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Running head: IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION

The Impact of Kurt Lewin's Contributions to Education 57 Years after Brown v. Board of Education: The Relevance of OD in Public Education in America Today Karen Parker Thompson American University May 31, 2011

IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION

Abstract The U.S. Department of Education reports that schools are more segregated today than three decades ago (Bhargava, Frankenberg & Le, 2008; Frankenberg & Lee, 2002). Even though the Supreme Court ruled segregated schools to be unconstitutional in the historic Brown v. Board of Education decision in1954, schools did not desegregate overnight or even over the course of a few years (Bhargava, et al., 2008). The alarming crisis of deepening segregation in American schools affects students of all races and race is a determining factor in school segregation (Bhargava, et al., 2008; Frankenberg & Lee, 2002). Today, nearly 40% percent of African American and Latino students attend apartheid schools, schools that are virtually non-white and therefore, inherently unequal (Frankenberg & Lee, 2002). This paper probes the effects of resegregation (how students of color in public schools are becoming more racially isolated) in education and the relevance of organization development in public education today. It chronicles the influence of Kurt Lewins work in area of integration and his contributions to the theory and practice of education 57 years after the historic ruling of Brown v. Board of Education. Many of todays educational practices were conceived by Lewin or descendants of Lewins teachings and are culturally responsive pedagogy; this paper focuses on two important theories: cooperative learning and action research and their impact on students of color.

IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION The Impact of Kurt Lewin's Contributions to Education 57 Years after Brown v. Board of Education: The Relevance of OD in Public Education in America Today Segregation Again Segregation is back. 57 years have passed since the historic Supreme Court ruling (Brown v. Board Education) that struck down segregation in public schools. For a few decades segregated education seemed to be fading away, but since the 1970s, de facto segregation has been gaining ground (Bhargava, Frankenberg & Le, 2008; Frankenberg & Lee, 2002). During a recent Teach For America panel discussion, Segregation in American Schools and its Impact on the Achievement Gap (2011), Russlynn Ali, Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, U.S. Department of Education, was asked how education has changed in the 50 plus years since Brown v. Board of Education? She answered: Our schools are more segregated than they were 15-20 years ago. Recent research shows that 40% of Latino students are in schools where they represent 90-100% of population and 30% of African American students are in schools where they represent the super majority (Teach For America, 2011). Pedro Noguera, Professor of Education, New York University Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Development was asked if, according to his research, segregation today matters. He answered, When students of different racial and social economic backgrounds go to school together, opportunities available to poor children of color increase (Atanda, Holme, Revilla & Wells, 2004; Teach For America, 2011). The social science research on integrated schools has shown a positive trend toward long-term academic achievement and professional gains for African American students, now adults, who attended integrated schools (Atanda, et al., 2004). For Latino students, eradicating segregation creates possibilities of increased academic

IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION

achievement and greater community and political involvement (The Civil Rights Project & The Mexican Legal Defense Fund, 2008). It is my belief that the theories of organization development (OD) conceived by Kurt Lewin in the 1930s and 40s are an impelling means to challenge segregationist trends in education in America, in 2011, 57 years after court ordered desegregation. The Relevance of Kurt Lewin to OD Kurt Lewin was a German born American social psychologist, educator and researcher. He was born in1890 in Mogilno, Germany, now Poland (Lewin, 1998). Early on, Lewin became involved in the socialist movement and was especially interested in combating anti-Semitism, the democratization of German institutions, and the position of women in society (Marrow, 1969). Lewin, whose lifework was devoted to understanding patterns of human behavior, social justice issues and leadership in groups, received his Ph.D. from the University of Berlin in1916 (Anderson, 2010 and Lewin, 1998). In 1933, Lewin, his second wife Gertrud, and their two children emigrated to the United States to escape Nazi persecution (Anderson, 2010 and Lewin, 1998). In1940, Lewin became a proud American citizen (Lewin, 1998). Kurt Lewin's impact on OD and educational psychology is well documented (Anderson, 2010; Heider, 2004; Smith, 2001). What is now known as OD can be traced back to his work and that of his students (Anderson, 2010; Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004). Many of his theories are used today in the practice of education, such as: group dynamics, leadership styles, cooperative learning, action research, conflict resolution, classroom management and field theory (Anderson, 2010; Lewin, 1998; Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004). Anderson (2010) said, At its core,

IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION

Lewins work was an effort to understand and create personal and social change, with the objective of building and growing democracy in society (p.16). Lewins Influence on Brown v. Board of Education It was because of Lewins commitment to democracy and social justice that he agreed to head up the Commission on Community Interrelations (CCI) in New York in 1945 (Cherry & Borshuk, 1998). Derived from the American Jewish Congress (AJC), CCI dealt with prejudice and discrimination against Jews and other minority groups (Cherry & Borshuk, 1998; Lewin, 1998; Marrow, 1969). Even though Lewin died in 1947, his colleagues continued his commitment to eradicating social injustices through their work with CCI. In 1954, CCI staff members, Stuart Clark, Isidor Chein and Stuart Cook, gave highly influential testimony to the United States Supreme Courts Brown v.Board of Education hearing (Cherry & Borshuk, 1998; Sherman & Schmucks, 2004). In the Journal of Social Issues, Cherry and Borshuck (1998) wrote, The NAACP and its legal staff, headed by Thurgood Marshall, made extensive use of social scientific research in its court challenges, the most famous of which was Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 (p. 134). According to Sherman and the Schmucks (2004), the anniversary of Brown in 2005 is closely related to Lewins commitment to democratic and social change (p. 3). Kurt Lewins Contributions to Education after his Death Cooperative Learning After the hearings, desegregation was slow to occur in the nations schools (Frankenberg & Lee, 2002; Sherman & Schmucks, 2004, p. 6, reference Coleman, et.al, 1966). Sherman and Schmucks (2004) said, The challenge of fostering more positive interpersonal

IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION relations among diverse groups i became a major focus after desegregation plans were put into effect during the late 1960s and 1970s (p. 6). At the IASCEii conference in 1979, David Johnson, Elliott Aronson, Richard Schmuck and Larry Sherman came together to present their research on cooperative learning (Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004). When applied, cooperative learning made positive contributions to the integration of black and white students (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004). The roots of cooperative learning began with the research of Morton Deutsch, who learned directly from Kurt Lewin (Sherman & Schmucks, 2004). Sherman (2004) said, The social psychologists who have been most influential in advancing American educational practice were students of Kurt Lewin (p. 3). In Appendix 1, Sherman and Schmuck show the genealogical links of the cooperative learning research of Johnson, Aronson, Schmuck and Sherman to Kurt Lewin in 2004 (p.8). Today, there are many variations of cooperative learning structures. According to Sherman (2004), A large body of research exists on the positive effects of cooperative learning; these studies indicate enhanced academic achievement, more supportive and trusting intergroup relations, and greater individual self-esteem (p. 11). Most of the cooperative learning techniques used with elementary, middle and high school students today show a variety of important educational outcomes: higher achievement, appreciation of school, peer-to-peer encouragement to succeed in school, student accountability for their own learning, collaboration, altruism, and support and trust between students in different racial groups (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004, reference Slavin, 1995, p. 11). Gloria Ladson-Billings , Professor of Urban Education at the University of Wisconsin, creator of the term "culturally responsive pedagogy," and a leader in the field of culturally

IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION

relevant teaching (CRT), describes cooperative learning as one of the key teaching methods used by African American teachers working successfully with African American students to improve academic achievement (Ladson-Billings, 1994). Heterogeneous cooperative grouping is a common best teaching practice associated with CRT. Other research studies (Heider, 2004; Marrow, 1969) show cooperative groups and cooperative learning as enabling students to work together to maximize and stimulate learning for all group members. Research in working with Latino students found that student-centered work in cooperative groups creates interdependence among students and teachers. (The Civil Rights Project & The Mexican American Defense Fund, 2008). Action Research Lewin took great interest in the lives of children. Miriam Lewin (1998) wrote, Father respected children as young human beings who had their own thoughts and understandings (p. 117). Patricia and Richard Schmuck (2004) said, Lewin and his student, Ronald Lippitt, shared a strong interest in how adult leadership affected childrens attitudes and behaviors (p. 13). The Schmucks and Lippitt used action research in their work with teachers and administrators in public schools with the goal to improve students attitudes toward school and academic achievement (Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004). What Lewin, Lippitt and the Schmucks liked about action research, is that after data collection there is action (Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004; Smith, 2001). They saw it as a continuous cycle of data collection first and then action, which translated into interventions for continuous classroom and school improvement (Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004). Building on the action research theories of Lewin, Lippitt and Richard and Patricia Schmuck, Michelle Fine, winner of the 2011 Kurt Lewin award and Professor of Social

IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION Psychology and Urban Education at the Graduate Center in City University of New York (CUNY), uses participatory action research (PAR) in her work with urban and suburban high school students in the New York City area. In an on-line interview, Michelle Fine said the following about action research: The two words, action research, trace their academic roots to social scientists, like Kurt Lewin, who got deeply involved in community work and social action in the course of their research. But it was still largely the social scientists doing the research. The friendly amendment the word participatory brings is that it taps the knowledge of those directly affected by the issue or struggle, and invites them to shape the questions, the research, the knowledge, and the productsit views them as experts and not just subjects. To this, weve added an additional amendment: recognizing the knowledge of young people. (Cervone, 2004, para. 5) In 2002, Michelle Fine and over 100 high school students and researchers from CUNYs Graduate Center formed a PAR team to study the achievement gap in public schools in New York City and surrounding suburbs. The project was called the opportunity gap (Fine et al., 2004). Their first assignment was to study whether schools in New York were equal -- 50 years after Brown banned segregation in public schools in America. Through PAR, students were immersed in methods training and learned about interviews, focus groups, survey design, and participant observation. They created a survey and distributed it to over 10,000 diverse youth in 15 school districts (Fine et. al., 2004). The results from the survey question pertaining to the level of support for school desegregation show that 75% of young people who attend desegregated schools reported that, Attending a racially integrated school is very important to me. These same students are, however, extremely concerned about

IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION the relative absence of integration in their classrooms. The survey also reveals that AfricanAmerican and Afro-Caribbean students are twice as likely as white American student to register concern about racial imbalances witnessed in their classrooms. In 2004, their journey and research results were chronicled through dance and spoken word poetry performances and in the book and DVD, Echoes of Brown, Youth Documenting and Performing the Legacy of Brown v. Board of Education. The Resegregation Crisis in Our Schools Today Its ironic that over a half century after Brown, persistent patterns of residential segregation create a two-tiered system of education in the worlds greatest democracy. The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University showed that since 1986, in the 186 districts studied, in all but seven districts, Black and Latino students have become increasingly racially segregated from White students. The report also says that minority schools are unequal for students of color (Bhargava et al., 2004; Frankenberg & Lee, 2002; The Civil Rights Project & The Mexican American Legal Defense Fund, 2008). Kurt Lewins theories about integration are still relevant in 2011 and show a correlation to the benefits of integration in education. In the late 1940s CCIs results from action research on integrated housing in New York City, planned by Lewin and after his death implemented by his colleagues Morton Deutsh and Mary Evans Collins, reported white housewives in segregated housing (white only), to be more peevish, suspicious and hostile toward others, including towards other whites. White residents in integrated housing (white and black), despite initial fears, came to like living with blacks and considered them to be good neighbors; many whites expressed pride in their buildings democracy (Marrow, 1969).

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Columbia University Teachers College studied individuals who attended high school in the peak integration years the 1970s. The results proved that integrated schools did more than any other institution to bring together people of different races and foster equal opportunity. People interviewed reported that attending integrated schools was one of the most meaningful experiences of their lives, and many times their only opportunity to meet and interact with people of different races and cultures (Atanda et al., 2005). Conclusion Today, OD practitioners are still inspired and influenced by the work of Kurt Lewin. Since his death in 1947, Kurt Lewin continues to impact education through his direct descendants (Deutsch, Lippitt, Festinger, Kounin). Cooperative learning has emerged in their students (Johnson, Aronson, Schmuck, Sherman) as solutions to improving human relationships. As a means to resolving conflicts, cooperative learning has been one of the great success stories in American educational practice, so much so that it is generally considered as one of those best practice approaches to structuring classrooms for effective learning (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004). In 2011 in schools across the country, educators are using a process that collects ideas from students to help improve schools called Student Led Focus-Groups (SLFG). SLFG, an offshoot of action research, uses dialogue to engage students in conversations to express their concerns about their school and classroom. In this process adults listen and observe silently and students play key roles in conducting focus groups with their peers. (Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2007). SLFG can also be used when issues emerge within classrooms, to identify school-wide concerns; and as an evaluative feedback practice between students and

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IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION teachers. (Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2007). Through Student-Led Focus Groups, students of all academic levels, social standing, races and cultures have an opportunity to have their voices heard. Action research and cooperative learning are but two of Lewins OD theories and practices being used to transform education and positively affect students and their families from all races and nationalities, 57 years after Brown v. Board of Education.

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IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION Appendix 1 Genealogy of Kurt Lewins Influence on Cooperative Learning FIGURE 1 Genealogy of Kurt Lewins Influence on Cooperative Learning in American Schools. Chart is a replica of chart designed by Lawrence Sherman and Patricia and Richard Schmuck (2004, September) for the symposium presentation at the International Conference on Kurt Lewin: Contribution to Contemporary Psychology in Mogilno, Poland. (p. 8)
KURT LEWIN

Morton Deutsch

Leon Festinger

Ronald Lippitt

Jacob Kounin

David Johnson

Elliot Aronson

Richard Schmuck

Lawrence Sherman

Creative Conflict

Jigsaw

Student Team Project (STP) Dyadic Essay Confrontations (DEC)

I.A.S.C.E: Richard Schmuck 1st President; Robert Slavin, ShlomoSharan, and others, Past Presidents

IASCE (International Association for the Study of Cooperation in Education) Members and some of their
Cooperative Learning Techniques: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Robert Slavin (STAD, TGT, JIGSAW II, TAI, CIRC) Shlomo& Yael Sharan (GROUP INVESTIGATION) Donald. Danseareau (SCRIPTED STUDENT DYADS John Fantuzzo (RECIPRICAL PEER TUTORING) Spenser Kagan (COOP-COOP) Elizabeth Cohen (COMPLEX INSTRUCTION) Lawrence Sherman (DEC & STP) David & Roger Johnson (CREATIVE CONFLICT) Emmy Pepitone: (COACTION & COLABOR)

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IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION References Anderson, D. L. (2010). Organization development the process of leading organizational change. Thousand Oak, CA: SAGE. Atanda, A.K., Holme, J.J., Revilla, A.T. & Wells, A.S. (2004). How desegregation changed us: The effects of racially mixed schools on students and society. Retrieved from Teachers College, Columbia University and University of California at Los Angeles website: http://cms.tc.columbia.edu/i/a/782_ASWells041504.pdf Bhargava, A., Frankenberg, E. & Le, C.Q. (2008). Still looking to the future: Voluntary K-12 school integration. Retrieved from The Civil Rights Project, University of California at Los Angeles website: http://www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu Cervone, B. (2004, March). Recognizing the knowledge of young people: An interview with Michelle Fine and Maria Elena Torre on youth action research. (On-line interview). Retrieved from What Kids Can Do website: http://whatkidscando.org/archives /featurestories/cinterview.html Cherry, F. & Borshuk, C. (1998). Social action research and the commission on community interrelations. Journal of Social Issues, 54(1), 119-142. Fine, M., Bloom, J., Burns, A., Chajet, L., Guishard, M., Perkins-Munn, T., Payne, Y. & Torre, M. E. (2004). Echoes of Brown the faultlines of facial justice and public education. Retrieved from The Opportunity Gap Project, The Graduate Center City of New York website: http://web.gc.cuny.edu/che/projectmt.html Frankenberg, E. & Lee C. (2002). Race in American public schools: Rapidly resegregating

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IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION school districts. Retrieved from The Civil Rights Project, University of California at Los Angeles website: http://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integrationand-diversity/race-in-american-public-schools-rapidly-resegregating-school-districts Heider, F. (2004). Kurt Lewin. In K. Krapp (Series Ed.) Psychologists and their theories for students Vol. 2 L-Z (pp. 279-302). Portland, OR: Cengage Gale Group. Kurt Lewin. In K. Krapp (Series Ed.) Psychologists and their theories for students Vol. 2 L-Z (pp. 279-302). Portland, OR: Cengage Gale Group. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Lewin, M. A. (1998). Kurt Lewin: His psychology and a daughters recollections. In G. A. Kimble & M. C. Wertheimer (Series Eds.), Portraits of pioneers in psychology: Vol. 3 (pp. 105-118). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Marrow, Alfred J. (1969). The practical theorist the life and work of Kurt Lewin. New York: Basic Books. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (2007). Listening to student voices tools student-led focus groups (SLFG). Portland, OR: Laboratory Network Program Sherman, L.W., Schmuck, P. & Schmuck, R. (2004, September). Kurt Lewins contribution to the theory and practice of education in the United States: The importance of cooperative learning. Paper presented at a symposium at the International Conference on Kurt Lewin: Contribution to Contemporary Psychology, Bydgoszca, Poland. Retrieved from http://www.users.muohio.edu/shermalw/EDP621SM2006/sherman_schmuck-polandlewin2006.pdf Smith, M. K. (2001). Kurt Lewin, groups, experiential learning and action research. Retrieved

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IMPACT OF KURT LEWINS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION From The encyclopedia of informal education website: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/etlewin.htm Teach For America (Producer). (2011, February). Segregation in American schools and its impact on the achievement gap [On-line video panel discussion from 20th anniversary summit]. Retrieved from http://vimeo.com/19974401 The Civil Rights Project & The Mexican American Legal Defense Fund. (2008). Preserving integration options for Latino children: A manual for educators, civil rights leaders, and the community. Retrieved from The Civil Rights Project, University of California at Los Angeles website: http://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integrationand-diversity/preserving-integration-options-for-latino-children/

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Notes
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Especially Black and White students International Association for the Study of Cooperation in Education (IASCE) was founded by Richard Schmuck. The first conference was held in Israel in 1979 (Sherman & the Schmucks, 2004).