increased balance quality of the spindle being achieved, the
clamping force can be monitored continuously (see Fig. 29).
4.5. Interfaces
4.5.1. Spindle/tool interfaces
The tool holder is the interface between tool and spindle. In
addition to high stiffness, adequate damping and the ability of
transmitting the required forces/torques, these systems should

Fig. 26. Motor and bearing cooling [courtesy: GMN].

Fig. 27. Shaft cooling [courtesy: Fischer AG].

Fig. 28. Avoidance of aerosol demixing by separated ducts for air and oil [32].
allow a quick, accurate and reliable tool changing process. Very
comprehensive overviews of spindle/tool interfaces are given in a
CIRP keynote paper [125] and by Weck and Reinartz [170].
4.5.2. Steep taper, SK taper
The main drawback of conventional steep tapers is the minor
contact area between the tapers of the tool holder and the spindle.
Compared to HSK tool holders (HSK = Hohlschaftkegel) there is a
noticeably lower rigidity. A commercially available steep taper is
called Big-Plus. These tool holders eliminate the mentioned
disadvantages of SKtool holders through different optimizations of
the taper and the tool clamping. An additional ange contact
surface is added as shown in Fig. 30(top). On the one hand this
leads to high repetition accuracy in tool clamping. On the other
hand a remarkable stiffness increase is achieved compared to usual
steep tapers (see Fig. 30, bottom) [18].
Other references can be found on howthe ange contact can be
realized with short tapers. One possibility is to shorten the taper
and to use a longer retention knob [113,152]. It is also suggested to
insert adjusting washers. This may affect the rigidity of the
connection but it improves the damping [125]. One further option
for setting ange contact as well as taper contact is to use oversized
and axially slotted tapers. This allows a taper deformation caused
by the pull force till the ange surfaces touch [54,57,143].
4.5.3. Hollow shaft taper, HSK
For many years the HSK interface can be considered as standard
in HSC milling. The static and dynamic characteristics of the HSK
tool interface have been analyzed by many institutions and
researchers. The basic performance of the HSK shank, such as
positioning accuracy, stiffness and bending load capacity, were
analyzed in Germany by WZL [171]. Later Aoyama and Inasaki [12]
showed that in worst case of diameter tolerances the taper surface
of a HSK A 50 tool holder at spindle speeds over 24,000 rpm can
lose contact and so the radial stiffness decreases. It is proposed to
increase the taper oversize as well as the pull-in-force [12]. Hanna
et al. [53] also observed that the deviation in dimension of the
tapers is of great importance for the characteristics of the HSK
interface. They also show that an increased axial pull force
positively affects the rigidity of the system as well as the ability to
transfer the required torque.
The authors in [70] have investigated theoretical FE analysis
and measurements to show the dependencies of the mechanical
stresses due to the rotating speed. Strain gauges were applied to
the clamping assembly and analyzed via a contactless telemetric
system. Fig. 31 shows results that stress increases with higher
speeds and demonstrates an increased pull-in-force.
4.5.4. Coromant Capto
Sandvik Coromant company developed a system called
Coromant Capto, which was originally designed for the modular
construction of very long tools. The systemis mainly characterized
by a very at taper (cone pitch 1:20) with a polygonal shaped outer
contour [130]. The hollow taper is deformed during the drawing
into the spindle until the ange surface of the tool holder contacts
the spindle. Due to its good symmetrical characteristics, the high
stiffness and the high torque transfer, this system is also adequate
as an interface between spindle and tool holder [125].
4.5.5. Spindle/machine tool interfaces
The development of recongurable machine tools needs new
concepts for spindle/machine tool interfaces. Abele et al. [6]
compiled different interface requirements for recongurable
machine tools and suggested an interface which is based on a
modular concept where according to stiffness demands up to 9
coupling mechanisms could be used. With this interface a change
of different spindle modules is possible within less than 30 min
(Fig. 32).
Further requirements for spindle-machine-interfaces are pre-
sented by Heisel and Meitzner [58]: All ports (for energy or
information) should be included into the interface. All components
should offer a high stiffness and damping.
Heisel and Tonn developed a newmodel of a lathe main spindle
[59]. The interfaces inside the spindle were adjusted so that even
the machine operator himself can perform the exchange and

Fig. 29. Electrical clamping system [90,103].

Fig. 30. SK-Slot Big Plus and rigidity advantages [18].

Fig. 31. Measured mechanical stress via strain gauges at the clamping set of a HSK
100 A [70].
alignment. For this purpose a self-centering device with appro-
priate prole in the area of the rear bearing was built (Fig. 33, top).
In the newly developed spindle module a conventional counter
spindle was combined with an adjusting device (Fig. 33, bottom).
This allows alignment of the two spindles. This method allowed
the exchange of a spindle with the eccentric spindle module in
under two hours.
4.6. Light weight design
For the utilization in small and fast moving applications like
printed circuit board applications, Ban and Lee [14] developed an
aerostatic spindle with a shaft consisting of a carbon ber
composite material. In addition to the analysis of the mechanical
characteristics the optimization of ber layers is considered. For
mounting a tool at the one end of the spindle-shaft and an electric
motor on the other end steel anges are glued on both ends of the
spindle.
5. Drive concepts
5.1. Motor design
The present multi-functional machine tools demand motor
spindles suitable for HSC-applications with high rotational speeds
and lower torques as well as spindles for heavy roughing with
comparatively low rotational speeds and high torque. These
requirements are fullled with various solutions. It was suggested
to connect the shaft of the motor spindle through a shiftable
coupling to an additional electric motor as shown in Fig. 34. While
the main drive works at high rotational speeds and rather low
torques, the second electric motor is switched on at low rotational
speeds and high torque. This construction offered different
advantages, the functional range (torque, speed) of the spindle
enlarges and a reduction of torsional vibrations of the spindle and
the tool is achieved [146].
5.2. Frequency converter
Frequency converters are required to convert the constant
three-phase supply into variable three-phase supply. Integral
motor spindles are usually fed by a three-phase two level inverter
with pulse width modulated (PWM) output. A wide eld of
problems emerges from the inadequate supply through the
inverter. Because of the switching operating mode, the output
voltages are not purely sinusoidal and contain switching harmo-
nics. These harmonic voltages induce currents which do not
contribute to torque formation but solely to an undesirable heating
of the various spindle elements. To reduce the harmonic content in
the supply voltages and currents three-phase three-level inverters
were introduced [93]. Due to additional power semi-conductors
these inverters have the ability to apply an additional voltage
potential to the motor. This signicantly reduces the harmonic
content of the supply voltage. Fig. 35 shows the set up of the two
different inverters and the achievable voltages and currents [127].
Another possibility to overcome the mentioned problems
which arise from inadequate voltage supply is to apply a LC
output lter between frequency converter and motor. These
second order lters damp the harmonic content in the supply. This
results in voltage and current which are very close to the ideal
sinusoidal form. In this lter application one must pay attention to
the characteristic resonance frequency of the lter is not excited by
either the inverter or by the motor, as this could destroy the
inverter, the lter or the motor. Hence, a control system for the

Fig. 32. SST60 interface (according to [6]).

Fig. 33. Installation of the plug-in motor spindle into the headstock and developed
counter spindle module with double eccentric units:(source: IfW, University of
Stuttgart/INDEX-Werke Esslingen).

Fig. 34. Motor spindle with auxiliary drive [146].
lter voltages and currents is introduced to make sure that the
resonance frequency of the lter is sufciently damped [4,5].
The inuence of the inverter design concept on the temperature
behavior of a single integral motor spindle with a permanent
magnet synchronous motor is depicted in Fig. 36. The highest
temperatures are achieved with the two-level inverter while the
lter control achieves lower temperatures.
6. Sensor integration/condition monitoring
6.1. Vibrations/chatter detection
6.1.1. Chatter detection during the milling process
In conjunction with the detection of chatter vibrations several
methods have been developed over the years to improve the
stability of milling. A comprehensive overviewis given in [10,141].
The use of microphones and accelerometers are successfully
applied in detection chatter in milling operations [34,35,107].
6.1.2. Dynamometers
For measuring the cutting force during the milling process two
variations of dynamometers are often used: Plate dynamometers,
which are placed under the workpiece (used by [8,34,145,
31,131,134]), and rotating dynamometers, which are located
between the tool clamping and the milling spindle [134,91].
First the sensor signals are analyzed for determining the
characteristics of the sensor signals in stable and unstable cases.
Secondly chatter indicators and the critical values are composed
and nally the characteristics are compared.
6.1.3. Accelerometers
According to [31,34,91] the acceleration based chatter detection
is carried out with accelerometers. The characteristics of accelera-
tion signals are similar to cutting force signals: The signals are
periodicinstableandnon-periodicinunstablemachiningprocesses.
Choi and Shin [31] use the measured signals for estimating the
chatter detection index g. This index gives information about the
detection accuracy and the permissible computational efciency;
hence it is appropriate for online implementation. Suitable thresh-
old values of g for turning and milling operations are presented.
Kuljanic et al. [91] tested several sensors like rotating dynam-
ometers, accelerometers, acoustic emission and electrical power
sensors. The sensors were compared in terms of accuracy and
robustness. The best results were achieved with a multisensory
system composed of axial force sensor and accelerometers. The
research of [34] concluded that microphones, which are placed in
the ambience of the milling machine to record the ideal noise
emission, achieved the best results compared to other sensors.
6.1.4. Displacement meter
Another method for measuring and identication of chatter
during milling is described in [129] where a laser displacement
meter is used in a prototype of a milling system. A laser beam is
aimed at the cutting edge and reected. The intensity and the angle
of incidence of the reected laser beam are recorded and used to
interpret the occurring vibrations and to monitor the tool
geometry during the milling process.
6.2. Spindle integrated force measurement sensor system
Another method of chatter detection is presented in [116],
which is based on piezo-electric force measurement sensors,
which are integrated into a spindle.
6.2.1. Chatter detection during the grinding process
There are several methods for process monitoring to identify
chatter during the grinding process. Laser triangulation sensors,
pneumatic, radar and waviness sensors are used to measure the
geometry of the grinding disk, its wear and the surface [68].
Another possibility for monitoring and diagnosing machining
processes is to record the acoustic emissions during the grinding
process. A sensor-integrated grinding disk and an acoustic
emission (AE) sensor are used for this purpose in [160]. The
different AE sensor integrated in the control loop of grinding
machines, are shown in Fig. 37.
The two automatic identication methods of chatter, which are
presented in [51], have the following indicators: Entropy and
coarse-grained information rate (CIR). Signals from piezo-electric
and acoustic emission sensors, which capture the normal grinding
force and the acoustic emissions, are stored for further analyses.
During this sequence the entropy is counted from the service
spectrum. The CIR is obtained directly from the uctuation of the
recorded signal.
6.3. Preventive detection of bearing damages
One of the main problems which suspend the production line is
the early failure of the spindle bearings. Characteristically this

Fig. 35. Setup, phase-to-phase voltages, phase currents of two-level (top) and three
level inverters (bottom) [127].

Fig. 36. Stationary temperatures of motor and front bearing with three different
frequency inverters (according to [127]).

Fig. 37. Sensor concepts for acoustic emission [160]].
involves high costs for repairs and downtime. Detection and
prevention of bearing damage can be taken as precaution.
A simple and low cost method for predicting the right time for
the replacement of the bearing is to monitor the geometrical
damage occurring at the rolling surfaces of the ball bearings [66].
Sinking into and out of a cavity creates an acceleration signal which
is analogous to a pulsed sine wave shown in Fig. 38(top).
The vibration signals emitted by the rolling motion of the
bearing elements (outer and inner rings, cage and balls) are
analyzed. A piezo-electric accelerometer is attached at the spindle
housing to sense the mentioned acceleration signal. The construc-
tion of the test bench is shown in Fig. 38(bottom). After converting
the signal it is monitored by a failure prediction processor. This
processor transmits a failure prediction alarm when a reference
value is exceeded.
With measuring the temperature of the outer bearing race
during the acceleration of the spindle Spur and Feil [148] assess the
actual status and the aging of the bearing as well as the
contamination of the lubrication. Damage of the bearing running
surface can also be estimated.
For detection of axial forces in the xed bearing a specic force
measuring ring was developed by [24,84,134]. This force ring
consists of a distance tube equipped with piezo-electric force
sensor elements which are circularly adjusted at its front (Fig. 39).
This device delivers information about the axial cutting force, the
dynamic bearing forces during the operation and the actual
preload force during the assembly process. Excessive load on the
bearings which causes destruction can be detected. The arrange-
ment can be completed by using a ange sensor ring for measuring
the forces in three directions.
The project Intelligent Spindle Unit (ISPI) [169] links sensors
for bearing cooling, stator temperature, spindle rotational speed
and outer load conditions. A CAD-model of the spindle is shown in
Fig. 40. A microcontroller is used to evaluate the sensor data.
Another application is presented in [109]. Sensors for detecting
bearing temperature, vibrations and axial displacement of the
spindle shaft and tool change control are included.
6.4. Collisions and tool fractures
Collisions, tool fractures or overload at high-speed applications
can cause serious damage in todays high-speed machining centers
with high feed rates.
Spindle integrated force sensing rings can be used as shown in
[134,4,85,79] for monitoring the machining process. In [85] a
piezo-electric force ring is integrated into the spindle housing as
shown in Fig. 41 to capture the force signals with minimum time

Fig. 38. Top: Acceleration signal (R: amplitude, L: time duration, P: time period).
Bottom: Bearing test bench with variable axial load (according to [66]).

Fig. 39. Force measuring ring based on piezo-electric force sensors [134].

Fig. 40. Intelligent Spindle Unit ISPI with exemplary sensors and actuators.

Fig. 41. Installation of the force ring within the spindle [85].
lag. Typically, the structural dynamic modes of the spindle reduce
the measurement bandwidth of the force rings. Altintas et al.
developed a Kalman lter to compensate the structural modes, and
increased the measurement bandwidth of the spindle integrated
sensors signicantly [117,9]. As a result, the dynamometers and
spindle integrated force sensors can be used to measure milling
forces at high rotational speeds.
For the detection of a broken tool an acoustic emission sensor is
added to the machine table. A peak in the amplitude of the
recorded signal shows the breakage of the tool. In this context a
force ring is compared with a table dynamometer in [79]. The ring
is composed of eight uniaxial piezo-electric force sensors
contained in a circular frame using a special epoxy-material to
measure the axial and radial force components. The result is that
the force ring is as good as a table dynamometer. Its use is
recommended if a table dynamometer is not applicable due to the
workpiece size or its geometry.
In [24] two piezo-electric force sensing rings (bearing sensor
ring and ange sensor ring) are developed and integrated into a
direct driven motor spindle for the online process monitoring of
machining processes. With this method it is possible to detect the
process forces during drilling with tool diameter of less than 4 mm.
A spindle integrated data logging unit can be utilized to identify
and to avoid spindle damage quickly [38]. A thumb-sized data
logger is permanently integrated into the spindle. The unit records
the signals of acceleration, temperature and tool change sensors.
Connecting the device through a serial port to a computer allows
the reading and the parameterization of the logging unit. This
simple and safe measuring device enables the detection of spindle
irregularities for avoiding serious damages. Operational hours are
recorded in relation to the rotation speed which is useful for the
prediction of the maintenance interval.
6.5. Axial displacement
The spindles axial displacement consists of a speed dependent
axial displacement of the bearing races and thermal expansion of
the spindle. Fig. 17 illustrates these concepts. An overview of
measuring axial displacements is given in Fig. 42.
In [30] Chen and Hsu characterized the thermal growth of a HSC
spindle. Compared to a conventional spindle, the HSC spindles are
subject to complex dynamic and speed-dependent inuences. A
thermal error model is developed to show the mechanical growth
and the scheme of Fig. 43 is used. Six sensors are attached to the
housing near the bearings and the cooling, and to detect the
thermal expansion of the cutting tool and the front-end-cover.
Another procedure for improving the machine accuracy by
means of temperature control is described in [138], where
temperature and ow rate of the cooling are monitored and
controlled simultaneously.
Commercially available products are introduced in [44,109]. In
[109] a sensor for measuring the axial displacement of the shaft
(called AMS, Step-Tec AG) is added to the front part of the spindle.
The CNC-unit enables the compensation of this axial extension. For
determining the thermal growth of a spindle it is common practice
to measure the bearing temperature and to perform the needed
correlations and corrections. The thermal expansion is just part of
the problem. For operations with high-precision spindles, it is also
necessary to include the shift caused by speed dependent motion
of the bearing to predict more precisely the displacement. The
displacement measurement device DMD, developed by Fischer
[44], allows for measuring the displacement of the spindle relative
to the housing. Attaching a special sensor into the tool ange
enables detection of displacement within 1 mm accuracy. The
measured deviation is subsequently automatically transmitted to
the CNC.
7. Mechatronic concepts
7.1. Active balancing
High-speed spindles used for grinding or milling demand a
higher degree of balance of the spindle system, especially, tool
holders and tools. The higher quality and precision can be observed
in workpieces and a longer life of the machines components is
common. For achieving these goals it is necessary to lower the
vibrations caused by unbalance.
In addition to the classical method of balancing by removing or
adding mass in two planes, spindle integrated balancing systems
have been developed [110,106]. For reducing vibrations during the
operation of the spindle, an active balancing program using
inuence coefcient method is used to calculate the optimal
position of the correction masses and an active balancing device
can be used [106]. Fig. 44(bottom) shows the schematic of the
device. The active balancing program controls the device by
measuring vibration magnitude, phase angle, rotation speed, the
position of the balancing rotor and calculates the adjustments to
set the correction masses appropriately for balancing the spindle
during the operation. Without power the balancing rotor retains its
position and circulates with the rotation axis. The pole plate
rotates along with the rotation axis and has a magnetized surface.
It serves as a pathway for the magnetic ux which is created by the
coil ow. For moving the attached unbalance mass the stator is
supplied with a current. The operating principle of the device is
shown in Fig. 44(top). Exciting current on the driver coil increases
the upper-side magnetic ux and decreases the lower-sides ux as
well. The rotor is impacted by the downward force normal to the
magnetic ux (a). Positioning the permanent magnet at center of
the pole plate leads to the greatest density of the magnetic ux and
the smallest magnetic resistance (b). Removing the current
temporarily brings the rotor into the next step due to the inertia
(c).

Fig. 42. Three methods for spindles axial displacement compensation.

Fig. 43. Test bed for evaluation of the thermal model [30].
The dual plane balancing system depicted in Fig. 45 is used for
dynamic balancing which is necessary if long tools are used [110].
As opposed to the single balancing plane method, this system
measured the vibrations in a front and a rear plane at the spindle
for balancing, hence the vibrations can be reduced more
effectively. This active balancing system can be used for balancing
spindles at run time within a few seconds.
7.2. Active preload control
The preload has a wide inuence on bearing life but also on the
dynamic runout and thus also impacts surface nish quality. The
objective of some research works was to dene an ideal preload for
the spindle with an active preload-control, and to drive the system
near an optimal working point.
Prestressing spindles through passive mechanisms is the most
conventional method to preload bearings. The issue is that these
spindles cannot be adapted to changing conditions. To solve this
problem a test spindle was developed in [36] using a novel piezo-
electric based actuator module. By using a spindle with an active
preload-control as shown in Fig. 46(bottom) the optimal preload
for different operating conditions can be determined. A controlled
mechanism for preload adjustment has been developed to achieve
the preload values suggested by the manufacturer. It consists of a
piezo-electric based actuator module with integrated miniaturized
hydraulic transmission as shown in Fig. 46(top). In combination
with force sensors a continuously controlled preload shall be
obtained [36,159,158].
The actuator pushes against a membrane piston which
displaces a small part of the hydraulic uid. The uid pressure
is exerted on metal bellow piston which moves the push rod [36].
Temperature sensors are also integrated for indirectly detecting
the heat generation in the bearings. To compensate the thermal
deections of the preloaded spindle the actuator module generates
a correlated force.
Within the joint research project ISPI (see Fig. 40) a piezo-
actuator is used to achieve a constant preload force. This
mechatronic concept allows adjusting the bearing preload to

Fig. 44. Top: Principle of the rotor mechanism for active balancing. Bottom:
Schematic representation of the active balancing device [106].

Fig. 45. Top: Dual plane balancing system(a: balancer ring at the spindle, b: sensors
at the stator). Bottom: Schematic representation (a: balancer ring, b: stator with
sensors for speed and position, c and d: vibration sensor) [110].

Fig. 46. Top: Design of the actuator module. Bottom: Test spindle (schematic view)
[36].
establish an optimal working point if the spindle is overloaded
[169]. Fig. 47 shows the measured preload force at different
rotational speeds with and without active preload control.
In [164] a preload model is developed to describe how external
cooling (or heating) affects the bearing preload. Based on the
model, an active thermal preload regulation scheme is proposed
and its feasibility is validated experimentally. The proposed
preload regulation scheme is achieved by circulating a cooling
(or heating) ow around the spindle housing to manipulate the
housing and the outer ring temperatures.
7.3. Active tool deection compensation
Increasing demands on productivity and consequently on
increasing feed rates can cause undesirable tool deections.
Machining operations with long slender tools are especially
affected.
A mechanism for a multiaxial positioning of a HSC spindle and
to correct tool deections is invented in [176]. The combination of
a parallel kinematic basic drive arrangement and piezo-ceramic
actuators was developed. Complementary precision positioning
and additional movements like tilting the tool for deection
compensation are possible benets of this concept.
Denkena et al. [37] also use piezo-actuators as active elements
for tool deection compensation. The experimental setup consists
of an adaptronic spindle-system which operates with three pre-
stressed piezo-actuators. The schematic setup is displayed in
Fig. 48.
Process forces in the x- and y-direction cause the tool
deection (Fig. 48, bottom). The static part of these forces is
evaluated by averaging the process forces measured with a
dynamometer. Combined with the stiffness of the tool, the
deection can be determined. Using the inverse kinematics the
required position is converted into the needed actuator positions
to achieve the desired tool tip position. The actual position is
steadily measured and corrected by the joint control of the piezo-
actuators.
7.4. Vibration damping/chatter control
The occurrence of chatter is the consequence of an unstable
cutting operation. Chatter in machine tools can lead to poor surface
nish, high loads and damage to spindles, tools and workpieces.
For suppressing these unwanted vibrations three basic approaches
are introduced: Active, semi-active and passive control of the
process.
7.4.1. Active compensation
Within the research project AdHyMo Abele et al. [81]
developed a hybrid bearing motor spindle (Fig. 49). An active
magnetic bearing (AMB) is integrated in a HSC spindle in addition
to the conventional ball bearings. The AMB is controlled to increase
the damping of the spindle. An increase of 50% in MRR was reached
in a laboratory set up. Robust feedback and adaptive feed forward
control using m-synthesis improves the process stability. Based on
the research, Abele et al. [2] developed a model for the
identication of the systems dynamics during machining.
Ries et al. [124] introduced a prototype of an active milling
spindle. They integrated additional sensors and piezo-ceramic
stack actuators for the induction of forces into a common milling
spindle. Two piezo-ceramic stack actuators working perpendi-
cular to each other are attached to the outer bearing ring of the
front bearing. With this construction it is possible to apply radial
loads in the range of 1 kN. The actuators are powered by two high-
voltage power ampliers. A modication of the front bearing
allows the generated radial movement. The prototype and the
machine tool are shown in Fig. 50. An appropriate control scheme
is used for driving the actuators in a way that additional damping
is provided.
A similar work was presented previously in 1998 by Shankar
et al. [140] discussing a Smart Spindle Unit for active chatter

Fig. 47. Speed dependant preload force with and without active preload control.

Fig. 48. Active tool deection compensation. Top: Prototype. Bottom: Tool
deection (exaggerated demonstration) [37].

Fig. 49. AdHyMo spindle [81].
suppression. This system utilized a state-space model for active
control and demonstrated 100% increase in axial depth of cut.
The authors in [39] also use piezo actuators to control
vibrations during milling. In contrast to the concept of Ries
et al. [124] the feedback for the control is the measured strain at
the tool root as shown in Fig. 51
Some research was done in the eld of spindle speed regulation
for stabilization of the cutting process [101,144]. The dynamic
interaction of a spindle-tool set and a thin-walled workpiece was
analyzed by a nite element approach for the purpose of stability
prediction by [101]. The proposed approach indicates that spindle
speed regulation is a necessary constraint to guarantee optimum
stability during machining of thin-walled structures. The theore-
tical basics for the elimination of chatter in milling through the
automatic regulation of the spindle speed are presented in [144].
The system described here does not require knowledge of the
systemdynamics, and it selects stable speeds where no chatter will
occur based on current dynamics.
7.4.2. Semi-active compensation
A semi-active method utilizing an intelligent material: Electro-
rheological (ER) uid is explored in [98]. The medium is non-
conducting oil which contains dielectric particles. The uid can
immediately convert its phase from liquid to solid upon exposure
to an electric eld. A compact damper which contains the ER uid
was designed (as shown in Fig. 52) and mathematical models were
developed. Furthermore a semi-active articial intelligence (AI)
feedback controller was established.
7.4.3. Passive compensation
Placing the rolling bearings in an additional non-rotating
hydrostatic conguration is the procedure used in [168]. This leads
to an optimization of the damping characteristics of the spindle,
which improves the dynamic behavior of the spindle and tool
system.
8. Conclusions and further potentials
The heart of every modern machine tool is the main spindle unit
which is often designed as a motorized spindle. This core
component contributes heavily to productivity, precision and
quality of the machined products. Numerous projects have been
carried out and reviewed here which had the goal to increase the
performance, productivity and reliability of spindles.
Through these numerous research activities the topics mechan-
ical/thermal modeling, bearing and drives have been summarized.
Also many concepts were developed to integrate additional
sensors and actuators in the spindle unit. In general, it appears
the state-of-the-art is advancing in the recent past. Especially
apparent advances in modeling the dynamic behavior which
indicates the potential to more accurately predict the real world.

Fig. 50. CAD model and prototype of an active milling spindle with piezo stacks.

Fig. 51. Cross-section view of the Smart Spindle Unit [39].

Fig. 52. Designed damper [98].
Further progress in machine tools in future will be directly
related to the spindle technology. The market demands are still
pulling many requirements:
Enhancing torque and speed for multi-functional technology
applications (grinding, milling and drilling in one spindle)
Minimization of energy consumption including the peripheral
equipment for drive, bearing and cooling
Hard to cut materials are demanding better solutions, e.g. cutting
titanium with gearless spindles.
Derived from these demands are the challenges for the future
research. Exemplary challenges in rolling element bearings are to
realize D
m
n values of 3 million mm/min with lifetime grease
lubrication. Also system design has to cover spindle units which
implement multi technologies resulting in high torque and high
speed in one system. Further development will be required to
allow sensor actuator integration to use the spindle unit as an
inherent quality insuring system. The prediction of thermal
expansion of spindles and associated changes in the structural
dynamic behavior during high-speed machining operations have
yet to be solved with satisfactory accuracy.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all CIRP colleagues and experts
from industry who have given input to this keynote paper. A
special thank to following colleagues who have contributed with
detailed information about their work related to spindle technol-
ogy: Budak E., Cao H., Denkena B., Heisel U., Holkup T., Jedrzejewski
J., Kolar P., Neugebauer R., Shinno H., Uriarte L., Wertheim R.,
Winfough W.R., Yamazaki K. This paper would not have been
realized without the dedicated effort of Dipl.-Ing. A. Schifer and
Dipl.-Ing. S. Rothenbu cher.
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