~'""

., . . ~".'."-"'''''''~'';'';'-'''-o:&:..:'W..:.,...,...

~!... J)W

I \I

fj ,1
,I f

strut -and -tie modeIs

':: ~c {

Design and detailing af structuraI cancrete using

!.

ti

i IJI.. r
.

Universityaf Stuttgart, Germany

J.

SchIaich, Professor Dr.Ing.

Universityaf Stuttgart, Germany

K. Schfer, Professor Dr.Ing.

\7i:>ZGt? BoVNA~S/!.~
Reprinted from The Stxuctura1Engineerl\blume 69/No.6/19 ~~r'

;=7~

Paper: Sblaich/Schfer
J.

Paper

Design and detailing af structural concrete using strut-and-tie madels

J.Schlaich, Professor Dr. Ing. University of Stuttgart. Germany
K. Schfer, Professor Dr. Ing.
University of Stuttgart. Germany

\\

Synopsis So-ct1lled 'details' are as important for a structure's behaviour and safety as the standard problems of design which are covered in the Codes. A unified design concept which covers also the details consistent/y for ali types of concrete structure is described in this paper. lt is based on strut-and-tie models, including the truss model for beoms as a special case. . After the principies of the method and the modelling process are explained, simplified rules are proposed for
,

iC+~

J..",-J.-hz ~

~)} (~
.

) '-J.
1-"-4 ~,,-J.

1.

dimensioningali the individual members of the model and.

their nodes. Some exJ1mples show the application of the method and demonstrate, also, its use for the improvement of the conceptual design of detait$.
IntrodUctiOD Ccnain pans of strUctures are designcd with almost cxaggcratcd ae<:uracy whileothcr pans are designcd using rules-of-thumb or judgment baseei on pastcxpcriCl1CC. Howevcr; all pans of a structurc are of similar importance. A unified design c:oncept, which is c:onsistcnt for a11types of structurc and all thcir pans, must bc baseei on rcalistic physica1 modcls. Strut-and-tie modc1s.a genera1isatioo of the wd1-known truss anafogy for beams. are proposedhc:reas thc appropriate approach for designing strUcturaI'c:oncrcte. whichincludes both reinforced and.prestresscd c:oncrete structures. It was actuaI1yat the tum of the Iast century, when Riucr and Mrsch) introduccd the truss anaIogy. 1bis mcthod was latcr refincd and expandcd by Lconhardt.. Rsch'. Kupf~, and others. until Thiir1imann's Ziirich schoof. with Martil and Mudlcr'. acued its scientific basis for a rational application in tracing the c:onccpt back to the theory of plasticity. CoIIinsand Mitchd1IOfurthcr c:onsidcrcd the deformations of the truss
(a)

Fig /(0). D-re.gjons (shoded oreas) with non-/ineor slroin distribl/lion due to geometrico! disconl;nut;es

~
t

t-"-t

-t

H-), f
--i 1<-"-+, .

,.

modcl nd dcrivcd a ratiQnaIdesign method fr shear and tomon. a

lo various applications, Bay. Franz, Leoohardt. Kupfcr and Thiirlimann badsbownthat strut-aDd-tie modcIs c:ouIdbc uscfuIIy applied to deep bcams mrcorbcIs. From that point, the prescnt authors and othcr mcmbers of " theInstitute for Concrcte Structures at 1he University of Stuttgart began !bar cffons systematically to expand such modcIs to cntire structures and
ali struc:turesll.l2. Thc mcthod had bcen explaincd aIreacly in some detail in the Amcrican PC! Joumall. The interated readcr is refcrred to this paper as a basis of lhe prc$CIIt C:OltributiOIL Here, the dcvdopmcnt of st1Ut-and-tie modcls lIId thc dimCDSioDing of thc:ir SUUts. ties and nodes will bc rcpeatcd only bricfIy. Coucanmg lhe design of nodes. some material which goes bcyond

I1) ~

p.

---J...:

r"
~

r. I is addcd.
1'beD. lhe method is applicd to a fcw ncw cxamples. including some comparison with test results. Some of the cxamples given show that the 1InIt-lJld.tic method is useful not only in dimensioDing given mcmbers bur
<

11IoiDdcvdopiDg an adcqUate c:onceptual design for a critica1 detail.

~
(b)

1\1

L"J.

j --=-..J.<.

1--)"

J:;

Tbe Itract1lre's B- aud D-regioDS TIIOIc rqioas of a Structurc, in which the Bcmoulli hypothesis of linear , ltrIDdisIributioD is assumcd valid, wiII be referrcd to as B-regions (whcre B8IDds for bc:8m or Bcrnoulh). Thc:ir internal forces or stressCScan bc from lIIOIDents,sbear and axiaI forces anaIyscd by means of lhe lJItem ofbcams. fnmes, plates. etc.. Ir uucrackccl, the stressCSare CIIcaIItedIIII& bc:ading theory for linear dastic material. For cr3ckcd the

:::
oC

. '=

&be truss modcIsor lhe standard methods of Codes ;t.pply.

88Ddard mcdaods are DO(applicable to lhe other regions and dc:taiIs

the Sttaindistributionis significandynon-linear.e.g. -I). 'C.-od lo8ds. comers. bends~ and ~ disc:oDtinuities tPIa Sucb '. "__ .~' '. . l'eIiODs ~ bc callcd D-rcg!ons. whcrc D stands for

..

llIIUaart. __

Ftg l(b). D-regions

(shoded

aretlS) wilh non-linMr

$lroin distribul;on

due

lo $lalim! and/or geomelrim! disconlinuilies

Stnactuml Enifneer/Volume 69/No.6/19 March 1991

Paper: Scblaich/Schfer
J.

.i

Paper

Design and detailing af structural concrete using strut-and-tie madels

J.Sch1aich, Professor Dr. Ing. University of StuttgaIt. Gennany
K. Schfer, Professor Dr. Ing.
University of Stuttgart. Gennany

\\

Synopsis So-ci1lled 'details' ore as important for a structure's behaviour and Sllfety as the stantkzrd problems of design which are covered in the Codes. A uniJied design concept which covers also the details consistent/y for ali types of concrete structure is described in this paper. lt is based on strut-and-tie models, including the truss model for beams as a special case. . After the principies of the method and the modelling process are explailled. simplified. rules are proposed for . dimensioning ali the individual members of the model and. their nodes. Some examples show the application of the method and demonstrate. also. its use for the improvement of the conceptual design of detailS.
lntrodUctiOD Cenain pans of strUctures are dcsigned with almost cxaggcratcd accuracy whileothcr partS are dcsigncd using rules-of-thumb or judgmcnt baseei on pastcxperience. However; aUpartS of a str1JCturC of similar importance. are A unified dcsign concept, which is consistcnt for ali typcs of structurc and all thcir pans, must be baseei on rca1istic physica1 modc1s. Strut-and-tie moclels,a geoeralisatioo of the wel1-mown truss anafogy for beams, are proposedhere as me appropriatc approacb for dcsigning StrUcturaI'concrcte. wbichincludes both reinforced and.prcstrcssed concrete structures. It was actuaUy at the turD of the Iast ceDtury, whcn Riuer2 and Mrsch) introduccd the truss anaIogy. This method was latcr refincd and expandcd by Leonhardt', Rsc:h', Kupf~, and others, until Thf1imann'S Zrich scboof, with Martil and Mudlc:r', creatcd its scicntific basis for a rational application in tracing the concept back to the theory of plasticity. Co1linsand Mitchel1lOfurthcr considcrcd the deformations of the truss I" mocldand derivcd a ratiQnaI dcsign method fr shear and torsion. lo various applic:ations, Bay, Franz, Leonhardt, Kupfcr and ThfIimann badshownthat strut-aud-tie modds couId be uscfuIIy applied to deep beams amrcorbels. From that point. the p~ authors and othcr members of " IbeInstitute for Concrete Structurcs at 1he University of Stuttgart began . tbr effons S)'Stematically to expand such modc1s to cntire strUctures and alistruc:turesll.l2. Thc method had been explaincd a.lready in some detail iR the American PCl Joumal'. The intc:restcd readcr is referrcd to this paper as a basis of lheJII'CSCIIt co1tribution. Here, the devdopmcnt of squt-and-tie mode1s aad thc dimensioning of their struts, ties and nodes will be repeatcd ooly briefly.Couceruing me dcsign or nodes, some material which gocs bcyond r. I is addccL 1ben. me method is applicd to a fcw DCWcxamples, including some comparisonwith test results. Some' of the cxamples givcn show that the IIM-ud-tie method is useful not ooly iRdimensioning givcn members but 11IoiR devdopag an adeqUate coDceptual dcsign for a critica1 detail. Tbe 1tnIc:tare's li- aad D-regioDS ThaIe rqioas oCa struc:ture, iR which the Bemoulli hypothcsis of linear lIrIiDdistributioa is assumcd valid, wiIl be referrcd to as B-regions (where BlCIDdaCorbam or Bemoulh). Their iDtemaI Corces or strcsscs can be derhed from lDOIDeDts. sbcar and axiaI Corces anaIyscd by means of the oCbQms. &ames. platcs, etc. Ir unc:racked, the strcsscs are lI8tIcI1

i~~

~)}
J-h,-J.-hz ~

(~

)1. '-J.
1

J- h~

~h-4

(Q)
Fig I(a). D-re.sjons (shaded areas) with non-linear to geometrical discontinuties slrain distriblltion due

~
t

t-h -t

---t

~)I -f
-i
+-h-+ i .

I1) ~

l'

---J.."~

~
(b)

1\1
j

Lh.J

1--)h --=-..J.r.

CIIcIred UIIIICthe beuding theory Cor linear eIastic: material.

oC lt8IIdard metbods are DO(applicable to the other regions and dc:taiIs al&nlClurt. wb= the strain distn"bution is significantly non-linear, e.g. 1<_. '.' ".

For cracIccd

lhe truss modc1sor the standard methoclsor Codes ;apply.

_~.ed
~l

ftIioDs

Fig ~ bends, Otherdiscontinuitics l(b). D-regions (shaded areos) wiJh non-linetlr ~ be ca1Icdopeningsancl D stands for D-regions, where lo sratica/ and/or geomelrica/ disconlinuilies

srrain distribulion due

Eniineer/Volume 69/No.G/19 March 1991

...

Paper: SchlaichlSchfer .
discontinuity, disturbance or detail. The interna1 fiow of forces ia D-regions can be reasonably we1ldcscribed by strut-and-tie mode1s. Not much accuracy is ncc:cssary in detcrmining the dividing sections betwecn B- and D-regions. Thcse sections can be assumed to lie approximate1y in a distance h from the gcometrical discontinuity or the concentrated load, where h is equa1 to the depth of the adjacent B-region (F1g I). This assumption is justified by Saint-Venant's principiei.

r
dI1J

r
dpath

r
.

Principies or strut-aod.6e model design q q~ F 81 82 In a strut-and-tie mode1 the struts represcnt concrete stress fields wit~ prevai1ing comprcssion in the direction of the strut. Accordingly, the ties 81 :: 82 (bJ (o) (cJ DOrma11yeprescnt ooe or severallayers of tensile reinfor=nent. However, r mode1ties can occasiona1ly aIso stand for conaete tensile stress fie1ds. This Fig 3. The load palh melhod. including a 'U-turn ': (a) lhe slruelure is evident from models of practica1ly approved detai1s. the structuraI safety and its loads: (b) lhe load palhs IhTOlIg" lhe SII1l~lure; (e) lhe of which can bc explained oo1y if coocrete ties are assumed in places where eorresponding slrul-cnd-lie model DOreinforo:ment is provided. Typica1 cx.amples are slabs without stirrups or bar ancbo~ without spiral or uansverse reinforo:ment. If a suitabt'e~m~e1 of a D-region is knOWD,the forces of the struts and 1.0 1.0 1+0 1.0 ties will bc calculated, thcrcby satisfying equilibrium betwccn applied loads and inner forces. The struts, ties and their nodes will bc dimensioned or chccked to carry the inner forces, as described later. This method implies that the struaure is designed acx:ording to tbe lower bound thcorem of the thcory of plasticity. However, since structural ~ J J ~ J ! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ! }-q materiais. in particuJar concrete, permit only limited plastic: deformatiODS, the internal structural system (the strut-and-tie model) has to be'chosen in a way that the deformatioo capacity is oot exceeded at any poinr:; before the assumed state of stress is reached in the rest of the structure. In highly stressed regions, this ductility rcquirement is fu1filledby adapting the struts and ties of the mode1 to the direaioo and size of the internal forces as they would appear from the theory of e1asticity. lo norma1ly or lightly stressed regions the direaion of the struts and ties )..~,.

fi1]
_c

I.'

.1. I;"" I. I;""'1. "I

in the

mode1

may

deviate

considerably

from

the

e1astic:

pattem

iViDit'

"

exceeding the structure's duc:tility. Thc ties, and hence the reinfor=nent, may be arrangcd according to praaica1 consideraons. The structure adapts itse1f to the assumed interW strUctwal system. This method of orientating the strut-and-tie mode1 aIong the fora: paths indicated by the thcory of e1asticity obviously neglects some uItimate load capacity which could be utilised by apure applicatioo of the thcory of plasticity. 00 the other band, it has the major advantage that the same mode1'CaI1 used for both the uItimate load and the serviceability chcck. bc Ir, for some rea5On, the purpose of the analysis is 10fmd the actual uItimate load, the model can easily bc adapted to this stage of loading by shifting its struts and ties in order to increase the resistance of the strueture. In

~ case, however, the rotation capacity of the mode1 has to ~nsidered.

~t-and-tie mode1ling obviously provides the struaural aDalyst with somei!~om of choice which can be used 10 aim-ether at the safest or O" at the Cheapest or at an otherwise optimised solution. Mode1ling therefore rcquires some dcsign experieooe as does the c:boiceof a represcntative overall statical system or of a rcsonable fiDite dement neL\. "\~t" The moddling process aIso covers much of what is DOrma11ycaIIed detai1ing and thcrcfore requircs considerable knowledge about practicable reinforccment layout; 00 the other band, it is just in this fie1d where strutand-tie models rcplace experience an gucssworlc:by a more systematic and understandable designo

J
Fig

tF o~
L

tl
-Jo~ ..I

u_~ IC

4. E/aslie

Slress Irajeclories, Jislribulion 01 elaslie stre:sses, and

correspandingsll1ll-cnd-liemodel

New strut-and-tie

mode1s can be systematica1ly

deve10ped

by uang

the

ModeIIiDg of iDclmdual D-regions Beforemoddling of a D-regionbegins,ali the forces and reactions acting 00 the D-regiOD must be evalUated(Fig 2(a. The forces or suesses ia sections bounded by B-regionsare taken from B-regiOD designe

q~
I I
I ,'

flow of forces through the structure, using the 'Ioad path' method. The stress diagrams of ali the forces applied to the D-region boundaIies are subdivided in such a way that the individual strcss rcsuItaDts on opposite sides of the D-region corrcspond in magnitude and can be connec:ted by stream1ined 'Ioad paths' which do not cross each other (F'1g2(b. After sketching the load paths smoothly c:urved and replacing them by polygons. further struts and ties must be added for transVerse equ,ilibrium (F'1g2(G. Obviously, in some cases the stress diagrams or the loadS are not completely ba1anccd with the 10ad paths dcscribed; then the 10ad path for me rcnaining forces enters me structure and leavcs it after a U-tum 011me same side (Fig 3).

I
\ \ 0\

DeveIopinga mode1of a D-regiOI1 ismuch simpliJed tbe cIasticstresSeS

'

J- oS_{
T

~ and principal SUCSS diRctions are availablefrom an dastic FEM aDalysis. ': The direction of struts can then be taken ia aa:ordance with the mean and "\~...main direction of principal comprcssivestrcsscs, or the more imponant . struts and ties can (F'1g4). of typical sections bc located at the centreof gravity of the strcss diagram
'

a (b) (c) ia order .~.avoid incompatibility problems.,.,~ '*"f1 F"tg2. 'IM,Joad palh merhod: (a) lhe stl1lcture and its loads; (b) lhe load ;". .,- The resulting mode1s are q~which means that the palhs through lhe stl1lcture; (e) lhe co"esponding strul-cnd-tie rnodel geomCUyof such a model is strictIy related to a particWr 10adconfJ.gUIation

t ,)
~

'

Ao

B
o

tA

T~
B

t tA
.

B t

with re1ative1y igh forces, should be choscD~ h

Wben mode1ling, ~e aqIcs bctwecD struts and tics. ia particuJar thase

The Structural Enginee'/Vo)ume 69/No,6/19 Matb 1991

.....

Paper: SchlaichlSchfer

=
F:FI+FZ

FI ;;!:O'3F

Fig 5. The comb~nalion of two models for the dapped beam is better than the individual models

i U 111111I1i 1111111 U 11p

U Ii 1111111111111111111 p I I I
J

I I I

I I I

} I
I I I I

\\
\ \ \ \

1
1d:'::
z

I I I
I

I-I

1
I
I

whcre F., is the force in strut or tie i I; is the length of membcr i e... is the mean strain of membcr i The contribution of the concrete strulS can most/y be omitted iDthe above criterion. Dimensioning the strulS. ties and nodes Reinjorced and unreinforced ties' Normally tie forces are carried by reinforcement. 115cross-scaiOD foUows from the tie force in the ultimate limit state and the design yidd strength of the sted. For crack distribution the reinforcement shall be distributed ovcr the tensile zone. Crack widths can be ana1ysed if the reinforced tie is considcred as a prismatic reinforced bar with an effective concrete arca. The tensile Strength of concrete should be ulilised for equilibrium forces only if no progressive failure must be expected and ir local failure zones are assumed. Thereby restraint forces and microcracks have to be taken into account even in 'uncracked' concrete. Funhcr. some positive experience with similar details and loading should be availablc.

: ,I f

1 li

I I I
I

I I I

I I"

1
Z

d:1

J ~

(a) Good

(b) Bad

Fig 6. The good model (a) Iuzsshorter ties Ihan the bad model (b)

Concrete strurs or compression stress fields To covcr ali cases of compression stress lidds. three typical configurations are suffiaent: (a) The fan-shaped Stress fidd (Fig 7(a is an idealisation of a stress fidd with D~ligible curvaturc. It does not devclop transverse stresses. (b) The bottle-shaped stress field (Fig 7(b. wilh its bulging stress trajectories. devdops considcrable transverse stresses: compression in the muchbeUcrbut rachercomplicatcdmodels(F1gS). Insteadof invcstigating \ !..,'bottle Dcck and tensioD funher away. The transverse tension can cause such a hyperstatic modd with tCpreseDt3tve stiffnesses of the struts and \,( longitudinal craclcs and initiate an carly failure. It is therefore oecessary ties. it is oonaally more adequate to immediatdy aUot "tliloads to the two to reioforce the stress fidd in the transvcrse direction or to considcr the simple models with an eye ODthe cxpec:ted stiffoess ratio of the individual transvcrse tensiOD when detcrmioing the failurc load of the strut. The models. .. :' " transvcrse tension can be detcrtnined from a strut-and-tie modd of the stress Doubts c:ould arise as to whethcr tlte correct mode1 has been chosen out fidd. Diagrams simplify its dimensioning (Fig 8). of sevcral possible ooes (F1g6).10 sdecting the modd. it is hdpful to rea1ise (c) The prismatic or paralld stress fidd (F1g7(c is a frequent special case that loads try to use the path with the lcast forces and deformatioDS. Since of the preceding two stress fidds. reinfon:cment ties are much more deformable than c:oncrete struts. the The fan-shaped and the bott/e-shaped stress fields are frequently found modd with the leas(and shoIlest ties is the best. This simple criterioo for -in D-regiODSwhcre CODcentratedloads are introduced into a structurc and optimising a modd may be formulated as foUows: sprcad out. The prismatic stress fidd is typical for B-regions. J;Flre -=minimum

and canoot be used for othcr loads withoUI modificatioD. Thcrefore. the govc:ming load combinatioDS have to be investigated. This disadvantage is DOta pccu1iarity 01 the strUt-and-e method but is inhcrent to the nODlinear matcdaI properties of cradced conaete.. Accordingly, superposition oftwo models is possible only iCthe combined modd satisfies the requirements ODreasonable angles bcrween struts and ties. By c:ombining two sople models it is sometimes possible to devdop

I-

considcrable

The strength of the oDcrete iDcompressioo stress ije1ds d~ds

extent 00 the multiaxial

state of stress and 00 disturbances

to a

UUIUU

1
\\\ tftJtI-O':gf~
(a)

ti ftt tff+'O'~f~ I-a~

(b)

f tt ft ff H"O':i ~

Lt
~ :_" I""I

f-a--4
(c)

Fig 7. The basic r.ompression fieltis: (a) the 'lan'; (b) lhe "bollle'; (e) lhe "prism'

Th~ ~tH h._l

" ~n/ll.'" 1::/11'1 \I.._J.

11'101

Paper: SchlaichlSchfer
~

. ... .' !........

Pa
'200

fca

,
,
'1' ~/

"

w=~

t. fCd

(;$"7

,," /' D/" '" " "

'" r:;'b",'"

Biaxil COIIIprf:ssion in bottlf: nccIc Cro:kCd. but with tI'cInsWfsf: rcinfOtCf:momt (df:gmc w) in thf: bdly rcgion

Uncrac:kCd.concrdf: ploin
_

// ~~" L~~ ",/ '"/ . ,,(S././ C~~;!' _ aminf:mart With . ,';>H-'-

t
9

the strcss field. Skew aaeks are nOI expected if the theory of elastidty is closely followed during modelling. However, skew aac:ks mayalso be left over from a previoos loading case with a different strcss situation. The inaease in strcngth due to 2- or 3-dimcnsional states of compressive stresses may be taken into ac:count if the simultaneous1y acting transverse comprcssivc stresses are reliable. Before deciding on one of the given strength values, both transverse directions musl always be considered. The nades The nodes are in rcalily. regions wherc forccs are deviated over a ecnain length and widlhs. The 'smeared' or 'continuous' nodes, where wide concrete stress fields join eac:h other or with closely distributed reinfordng bars, are not critical; it is sufficient to ensure safe anc:horage of the

Without

l:'f'a-f

o
1 (a) 2 3
,.. :" rI!

/J=b/a ~ 5 6 7 8

~b ".

~
~~

1l
-;
..:.

ii-: \

j
t);\,~

-Af: F=Pa.a.t t(
I c\; : \ ,,'I, \ I \ tT

(~;; j-: ,

Fi.

~ 1''' X
y

/z
" ,0,21

=- E

.. )'

.~._l a---l f--I

+

j1

reinforc:ing bars in the smeared node and to catc:h the outermost..fibres of ., the deviated eomprcssive stress field with reinforcement (Fig 9): ,;.1'.:. 'On the other hand, where conccntrated forces are applied the deviation of forces is loc:allyconc:cntrated in 'singular' or 'conc:cntrated' nodes. Tbese have to be carefully designed in order to balancc the oncoming forces of r, the struts and ties without exc:cssivedeformations resp. c:rac:ks. T!ioiglI' numerous cases of differenl singular nodes exist, in mOStcases ~.' their forces balance eac:hOlha in the node region through direa c:ompressive strCSSs-:fsond is essentially a load transfer via compressive stresses whic:h are supponed by the ribs_of the stcel bar and by radial prcssure in benl bars. However. in many cases also conerete tcnsile stresses develop transverse 10 lhe model plane ('third direction').-. ,', " The stress disrribution in singular nodes is mostly so complicated that it cannol be analysed individual1y with bearable expcnditure. But experiencc shows that some types of node and detail are repeated again and again

l.

~ .1

b
~

L--1'31+a-! b

(e)

:Fig 8. Dimensioning plne botlle-shaped stress fieltis: (a) diagrams giving Sllle pressure values Pa with regard to eraeking and erushing 01 plain unreinlorced eoncrete stress fieltis and yielding 01 transverse .reinloreement; (b) geometry 01 the stress field; (e) model and 'reinlorcement layout 01 stress field with transverse reinforcement

in quite different structures and can be designed sa~ely by simp~fied rul~:~ (a) The geomctry of the node has to be tuned "w1th the applted forces. Therefore reinforcement anchored in the node should be distributed over J' a cenain height l!..with due regard 10 the widths of the oncoming strcss fieK!s ane. the magmtude of their forces; funher, it should be adequately disctibuted in the transverse direc:tion in order to keep traDSVersetcnsile strcsses low. (b) The average compicssive stresses in the node regioo boundaries have to be checked to be less than . .-:)

,\ b

. ;:
\

.
.
'=

1.4=1'11:. fc4=0'8fc.

in nodes where only compression

struts meet, thos creating ~.! ",' and an allo\vanc:e

a 2- or 3-dimenSionalstate of compressivestressesin the

node region in nodes where tensile bars are anc:hored

in strength most be made for bond action from cracks and reinforcement. For practical dimq1Sioningof ali kinds of strcss-fields, the foBowingsimplified design strcngth values f:J are ~roposed: .
~

~ =l-O lod
~=0'6fod

l ~=0'8fod

for an undisturbed and uniaxial state of strcss for comprcssion fields with aaclcs parallel to the

;
;

compressi9ntresses s

,p,' . L':

for compression fields with skew aaclcs

;"-here (104 denotes the conaete compressive design strcngth for uniaxial comprcssion aa:ordiDg to the Code of Practicc. if'he dcsign values givcn above for aaclced conaete are meant for struc:tural ~Dc:rete, whose crack widths are limited in the usual manner. The values ror c:racb:d c:oocretc sbaBaIso be applied for conc:retcwith tr.msYCrse talsion lIelow the c:xpected tcusile strcngth and tensile reinforc:cment is crossing ~.

_c/'"~'. .J Suitable node region boundaries aI!d the corresponding compression str:sses c:an easily be determined, as shown in the typic:al nodes in Figs 10-13. As for ali nodes. a1sothe stresses of the oncoming struts have to be c:hec:ked as described earlier. L>,.>. f; ,: .~,~) (c) Safe anc:horage of ties in the node has to be assurcd: minimum radii of bent bars and anc:horage lengths of bars are selec:ted foBowing lhe Code. The anc:horage must be loc:ated within and 'behincP the node (FJgS 11 and 13). The anchorage begins where the traDSVerse compression stress trajectories mcet lhe bar and are deviated. The bar must extcnd to the other end of the node region. If this length is Icss than required by the Code, the bar may be extended bcyond the. node region and introdllCC some of its forces from behind. NOOe Nl {Fig 10) is typic:al for a node of compression strDts in a comer. Two alternative node region boundaries are shown for the samc node, both

I,
11

(Q)

- -

(b)

- -

(e)

~tg 9. 'Smeared nodes' I and 'singularnodes' 2 ;n o D-reg;on;(o) model, (b) and (e) stressfiel tis ond nOOeregio~

The Structural Engineer/Volume 69/No.6/19 March 1991

Paper: Schlaich/Schfer

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N1

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Fig 10. Nodes wilhout andwrage of rdnforcemem

leadiDg to lhe salDe RSUIts. 1bc node is safe,

:.~...and 0d.s.. I- I fel'JOvem the designo Node NS'(FJg li) appIics to the anchorage of tics far from thc edges, i.e. iDside thc structurc in the plane of the model. As for aU nodcs with tics, thc anchorage lcngth must be chec:ked. Node N6 (FJg 1I) is typic:al for cnd supports. 1be hc:ight li in deep beams should be ch05CD

P~JJ

~._"'4t'31
sin "p thc node's design.

Wotll""NJ(F'ag lO) is a combination of two nodcs NI. It is rcaJisc and CODYeDiaIto choosC (loIarge CDough. t

~..~;mr.2I1:Q"<OS-"J

in order that the bearingPrcssure~d~'govcms

~tltslq~~(F'ag lO)are typic:alfor loads or support forces applied to the edge of a struc:turewitha choreiforce rwming paraIlelto this edge through the DOde.Normally, the concrete comprcssivcstRS5CS
Th.. ~tn,t't1tT:>1 ~nCJ;n..",..I"nl o ~o/"'n ~/'o u h 1001

i" = 0-1Sh.s..O'2h.s..O-~1 wherc h is the height of D-regionand I is the span of deep beam. Single-laycrreinfon:cmcntshaUbe p1ac:cd Dcarthe lowcr edgc, whcrc thc j

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The Structural Engineer/Volume 69/No.6/19 March 1991

f-ig 11. Nodes wi/h andronzge 01 rei1!/on:ement ~

Paper: Schlaich/Schf.

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MO Tt /c LT
,

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Fig J2. Node wilh devialion of reinforcemenl

fII4"I1I1~_
.,
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also 10 olher nodes

Frg J3. Trt!Jltmenl of IOCIII ff!SSUTe in Iypiazl nodes N2 and N6. appliazble p

deviation forces are largcst. Chccks include ~-V.l/~~.'. ~Jg 11)is typicalin the tcDSion chord of beams or d~ beams. 1'hin. wd1~ut.cd bars sball be choscnas rcinfon:emcntfor de li and thcy shaI1cmbrac:cde Ta. CoDcretcstresscsPc SOO.Sf wiIl rarely be dccisive.

Local pressures.oCIImay be tolcratcd up to !

'Octt= -l.s..-~s.. Y. -a..

3.3f. .

(FJg 11) iS a mixture of the nodes Nl and N6, and thcrcfore maximm compressiOD strcsscs bctwccn thosc of both node types are proposed.: A. ." .~.,.. jp . Bcsides-; the 'iIcs' for typicai node N6 apply.

~.;.::>J .""

General rufe 5ince singular nodes are bottlenccks of the stresscs. it c3n be assumcd that an CDtire D-region is safe. the pressure undcr lhe most heavily loadcd beariDg plate or anchor platc is 1css thaD 0,6 f.. and ali siguificant teDsile forces are resistcd by rcinfon:emcnt and furthcr sufficient dcvelopmcnt lcngths are providcd for the reiDfora:meDt. Only if this rule does DO(lead to a primctory result. more SOJ)himc:a1cd analysis, as dcscribcd carIicr. is rcquircd. AppliC2tiODS ODly a fcw applications of the sttut-and-tie method can be shown hcre; many more can be found in refs. 1 and 12. .

MlR-A9(FJg 11) is composed of two nodes N8; chccks are aa:ordingly. 1bis Dode is typical1y ovcr lhe support of coDtinuous beams md normaUy aIso COYa'edby lhe Codc rulcs (c:heck the beam's c:roswcction for Mo N 8IId V, bcariDg pressure, anchoragc of chorei reiDforccmcut).

Wi7~
~

<~

12) is c:heckcdvia thc admissible~us

of th bem bar.

In DOdcswith local prasure (a. < I, f'Jg 13), thc ttansvcrse tc:DSionin the third diRctiOD must be COYa'edby traDSVcrscrcinfora:mcnt dcsigDcd for

D T-4X'x

l-a.
C.

Corbcls are D-regions for wbich SUUt:and-ticmodcIs areapplicd successfuJly for a loDgtime. For a chec:kof themcthod and the dt:sigDrules sM:n above, a tcst spccimen wiIl be analyscd and thC results comparcd With the test rcsu1ts. In ordcr to include also thc poCCDCjal CODcretcfailurc in lhe chcclcs. ODeof thosc rarc test speciMeo~u is scIcctcd for wbich yidding of lhe main de is Dot the obvious faDure critcriO"I1.

~ -...J Tbe Stnlctural "'\

Engineer/Volume 69/No.8/19 March 1991

--

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.. . .. ,.... I' . II "

to

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101515 7.Sem

1Z Slirrups_8 8x J

t
51irrup 11Ii. t

Taking a strut angle 8= 33 from a fim sketch ofthe model. the foUowing internal forces are derived for the recorded failure load Fu= 1'425 MN:

T=C. = F.ltan 8
C:= Tie T:
F./sin 8

= 2'19 MN = 2'62 MN

f~

r+
'"

I
I

0.= TIA.= 359N/mrri2<f., Nade I:

0.1=
6 Loops 11I25

= 452N/mm:
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..

.. -...

, ....... " ..... ._..... .. I ......

~_
a. x a,

~
,

tF
a=87an

- 0'30X 0'20 = 23'8N/mm2

.\

1'425

J-

la

IZlptcrtlZ 03001200130

< ~ xh' = 0'30 x 0'8 x 26'3 = 31'6N/mm1(localpressure) a, 0.20

Transverse tension from local pressure is covered by loops and stirrups. Anchorageand distributionof reinforc:cmenl the node regionis adequate. ia C. 2'62 o.. = -=-- = =.19'8N/mm1 .. a: x I 0'44 x 0,30

<0'81.: = 21'ON/mm1
Nade 2. The concrete stresses in this i>ure compression node (similar to typical node N2) cannol be critical. o, < I' I 1.:. if the stresses in lhe adjacent stress fields are satisfactory.

I
I

'\

SlrUIC:. The diagram for bottle-shaped stress fields (Fig 8) willbe used. Reinforcementralio: vertical c.Jy 0'08. horizontal "'. = 0'13. = For", = 0,08 the diagram predicts a ~inim.!1m.capacity P.

= 0.75 fc = 19'7N/mm1

which almost exactly coincides wilh lhe pressure

~=

:l' ',:'~ 19'8N/mm1

determinecl fornodeI in lheultimate condition. nd~ I

failed

in the tCSIafler yielding of lhe vertical reinforcement. The same width Q2 is necessary in the other botde neck of the stress field where it joins node 2. This det~rmines lhe geometry or node 2 and final1y that of the simple mode!. However. it must be pointed out lhat the strut angle 8 = 33 < 45 indicates a rather poor orientation or lhe simple model at lhe elastic behaviour. A refinecl mooel is given in Fig l4(c), right side. This model immo:diately explains lhe forces in the yielding vertical stirrups (tie T~ and leads to rcduced stresses and anchor forces in node I. which Iherefore c:annot be critica!. The geomCtry and the checlcs for oode 2 are unchanged ir the resultant C. higher tfu.1i in C!!nsidered. strutsare '";tor struts_ c; an~~ise simple model. Stresses in the diagooai

5implifi<Zdmodd

R<Z1In<Zd

rnod<Zl

Deep beam
The deep beam tested by Leonl1ardt & Walther.c sbaU be evaluated using the strut-and-tie method. Dimeosions and reinforcement layout are given in Fig 15(a).

f.

= 30'2

N/mm1 cooc:reteprism strength

11'/ = 428 N/mm1 yield strength of maio reioforcement f", = 547 N/mm2 rupture sttength of main reioforcement The test specimen failed at a totalload F. = 119SkN aftcr rupture of lhe principal reinforcement. .!. For a fi~.Pm:.~mati_oo the model from FJg 4 wi11be used (Fig lS(b. neglectiDi--tiie-d~ii" of bars near the support and the mesh reinforcemeot. The lever arm of the chord is assumed to be DOImuch larger than expected from the theory of elasticity:
%=

B;~
t=0'30

"..U. CorlJeJ:(a) lestetl sPimen no.213; (b) crack pattem 'at 13S01cN(Ile/Ulaure); (e) simplij2J and reflned strut-and-tie Id 01 intemallorces at lailure Ioad F. = 1'42SMN
"

0'72 / = l'04m

When the' teosioo chord begin.s to yield,

.. ...~.J :,. I Iest $pCCmca n:presc:utiDg two symmctricaJ.eorbels was tested upside (Fag l4(a. Thc crac:k pattcm depicts1iite we1l the intemal' flow . ~Ora::s (F"Jg14(b, condeased in tbe simp\ified model (F"Jg l4(c) lcCt side). jIs mocIeI c:an easily be derived by tbe load. path method. However, the

= A. xJ., = 2'I4x42-S = 9I-6kN, the corresponding load amounts to

T1y

F. = 2x T.yX% = 2x91.6x 1.04 = 476 '. J e 0-40. ...... This is already more than the

model geometJy is known onJy aftcr the nodes are dimensioned.

~ desip would predic:t,but onJy40'10 of the measurcd failure load. However, for an cxplanation of lhe recorded ultimate load. lhe model

...

..- . --

~-

Paper: Schlaich/Sch
I I I I I : I: ; I : I : : : l l l 11

--.....-

."s(J)

:f

IrJtJ (milclslccl)

4.S(m) A.=Z"4cm2

1'28
1'4' (a)
FIZ

ti
I

01

-z.s ===t3'O

iJ-

(c)
F/2. r-I
'.

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641

I
----;-r

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1
I

.
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Cz,\

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... ...

/
/

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\ \
TI.

1
2

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C34

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... '"

0=69"

c='O F/2
(b)

J
.
1

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,.'"
(d)

I. I--;f-

---J-

Fig /5. Deep beam: (a) lesled spec;men W121.; (b) modelor;entaled
aI lhe Iheory of elast;city; (e) crack patlem from lesl; (d) model adjusled to lhe fa;lure mechanism

must be adapted to rhe real bebaviour (FJg lS(c by shifting lhe compression chorei trhe upper eud of the deep beam (FJg lS(d. If further the rupturc sttength of the maio reinfon:aneut is introduced (Ta. = 117'1 kN) and if also the mild steel mcsh reinforccment is talceu into account (assuming 0. = 340N/mm2. Tz. = S3'4kN). 94'10 of the real 'wtimatc: load is c:xplaincd. ne rcst can be auributed to,.Jri..E9'tnin ~~ns. . , 1bis .example shows that. with strut-and-tie models. the real behaviour
.

VSeams M/;th openings;n

lhe M/eb(Fig 16) The trUSS modcl c1early shows where openings in the webs may bc placed, and how much reinforc:ement is nccc:ssary for a giveu reinforc:emeut layout. A chcck of concrete streSSCS ~ 0-6/.,J in the rell'"ining cross-secu"Onal . arca of the StrUts betweeu the ppening completes the safety chcck. It is obvious that the st.aDdard 'shear designo in such cases is just nonsense.

of cracked structures can be ana1ysedmucb better than by rhe theory of

dasticity and that considerable 'rcdistribution. is ~ble in deep bcams. evcnhdcss. it is recommended not to depart too mucb from the theory ~"c:rl~ with !'CSj)CCt c:raclcwidth in the serviceabi1ity limit swc. to To complete the checlc of the tested deep bcam. also the compression Struts and the nodcs have to bc looked ato SUut CI can casily bc chosen as a prismac SU'CSS fic1d deep euough DO( to c:xcecd 0. =I..

IOpen;ngs ;n M/allsand slabs In rJg 17(b), (c) the strut-and-tie models of waU regions with a rectangular opening are giveu for the tWo cases of unirorm compression resp. tension, applied to opposite boundarics. If these waUs are considered as rhe upper resp. lower layer of a slab with constaDt momc:nt (FJg 17(a). rhe two modds revca1 as we1llhe nccessary reinforccment in the slab due to the opening.

FoDowiDg carlier description, the bcaring pressure 0.& I. in the the IUppOrtallows an ultimatc design load

V
.

Frame comer wilh dosing moment

Thc simple modd in rlg 18(a) is acccptable oll1y the dimensions of the

Fe 2..4= 2 la OcA 2xO'IOxO'16xO'&x30'2 =0'773MN =

which is oll1y 6S 'lo of thc faure load in the tcst. 1bis can be explained

column and bcam do not differ too much anel the wholc chord
reinforc:ement is bent CClDtinnously arouDd tbe comer accxxdiDgto Fig 18(b).

by trausvcrsc compression in thc c:Onc:retedue to friction in the.bearing plates and to the reinforccmeu~ loops. These 100ps also provtde safe anchorage over thc support. . . CoI1Cr'Ctetrcsses in lhe support node boundary adjaccot to sttUt C, are s smaIler than OcA since rhe n:infon:anent is very wel1distnuted in rhe node rcsion over a considerable height u.

If such a modd is applied aIso to the frame corn~ in F'Jg18(c)with diffcrcnt chord foRZST2t> 7;. not oll1yis the oricntation at the theory of elasticity rather poor but also cquilibrium is DOmore poss1lefor the individual reinforccment bars. as shown in rJg 18(d). . TI. which is Instead, the dirrerence of chorei fon:es 4T = li anchored within the depth of the girder. caDsfor horizontal tics TJ,

1;TJ= 4T according to rlg 18(e).(f).

:;o he Structural Engineer/Volume 69/No.6/19 March '99' T

.-----~aper: Sch1aichlSchfer
Modd
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d
16. Betzms wilh smaU openings in lhe web: models and Inding reinlorcemenl ~k-foundiztion ,e problem is given in F18 19(a). Following the load path method, the applied to the foundation from above and below are subdivided CODDccted shown in Figl9(b). The component F; representS that as or the column 10ad w1rlch is divened to the left-hand side or the ndation. while F2 and F. are divened to the other side. where the load ~ = T (forming a U-turn) has to be arranged in between Fz and F. order to avoid a c:rossingof the load paths. The mode! is easily completed the horizoDtal compression and tension chords Co and To. Their .um force amounts to C. = T. = I=;cot 6.. co1umi1compression forces 1=;.F2 and F. are distributed a1so in the - 'etSe dircctiOD over the width of the foundation and thereby acate tension. 7j. T2. T.. e.g.

T,

loS' :\=;

,,'-c )~TJ J --'5'1 vr-C]

IT, I

TV
I

[J

..~

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't~
I1 I. __J..!..

I -- 1 " 'c,
!

I..

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I

Ij I.

_J

T2
(e)

tC2 (f)

Fig /8. Frame eom:!f' with closing moment: (a), (b) model and reinlorcemenr lor similar dimensions 01 column and betJm; (eJ, (dJ bad model and reinlorcemenllor dissimilar dimensions 01 column and beam; (eJ, (/) good model and reinlorcemenllor dissimilar dimensions f of column and beam

r.

= 0-5

Fi cot 62,

as can be secn from Fig 19(<:). Since the tensiOD force T in the column reinforc:ement is c:arried to the

bonom of the fOundatiOD combines there with the load and

of FJ

~ r -,--'-r-r---r-, .
1

~.
ro . o 01

/,

~-4..

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'.

l
e~
1~

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b'
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.-

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(b) Comprwssion

ChOn:I

(cJ Tcnsion c:tIorO

t, 17. Opening in slab wilh COnslant moment

T1.._ ,...

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(ti)

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,~

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m-m

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-T~ m
I~

Rcinforccma1t

1
I
i

W2

WI

1 j I

Tzl2

(d)

(e)
Loops

m-m
"
TJ

Fig .20. Hole fOOlings: (a) model for a fool;ng w;th rough jo;nts; (b) model for a fool;ng .wilh smooth jo;nts; (e) simplijied model for lhe wa/Is in horizonlal projeclion and eorresponding reinforcement

I J.J -~, ~
6H '2
(c) ." 19. BIocJcfoundal;on:

..-?j

These legs can be avoidcd and the longitudinal reinforc:ement can be evenly distributcd over the whole foundation width if, in accordance with Fig. 19(e), the additional U'aDSVer5ec:nsion t TJ

= 0'5

fJ{

cot'.

is ~
(a) lI1youl and applied forces; (b),
~ SlI'III-4UUl-t;e modeJs; (d) corresponding re;nforcemenl; (e) model 'Wlhe distribulion of lhe horizonllll forces A H and combined 'On:emenl if lh model applied

covercd by rt:inforc:ement. Loops would be necessary in this case for the anchorage of the column reinforc:ement T near the bottom of the

foundation.

AR tcusile forces havc to be covered by reinfora:ment. 1be reinforc:ement

tbe widtha of thc.column, its contribution to the tensi1ediord To AlI - FJcot 6J, be anaqcd within this width as we1l,e.g. by horizontallegs of the Rlon;cment(F1g19(d. .
O Structural Englner/Volump. r;o/'/\Jn r:./10 U h 1001

for To must be eX1endcdto the left end of the foundation and the U'aDSVer5e rcinforc:ementfor TI' T:z-TJand T.over the whole width. No hooksare nec:essary betteranchorageofhorizoDWbars ir approJmatdy for tWo-thirdsof the neccssary anchorage ~ of the Code is provided 'behind' the nodes of the model. The compressionstrut Co nec:dsno speal dicck, ir the compression node immediatelybelow the column is assumeddeep enough (seetypical node m, Fig 10).

.-

~.

L .1per: Schlaich/Schfer

.....

~~~.
(a)

I ~-t- I I I
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I I

'r---~
--+ J ./'
---J

--} ~

Fig 21. 1YOUIof a cable bridge for pedeslrians in 5111ugart

ir
,

-1-

-+~~.?

1
.

c5 o
4

OKmi

IJ
I I '-+
I 0":1
(b)

I I ~. I I
.

-T--l "I rT--j

/
/1

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+.~.

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t
/

.=t=I--:- -=.i

-I- --~

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Caststul

I I

"
I
I
I I

I I.

. Rcinfo1"cCmcnt

6:?

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1--'
I

+I I

(e) Fig 23. Anchorage of lhe cableforces (delail A Df Fig 21): (a) basic model of lhe forces in lhe bridge deck and correspondingslress dislribulion; (b) re/ined modeJ;(e) casl steeJcomponenlS and
reinforcement according 10 model (b)

FIg 22. Rejected proposo/s for lhe anchorage of lhe cables in lhe

bridgedeck (delail A of Fig 21)

HoIe foolings In FIgS2O(a)and (b) models are givcn for two cases. In the fU'Stcase. rough (profiled) CODcretesurfaais are assumed for lhe joint of column and fOUDdation ando ia lhe od1er. smooth surfaces wllic:h do DOtpermit aD IIcIined SUUt to c:ross~ioint ~.,.\ol ~"" ! ,": '} Ifchejoint is rougtr/(Fag2O(a.1bc column de TisoYC:dapped via indiDcd CIOIDpressioD . with vCniCl ties TI in lhe fooc:ing~Uereby horizontal C

fOResare app1ied to the footing walIs WI

W2. whic:hmust be

The vertical tie force r. is dc:viated.iato the lower 1ayer of n:inforceD1em of the foundation 1i1ce chord in a frame comer. It balances there with the the forces proceerling fcom the column.s compression chord. Ue modd for dae foundation with smooth j~ (Fag 2O(b leads to approximatdy 1.7 times 1arger horizontal forces T! and an acktional tensi1e force r. of similar magDitude ia lhe side wa1ls. Also d1e diagona1 compression forces .othe colWDJ1and wans are increased acc:ording1y. 1bese examples sbow the uscfulness of SUUt-and-e modds DOtoo1y for dimensioning but also for dae conceptual design of a struCtUrCor detail. This will be shOWDmore dearly ia lhe next cxamp1e. Detail Df a pedestrian bridge Fag 21 gives an impression or a cab1ebridge ia Stuagan. which is suspeuded from an cxisting building. We shal1 devdop a dcsign of the Dodes where the cables ~ anchored aDd introduce thcir horizootal forces into the concrete bridge dec".

transferred latera11yimo the side walIs. as e.g. shown in Fag 2Oc)by a Vt:ry SII1pIifed modd. The waUsWl and W2 em. ""'P-'iD8 ODthcir s1c:Ddcmess. also be treated like shem beams followiDg the Code. The ties Tzl2 ia ts lDOdd correspond to the horizontal tie T! in Fag 2O(a). Ucir forces can be COveredby horizontal n:inforcement on both lhe inner and outcr sides of lhe foundation side walIs. ir lhe modd is adjusted accordingly.

The Structural Engineer/Volume 1i9/No.6/19 March 1991

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Paper: SchlaichlSchfe

Pre1iminary proposals for tbis detiI using $Icei girdcrs embedded in the conaete (Flg 22) were rejcaed after the strut-and-tie model (Fig 23(a showed how the c:ableforces could be iauoduced immediatdy without any bending of embedded members and the associated high stresses and deformations. The compression forces are applied dircctly in the direction of the diagonal modd strUtS via profiled cast:.stcel components without major disturbance of the thin conaete dec:k (Fig 23(c. Transverse reinforcing bars, wdded to the cast stecl components, carry the tie forces of the modelo The stress distribution is further improved by smearing the nade A over a greatc:r Ic:ugth.as suggested by the rdincd model of Fig 23(b). The cbec:k of the conaete compression stress applied by the cast $Icei needs no further exp1anation. Ir the cab1es are incIined ai a considerable angle ia order to suppon the bridge dec:k, as is usuaUy the case, a banom fJange mUst be attached to lhe $Icei member for vertical suppon of the dec:k. Coaclusioas Strut-and-tie models can be used for tracing the internal forces in complicated details. Thcy are very helpful in the conceptual desiS!Lof a . .:; de:ail, leadiag the designer intuitively to simple and souncHuti;)iis. .... Strut-and-tie models are also a basis for thc quantitative chec:k of details and whole structures. However, the method also rcquires some enginecring knowledge and training to whicb tbis paper is intendcd to contribute with a SUt1U1WY principies and a few applications of the method. of

Refereaces 1. Schlaich,J., Scbfer,K., Jennewein,M.: 'Toward a consistentdesign of struaural conaete', PCI Joumal, 32, No.3, May-June 1987, pp74-ISO 2. Ritter, W.: 'Die BauweiseHennebiquc'. (rbe Hennebiquesystem). SchweizerischeBauzeitung. Bd. XXXIII. No.1~January 1899 3. Mrsch. E.: Der Eisenbetonbau, seine Theorie und Anwendung '(Reinforced conaete, thcory and application). Stuttgart, Verlag
Konrad WittWer, 1912

4. Leonhardt, F.: 'Reducing the sbear reinforcement ia reinforced concrete beams and slabs', Mag. Concrete Research, 11, No.53. Deccmber 1965,pl87 5. Rsch. H.: 'ber dic Grenzen der Anwcndbarkeit der fachwerkanalogie hei dcr Berechnung der Schubfestigkeit von StahIbetonbaiken' (On thc limitations of applicabilityof the truss anaIogy for the shear dcsignof RC beams), FesrschriftF. Ozmpus 'Amid et Alumni', UDiversitde Lige, 1964 6. Kupfer, H.: 'Erweitcrungder Mhrsch'schenfachwerkanalogicmit Hilfe des 'Primips vom Minimum der formnderungsarbeit' (Expansionof Mrsch's truss anaIogyby applicationof the principie of minimum strain energy), CES Sulletin, 40, Paris 1964 1. Thrlimann, D., Marti, P., Pralong, J., Ritz, P., Zimmerli, D.: 'Vorlesung zum fonbildUDgSkursfr Bauingenieure' (Advanced leaurc forCivil Engincers),Institutfr Bautcdmikund KonstruIaion, ETH Zrich 1983(see further referencesthere) 8. Marti, P.: 'Basic tools of reinforced conaetc bcam design', AC! Joumal, January-february 1985,pp4-5~ 9. Mue1ler,P.: 'Plastische Bercchnung von Stahlbetonscheibeo und Balken' (plastic ana1ysisof reinforced conaete deep beams and beams),BeridIlNo. 83, Institutfr Ba"motilrund KonsuuJction, TH E Zrich, Jo1y 1978 10. Collins, M. P., and Mitcl1e1l,D.: 'Shear, and tomon design of prestressedand ooo-prestressedconcrete beams', PC! Joumal. 25, No. 5, September..Qaober 1980,pp32-100 11. Schlaich, J., and Weischedc, D.: 'Eia praktisches Verfahren zum methodisc:benBemessenund Konstruieren im Stahlbetonbau' (A praaica1 mcthod for the designand detailingof structUralconc:rete), Euro-Intcmationaldu Bu/IeJind'!nfomuztJonNo. ISO,Paris, ~ Bton. March 1982 12. SchIaic:b. anelScbfer,K.: Konstruierenim Sllzhlbetonbml Design J.. ( and detailing of structura1conaetc), BctonbIender 1984, Part li, w. Emst &.Sobn, BerIin-Mncben,pp187-IOOS (reviscd versioa publishe:lin the BctonbIencta: 1989)
13. Zdler, W.: cBruchYerSUchean Stahlbetonkonsolen bei Vernderung des Bewebrungsgrade', (Failurc tcsts 00 RC corbds wid1 diffcrent reinforcement railos), AbsdrJu}Jberidrt zum Forscluurgsvorluzben, Institut fr Massivbau uad Baustoffteclmo1ogie, UaMrsitt fCar.Isruhe, 1983 . 14. Lconhardt; f., and WaIther, R.: 'WandartigC Trger., (Dccp beams), DAfStb. Heft No.178, Berlin, W. Emst &. Sobn, 1966
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