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Global Buckling and Walking in Subsea Pipelines: Consequences and Mitigation Measures
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The most relevant failure modes of global buckling are as follows [1]: Local buckling, which is normally the governing failure mode resulting from excessive utilization. Local buckling appears as wrinkling or as a local buckle on the compressive side of the cross section. Local buckling can lead to excessive ovalisation and reduced cross-section area. This means reduced production, or even full production stop if e.g. a pig should get stuck. A locally buckled pipeline cannot stand an increased bending moment in the pipeline. This could lead to pipeline collapse and full production stop. Loss of containment, as a result of: Fracture, is failure on the tensile side of the cross section also resulting from excessive utilization. Fracture leads to leakage or full bore rupture, meaning reduced production, or even full production stop. Low cycle fatigue, which can occur for limited load cycles in case each cycle gives strains in the plastic region; i.e. the utilization is excessive in periods. Low cycle fatigue may lead to leakage or rupture, meaning reduced production, or full production stop. Hydrogen induces stress cracking (HISC), can occur in martensitic steels ("13%Cr) and ferritic-austenitic steels (duplex and super-duplex). Blisters of free hydrogen can create cracks in steel or weld at a CP/anode location when the steel is exposed to seawater and stresses from the buckle. The pipeline utilization does not have to necessarily be excessive. HISC leads to leakage or full bore rupture, meaning reduced production, or full production stop.
True Stories
In January 2000, a 17km 16-Inch pipeline in Guanabara Bay, Brazil, suddenly buckled 4m laterally and ruptured, leading to a damaging release of about 10,000 barrels of oil, and to great embarrassment to the operator. Field observation showed that as a result of temperature increase, the pipeline displaced laterally, when failure took place. Operating pressure and temperature of the pipeline were 400bar and 95C, respectively. The soil beneath the pipeline was very soft clay with about 2kPa undrained shear strength at seabed [2]. In December 2003, side-scan sonar survey of a 10km pipeline transported wet gas in South East Asia, identified six lateral buckles along the pipeline length. The original pipeline design did not consider lateral buckling as a design issue; consequently, the effect of lateral buckling on the pipeline integrity was not clear. Results of a detailed lateral buckling study showed that the pipeline should be replaced within few years. Design Methodologies
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to lateral buckling in Level 1 analysis. The results of this level answer to a main question: are limit state conditions acceptable in areas of the pipeline with unplanned buckle? LEVEL 3: MITIGATION If the answer to Level 2 question is no, this level will be commenced. In this level, a mitigation measure will be selected based on project and client requirements. The most well known mitigation methods are as follows: Increasing the concrete coating thickness in selected regions of the pipeline. One example of this approach is Reshadat 16-Inch oil pipeline in Persian Gulf, the concrete weight coating thickness of the first 5km of the pipeline was increased from 45mm to 65mm. Laying of the pipeline in zig-zag shape (snake lay). This method was successfully utilized in South Pars Phase 6 and 7, Jade pipeline in North Sea, Penguins flow line in North Sea Laying of the pipeline on pre-installed sleepers (vertical upset method). This method was successfully utilized in PC4B11 pipeline in Malaysia, King flow line in gulf of Mexico. Other less popular methods such as adding either expansion spool or buoyancy modules at selected intervals, and rock dumping also may be used.
Design Methodologies
LEVEL 1: SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL METHOD In this level, a simplified analytical method will be used to estimate maximum pipeline movement after each start-up and shut-down transient. LEVEL 2: FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF THE PIPELINE In this level, a detailed finite element analysis will be performed to evaluate maximum pipeline movement after each start-up and shut-down transient. The effects of the selected mitigation measure will also be included into the finite element model. Following mitigation measures normally are used for pipeline walking: Anchoring the pipeline (50 to 350 tonnes). This method has been implemented successfully in BP greater Plutonio, offshore Angola, and Baobab field, offshore Cote dIvoire, Suction pile anchor Increase of pipeline submerged weight Changing pipeline operational conditions (transient condition) Changing size of the expansion spool. This method has been implemented successfully in BP Azeri field development, Caspian sea, 32-Inch inline spool for a 16-Inch gas line Combination of abovementioned approaches
References
1. Integrity Management of Submarine Pipeline Systems, DNV-RP-F116, 2010 2. Pipeline Failure on Very Soft Clay, Almeida., M. S. S., et. al., Soft Soil Engineering, Lee, et. al. (eds), 2001, Swets & Zeitlinger. 3. In-Service Buckling of Heated Pipelines, Hobbs, R. E., Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 110, No. 2, March/April 1984, pp 175-189. Add new comment
Last Updated on Wednesday, 30 May 2012 00:30
There are many purposes to the application of corrosion monitoring in pipeline systems. These purposes generally include one or more of the following: Diagnosis of corrosion problems; Monitoring of corrosion control methods (e.g. inhibition,
Corrosion Determination The principal method of sweet corrosion assessment in the pipelines is as follows [1]:
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Corrosion Rates
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pH control, etc.); Advanced warning of system upsets leading to corrosion damage; Invoke process controls; Determination of inspection and/or maintenance schedules; Estimation of used and remaining service lifes. Where, The application of corrosion monitoring techniques can be very important when the consequences of internal corrosion are considered. for example, unscheduled shutdowns, loss of production and hence loss of revenue; loss of capital equipment, hazard to personnel, and pollution of the environment may be occured in pipeline systems without adequate corrosin monitoring systems. The rate of corrosion dictates how long components can be usefully and safely operated. The measurement of corrosion and the action to remedy high corrosion rates permits the most cost effective plant operation to be achieved while reducing the life-cycle costs associated with the operation. Corrosion monitoring techniques can help in several ways: By providing an early warning that damaging process conditions are developing; By revealing the correlation between changes in process parameters and their effect on system corrosivity; By diagnosing a particular corrosion problem, identifying its cause and the rate controlling parameters, such as pressure, temperature, pH, flow rate, etc.; By evaluating the effectiveness of a corrosion control/prevention program; By providing management the information necessary to relate maintenance requirements to ongoing conditions of operation. Read more... Add new comment
Last Updated on Thursday, 03 June 2010 01:02
Corrosion Rates
The not corrected corrosion rate in pipelines containing sweet hydrocarbon can be calculated using the following equation:
? t
10 (0.0031 - 1.4 / (t +
The following factors have been derived to adjust the corrosion rates determined from above equation, by de Waard & Smith [2], dependent upon the process stream constituents.
Monitoring Types
The main techniques, which are available for corrosion monitoring, are as follows: Weight loss coupons; Electrical resistance (ER) probs;
Hydrogen probes; Bacteria probs; Chemical analysis; Ultrasonic Intelligent Spools The extent and type of corrosion monitoring should be established during front end engineering design of pipelie.
Data Integration
Real-time corrosion measurements refer to highly sensitive measurements, with a signal response taking place
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essentially instantaneously as the corrosion rate changes. Numerous real-time corrosion monitoring programs in diverse branches of industry have revealed that the severity of corrosion damage is rarely uniform with time. Complementary data from other relevant sources such as process parameter logging and inspection reports can be acquired together with the data from corrosion sensors, for use as input to the management information system. Add new comment
Last Updated on Sunday, 10 October 2010 14:41
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