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Industry Profile

HISTORY OF CERAMIC TILES:

Rumors have it that the first clay tiles were produced seven to eight thousand years ago in the area now known as the Holy Land. Many sources independently verify that the actual known history of Tiles, (and the known usage of wall and floor tile coverings) can be traced back as far as the fourth millennium BC (4000 BC) to Egypt. In those days, in Egypt, tiles were used to decorate various houses. Clay bricks were dried beneath the sun or baked, and the first glazes were blue in color and were made from copper, very exquisite! During that period ceramics were also known to be found in Mesopotamia. These ceramics bore decorations, which were white and blue striped and later possessed more varied patterns and colors. Later on, in China too, the great center of ceramic art, a fine, white stoneware with the earliest Chinese glaze was produced during the Shang-Yin dynasty (1523-1028 BC). The usage and the art of making and decorating ceramic tiles had spread and by 900 A.D., decorative tiles had become widely used in Persia, Syria, Turkey and across North Africa. As transport and communication developed, tile usage and its penetration in other territories increased. Wars and territory take-overs caused this art to spread even faster. The Romans introduced tile making in Western Europe as they occupied territories. The Low Countries of Northern Europe somehow acquired the technology from Persia, while the Moors brought African tiles with them when they invaded Iberia (Spain). It was aboard the ships of Spanish conquistadors that decorative clay tiles found their way to the New World, where they were used primarily to decorate the Churches of newly built missions. By the end of the 12th century, use and manufacture of Ceramic Tiles had spread across Italy and Spain and into the rest of Europe. Till that time they were mainly used to decorate the floors of Cathedrals and Churches. The skill had eventually vanished from Europe in the 16th century following the reformation. But the decorative wall tile art had survived in Turkey and the Middle East and the Delft tiles art survived in Holland. A form of tile making had also evolved among the natives of North and South America at some point. The first decorative tiles to appear in Colonial North America were imported from Northern Europe, mainly England the Brits having hijacked the technology from the Dutch. The tiles were too expensive for utilitarian purposes in the Colonies and were found almost exclusively in the homes of the wealthy. Through the centuries, tile decoration was improved upon, as were methods of tile manufacture. For example, during the Islamic period, all methods of tile decoration were brought to perfection in Persia. Throughout the known world, in various countries and cities, Ceramic tile production and decoration reached great heights. The tile mosaics of Spain and Portugal, the floor tiles of Renaissance Italy, the faiences of Antwerp, the development of tile iconography in the Netherlands, and the Ceramic tiles of Germany are all prominent landmarks in the history of Ceramic tile. In the early days, the tiles were hand-made, each tile was hand-formed and hand-painted, thus each was a work of art in its own right. Ceramic tile was used almost everywhere on walls, floors, ceilings, fireplaces, in murals, and as an exterior cladding on buildings. Today Ceramic tile throughout the world is not hand-made or hand-painted for the most part. Automated manufacturing techniques are used and the human hand does not enter into the picture until it is time to install the tile. They are used in an almost infinite number of ways and you dont have to consider yourself wealthy to own them. In commercial buildings, where both beauty and durability are considerations, ceramic tiles will be found, particularly in lobby areas and restrooms.

In fact most modern houses throughout use Ceramic tiles for their bathrooms and kitchens and in every vital area of the premise. Ceramic tiles are also the choice of industry, where walls and floors must resist chemicals. And the Space Shuttle never leaves Earth without its protective jacket of high-tech, heat resistant tiles. (Note: The above history has been compiled after taking varied sources of information into consideration) Top
CERAMIC TILES INDUSTRY IN INDIA:

Industry Highlights

Ceramic Tiles today have become an integral part of home improvement. It can make a huge difference to the way your interiors and outdoors look and express. The Indian tile industry, despite an overall slowdown of the economy, continues to grow at a healthy 15% per annum. Investments in the last 5 years have aggregated over Rs. 2000 crores and production during 2006-07 stood at approx. 340 million sq mts. The Indian tile industry is divided into organized and unorganized sector. The organized sector comprises of approximately 16 players. The current size of the organized sector is about Rs.2625 Crores. The unorganized sector accounts for 70% of the total industry bearing testimony of the attractive returns from this sector. The size of the unorganized sector is approximately Rs.6125 Crores.s Revenue earning industry - excise mops up over Rs. 350 crores annually from the organized sector itself. India ranks in the top 3 list of countries in terms of tile production in the world. With proper planning and better quality control our exports (presently insignificant) contribution can significantly increase.
Background Apart from their decorative looks, Ceramic Tiles are primarily hygiene products and that is how our broad spectrum of consumers view the product. This is fairly evident from its varied usage from bathrooms and kitchens in average Indian households to medical centers, labs, milk booths, schools, public conveniences, shopping malls and numerous other centers; which dot our day to day life. A ceramic tile is basically a "utility product" and that remains our promotional slogan. Popular housing projects are increasingly switching over to Ceramic Tiles moving away from the traditional use mosaic and even granite or marble, owing to several factors viz. ease in laying ability, versatility, low price and hygiene. Nevertheless, this decorative aspect of a Ceramic Tiles has forever been in the forefront. Heavy churning out of bolder and colorful designs by the industry are testament to the fact that most households regard a ceramic tile as an "adornment" for an otherwise "drab look" of their age-old floorings or an unfurnished wall. Overall picture of the Industry

Ceramic tiles as a product segment has grown to a sizeable chunk today at 340 Millions Square meters production per annum. However, the potential seems to be great, particularly as the housing sector, retail, IT & BPO sectors have been witnessing an unprecedented boom in recent times. The ceramic tiles sector has been clocking a robust growth of 12-15% consistently over the last few years. Today, India figures in the top 5 countries in the world manufacturing ceramic tiles. The key drivers for the ceramic tiles in India are the boom in housing sector coupled by government policies fuelling strong growth in housing sector. The retail boom in the Indian economy has also influenced the demand for higher end products. Overall the bullish growth estimates in the Indian economy has significantly influenced the growth of the Indian Ceramic tile industry. The main product segments are the Wall tile, Floor tile, Vitrified tile and Porcelain tile segments. The market shares are 35%, 53% and 12% respectively for Wall, Floor & Vitrified/Porcelain tiles. The tiles are available in a wide variety of designs, textures and surface effects. They cater to tastes as varied from rustics to contemporary marble designs in super glossy mirror finishes. Both, traditional methods of manufacturing (tunnel ) and the latest single fast firing methods are deployed in manufacturing. Some of the latest trends in manufacturing methods can be seen in India. The investments in the last five years are approx. Rs 2000 crores. The industry also enjoys the unique distinction of being highly indigenous with an abundance of raw materials, technical skills, infrastructural facilities despite being fairly capital intensive. A total of over 5,50,000 people are employed in the sector. Out of this, 50,000 people are directly employed and 5,00,000 are indirectly associated. The potential is huge considering the per capita consumption of ceramic tiles in India. Currently it is at 0.30 square meters per person in comparison to over 2 square meters per person for like countries like China, Brazil and Malaysia Where we stand and what we must do? As a foreign exchange earner or a global player, Indian Tile industry has captured the attention of the world in the ceramic tiles segment. India is projected to figure in the top 3 countries manufacturing ceramic tiles by 2010. This however is subject to policies favorable for the tile industry to complete with international players on an even ground. To compete internationally, our plants must be geared up to large units currently operating in China and Turkey are driven by economies of scale. These will also help us in lowering our cost of production significantly. Also, infrastructural support is a key factor that determines the speed of growth. Better infrastructure will bring in better growth in terms of consistency and sustenance. Freight, supply of power and gas remains the key cost-related issues impacting the industry. Availability, consistent supply and reasonable rates are extremely important for the growth of the ceramic tile industry. Also, the prevailing anomalies pertaining to Basic Customs Duty on import of ceramic tiles from China and raw materials imported from abroad need to be corrected to prevent dumping of tiles from China. Rural thrust should be enhanced by favorable excise duty and MRP structure Current status of the Industry The ceramic tiles industry in India has followed similar trends internationally which have been characterized by excess capacities and falling margins. Countries like Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam are setting up their own plants. China has emerged as a major competitor. Producers from Spain and Italy have the advantage of lower transportation costs while exporting to USA and Germany. In India, the per capita consumption is as low as 0.30 square meters per person compared to China (2 square meters per person), Europe (5 to 6 square meters

per person) or Brazil (2.5 square meters per person). Rising disposable incomes of the growing middle class and 40 million units of housing shortage hold out a great potential. A major change that took over the ceramic tiles industry, was the introduction of vitrified and porcelain tiles. These new entrant product types are said to be the tiles of the future. Internationally these tiles are already the major sellers. These category of products account for 13% of all organized sales in this industry. These new products and the conventional wall & floor tiles have together made the organized industry grow to a formidable Rs. 3000 crores industry. This coupled with a spate of expansions by many players make the industry look very promising in the future. The Indian Industry has developed an export market although at the lower end. In volume it constitutes less than half a percent of the global market. (Presently India does not figure in the list of major exporting countries). But this reality could change as Indian exports are rising at the rate of 15% per annum. The top-end of the global export market is presently dominated by Italy (40.8%) and Spain (26.4%). (Source: Compiled using information from Corporate Catalyst India, ASCER and other associations.) Top
CERAMIC TILE INDUSTRY STATISTICS:

1. World production: 6900 Million sq.mt. 2. India's Share: 340 Million sq.mt.. 3. World ranking (in production): 5 4. Per capita consumption: 0.30 sq.mt. 5. Global Industry Growth Rate: 6% 6. Growth Rate (India Domestic Market): 15% 7.

Organized industry turnover (India): Rs 3000 crores Glazed Wall Tile share: 40% Glazed Floor Tile share: 46% Unglazed Vitrified Tile share: 8% Glazed Porcelain Tile Share: 6% Unorganised Industry Turnover Rs 3500 crores Glazed Wall Tile share: 57% Glazed Floor Tile share: 35% Unglazed Vitrified Tile share: 6% Glazed Porcelain Tile Share: 2% 8. Investments in last 5 years: Rs 2000 crores 9. Organized sector: Rs 300 crores Share of Production: 56% No. of units: 16 Revenue (excise duty):

10. Unorganized sector: Share of Production: 44% No. of units: 200 (approx..) (70% based in Gujarat region) Revenue (excise duty): Rs 350 crores per annum or less 11. Job Potential: 50,000 direct 500,000 indirect

Click on the links below to get Graphical picture of: Top 10 Exporting Countries. Top 10 Manufacturing Countries. Top 10 Consumption Countries Top 10 per capita consumption countries Top
MEMBERS IN CERAMIC TILE INDUSTRY:

Members in Ceramic Tile Industry:-

Name of Member Antique Granito Pvt. Ltd. Asian Granito (India) Ltd. City Tiles Ltd. Century Tiles Ltd. Coral Gold Tiles Pvt. Ltd. Euro Ceramics Ltd. Gokul Ceramics Pvt. Ltd. H. & R. Johnson (India) A Division of Prism Cement Ltd. Jalaram Ceramics Ltd. Kajaria Ceramics Ltd.

Website www.antiquegranito.com www.asiangranito.com www.citytilesltd.com www.centurytiles.com www.eurogranamite.com www.vrundavanceramic.com www.hrjohnsonindia.com www.siddharthceramics.com www.kajariaceramics.com

Lorenzo Vitrified Tiles Pvt. Ltd. Murudeshwar Ceramics Ltd. Oracle Granito Ltd. Orient Ceramics And Industries Ltd. Ozzy Vitrified Pvt. Ltd. Radiant Floor Tiles Pvt. Ltd. RAK Ceramics India Pvt. Ltd. Regent Granito (India) Ltd. Restile Ceramics Ltd. Senso Granito Pvt. Ltd. Sentini Cermica Pvt. Ltd. Silica Ceramica (P) Ltd. Sobar Ceramics Sogo Ceramics Pvt. Ltd. Somany Ceramics Limited Spectrum Johnson Tiles Pvt. Ltd. Sunshine Tile Co. Pvt. Ltd. Umiya Ceramic Pvt. Ltd. Varmora Granito (P) Ltd. Vrundavan Ceramics Ltd.
HISTORY OF SANITARYWARE:

www.lorenzovitrified.com www.naveenceramics.com www.oraclegranito.com www.orienttiles.com www.ozzyvitrified.com www.rakceram.com www.regentgranito.com www.restile.com www.sensotiles.com www.sentinicermica.com www.sogovitrified.com www.somanyceramics.com www.sunheart.in www.varmora.com www.vrundawanceramic.com

Unlike body functions like dance, drama and songs, defecation is considered very lowly. As a result very few scholars documented precisely the toilet habits of our predecessors. The Nobel Prize winner for Medicine (1913) Charles Richet attributes this silence to the disgust that arises from noxiousness and lack of usefulness of human waste. Others point out that as sex organs are the same or nearer to the organs of defecation, these who dared to write on toilet habits were dubbed either as erotic or as vulgar and, thus, despised in academic and social circles. It was true for example of Urdu poets in India, English poets in Britain and French poets in France. However, as the need to defecate is irrepressible, so were some writers who despite social as well as academic stigma wrote on the subject and gave us at least an idea in regard to toilet habits of human beings. Based on this rudimentary information, one can say that development in civilization and sanitation have been coterminous. The more developed was the society, the more sanitized it became and vice versa. Toilet is part of history of human hygiene which is a critical chapter in the history of human civilization and which cannot be isolated to be accorded unimportant position in history. Toilet is a critical link between order and disorder and between good and bad environment. In our own country i.e. India, how can any one ignore the subject of toilet when the society is faced with human excretions of the order of 900 million litres of urine and 135 million kilograms of faucal matter per day with totally inadequate system of its collection and disposal. The society, thus, has a constant threat of health hazards and epidemics. As many as 600 out of 900 million people do open defecation. Sewerage facilities are available to no more than 30 per cent of population in urban areas and only 3 per cent of rural population has access to pour flush latrines. Seeing this challenge, we think the subject of toilet is as important if not more than other social challenges like literacy, poverty, education and employment. Rather subject of toilet is more important because lack of excremental hygiene is a national health hazard while in other problems the implications are relatively closer to only those who suffer from unemployment, illiteracy and poverty. Thus the study of the history of toilet is an important subject matter.

As long as man did not have an established abode, he did not have a toilet. He excreted wherever he felt like doing so . When he learnt to have a fixed house, he moved toilet to courtyard and then within his home. Once this was done, it became a challenge to deal with smell and the need was felt to have a toilet which can intake human wastes and dispose these out of the house instantly and, thus , help maintain cleanliness. Man tried various ways to do so i.e. chamber pots, which were cleaned manually by the servants or slaves, toilets protruding out of the top floor of the house or the castle and disposal of wastes in the river below, or common toilets with holes on the top and flowing river or stream underneath or just enter the river or stream and dispose of the waste of the human body. While the rich used luxurious toilet chairs or cross stools, the poor defecated on the roads, in the jungle or straight into the river. It was only in the 16th century that a technology breakthrough came about and which helped the human beings to have clean toilets in houses. This breakthrough did not come about easily and human race had to live in sanitary conditions for thousands of years. Historical Evolution: The perusal of literature brings home the fact that we have only fragmentary information on the subject of toilet as a private secluded place to help the body relieve its waste. Sitting type toilets in human history appeared quite early. In the remains of Harappa civilization in India, at a place called Lothar ( 62 Kilometers from the city of Ahmedabad in Western India ) and in the year 2500 BC, the people had water borne toilets in each house and which were linked with drains covered with burnt clay bricks. To facilitate operations and maintenance, it had man-hole covers, chambers etc. It was the finest form of sanitary engineering. But with the decline of Indus valley civilization, the science of sanitary engineering disappeared from India. From then on , the toilets in India remained primitive and open defection became rampant. The archaeological excavations confirm existence of sitting type toilets in Egypt (2100 BC) also. Though we have been able to mechanize the working of these toilets, the form and basic format of the toilet system remains the same. In Rome, public bath-cum-toilets were also well developed. There were holes in the floor and beneath was a flowing water. When the Romans travelled they constructed the toilets for their use. The stools were key-hole type so that these could be used for defecation as well as urination. Excavations in Sri Lanka and Thailand too have brought out a contraption in which urine was separated and allowed to flow while the other portion was used at the same time for defecation. Historical evidence exists that Greeks relieved themselves out of the houses. There was no shyness in use of toilet. It was frequent to see at dinner parties in Rome, slaves bringing in urine pots made of silver; while members of the royalty used it but continued to play at the same time. Whatever little information is available about history of toilets in India, it was quite primitive. This practice of covering waste with earth continued till the Mughal era , where in the forts of Delhi and Agra one can see remnants of such methodologies to dispose of human waste. Between the period 500 to 1500 AD was a dark age from the point of view of human hygiene. It was an era of cess pools and human excreta all around. Rich man's housing and forts in India had protrusions in which defecation was done and the excrements fell into the open ground or the river below. The forts of Jaiselmer in India and big houses on the banks of rivers bear testimony to this fact. In Europe, it was an era of chamber pots, cess pools and cross stools. So were the toilets protruding out of the castles and the excrements from which fell into the river. It was also an era of "liberty to pee" French poet Claude le Petit described Paris as 'Ridiculous Paris' and in the following words :

"My shoes my stockings, my overcoat My collar, my glove, my hat Have all been soiled by the same substance I would mistake myself rubbish" There was lot of jest and humour relating to toilet habits and toilet appurtenances. Ballets were performed with basket of night soil in the form of hood, on the head or a tin plate commode moving around with toilet sounds. The clothes were spotted with accessories from the toilet. The actors were etronice (night soil) Sultan Prime of Foirince (i.e. diarrhoea) etc. There are stories given by Guerrand VI, which depict the mood of Europe at that time. A lady of noble birth requested a young man to hold his hand. The young man suddenly feels the urge to urinate. Forgetting that he is holding the hand of a lady of noble birth he relieves himself. At the end he says " excuse me Madam, there was lot of urine in my body and was causing great inconvenience ". Similarly, Maid of Honour Anne of Austria owing to excessive laughter urinated in the bed of the queen . Joseph Pujol (hero extraordinary of French scatology) in his shows demonstrated many types of farts i.e. young girl, mother-in-law , bride. He could even extinguish a candle 30 centimeters away through his farting. Public Toilets and People: In each society from time to time the government felt the need to provide public toilet facilities to those who could not afford to have individual toilets. The public toilets have a long history in number of countries and most of which were constructed and managed by municipalities. But there was alround disgust with their poor maintenance, vandalism and lack of basic facilities . The Mughal King Jehangir built a public toilet at Alwar, 120 kms away from Delhi for use of 100 families at a time in 1556 AD. Not much documentary evidence exists on the quality of its maintenance but one can well visualize that with rudimentary technology and with government to manage the O&M functions, it like others must be in very unsatisfactory condition. As hygienic conditions in public toilets were bad, people preferred to do open defecation. This was true in most of the countries. It was in 1872 that the municipalities in France asked the private companies to manage public toilets for a lease period of 20 years. The private companies were also offering even amounts to government as they felt confident to recover the same through user charges. Ground floor owners were also being requested to construct latrines for use of the passersby. Previously known as Palais Royal Hotel in Paris, the owners started charging monthly fee from diners. Incidentally condoms were also sold as part of the facilities. Law and Citizens: In order to improve sanitary conditions, Governments in various countries also resorted to legal measures. Dirt by definition was considered as disorder, because it disrupts order of maintaining the environment. In 1519 the provincial government of Normandy in France made provision of toilets compulsory in each house. The French government also passed a parliamentary decree to make cesspools in each house compulsory. Again a similar attempt was made in 1539. In Bordeaux in France, the government made construction of cesspools compulsory. It was tried again in 1668 when the Lieutenant of Police made construction of toilets compulsory. In England the first sanitation law was passed in 1848. In India the first sanitation bill was introduced in 1878. It tried to make construction of toilets compulsory even in huts of Calcutta - the capital of India at that time. The Bill even proposed construction of public toilets at the cost of neighbouring houses. The government of India enacted another Sanitation Act in 1993. Under this Act construction of dry latrine and its manual cleaning was made an offence. But despite these enactments open defecation is rampant. Proving that unless adequate social awareness is created in a developing country where instruments of state are weak and low family income, it is hard task to make significant progress in this area.

Toilet Technologies: Eighteenth century was a century of toilets. Despite invention of water closet by John Harrington in 1596 which was costing only 6 shillings and 8 pence this was not adopted on a large scale for almost 182 years. The delays in actual use of invention is common in human history which Toffler calls as "Cultural Gap". It was true for railway train, ballpoint pen and innumerable other inventions. During this period people used earth closet. In these toilets instead of water earth was used. So the problem of cleaning remained. The world also saw development of Pan closets- which like cigarette ash tray threw the material at the bottom. This too required manual cleaning. At the same time, chamber pots , cross stools, open defecation remained. In comparison to this , Harrington toilet under the name Angrez was being used in France, though not introduced on a long scale in England. In 1738 JF Brondel introduced the valve type flush toilet. Alexander Cunnings further improved the technology and gave use a better device in 1775. In Cunnings's design water was perennially there in the toilet so it suppressed odours. Still the working of the valve and fool-proof inlet of water needed further improvements. In 1777 , Joseph Preiser provided the required improvement. Then John Blummer in 1778, substituted the slide valve with crank valve. It seemed then that the technology of pour flush was now perfected. No the world was yet to witness further technological developments. In 1870 , SS Helior invented the flush type toilet, called optims- an improvement over Blummer's design. From 1880 onwards, however, the emphasis has been more on aesthetics to make cisterns and bowls decorative. The bowls were so colourful that some suggested to use these as soup bowls. It was in 1880 that the toilet curtains made their appearance. The trend was called the age of "Belleepoque" in France and Edwardian (opulence) in England. During 1890 we had the first cantilever type of toilet. Since then the world has not witnessed any significant technical change except some change in shape of toilets and reduction in quantity of water per use. It was around 1900 that the institution of bathroom came in vogue in Europe. In India the institution of Gushalkhana (bathroom) was established by the Mughal Kings in 1665. Oppressed by the heat and dust the Kings constructed luxurious bathing and massage facilities. But this was only for the rich. The ordinary citizens however lived in insanitary conditions. Unlike in the past, when latrines were tucked away in attics to keep it away from nose and eye of the family and the society, In contrast the twentieth century, has given a pride of place to toilet in home-rather these are more opulent, more spacious than anytime in the past. While the provision of toilet in the house solved household problem of cleanliness but the challenge remained as to how to dispose of human waste at city level. This was also solved when the sewerage system was introduced. Houseman in 1858 , describes beautifully the sewerage system. He said that " the underground galleries which are the organs of the big city will work in the same way as organs of the body, without being reveled. Top
SANITARYWARE INDUSTRY IN INDIA:

India is a large, highly populated Country of around one billion people, with an economy, which is steadily growing. As per the study, there were an estimated 125 million dwellings in India (1995), but 200 million households. This reveals an acute housing shortage. The U.N. predicts an increase in the population of 1.6% per annum. There is a gradual migrant shift from rural to urban areas and 27% of the population now lives in urban areas as compared to 20% in 1971. There is a large difference in amenities between the urban population and the rural. In 1994, 70% of the urban population had access to adequate sanitation, whereas in the rural community only 14% had access.

In 1991, approximately 64% of urban households had some kind of toilet facility compared with 9% of the rural areas. There is a widening difference in income between different regions, the rich and the poor. Sanitation is a must for every individual of our society. According to the Government estimates, more than 50% of the urban population does not access to sanitation facilities. Condition of the rural areas abyssmal that only 6% of the population are covered by sanitation. Population Covered by Sanitation Facilities 1985 1990 0.7 2.4 28.4 45.9

sa Rural Urban Sanitaryware demand :

1997 6.4 49.3

Sanitaryware Industries in India for the last 6-7 years have shown very dramatic growth with major players doubling their production capacity. The Companies have also upgraded their manufacturing system by introducing Battery Casting, Beam Casting and have gone in for latest imported Fast Firing Cycle Kiln Technology. These Companies have also upgraded their quality and have introduced high value range in the market, which has been accepted and appreciated. The demand for high value Sanitaryware in India is growing very fast. The Companies are trying to meet the demand as the realization per Metric Ton for high value product is very good which ultimately results in good profitability. In order to educate the customers in India to go for quality products and also for higher value sanitarywares, companies have adopted a very aggressive advertisement campaign. Companies have also strengthened their dealer network by offering showroom incentives and some of the companies have also gone for their own retail outlets in major towns. The demand for Sanitarywares in India is growing @ 15% -17% every year. The sanitaryware industry in India is divided in two sectors. The organized sector consisting of 5 companies (M/s. Hindustan Sanitary Industries Limited, M/s. E.I.D. Parry, M/s. Swastik Sanitarywares Limited, M/s. Madhusudan Ceramics, M/s. Neycer India Limited), manufacturing sanitaryware for the last 15-20 years and have established their Brand image. The organized sectors produce fully vitrified sanitarywares, using latest technology and best of Ceramic Raw Materials available in India. The unorganized sectors have adopted local Indian technology to manufacture the basic sanitaryware products. Since the availability of raw material is in abundance and also very cheap in the state of Gujarat & Rajasthan, various companies have established their factory in these areas. They are producing the basic sanitaryware in various brands. Unorganized sector's percentage of production capacity and also their sales in the local domestic market are higher than that of the organized sectors' sales. Unorganized sanitaryware manufacturer comes under small sectors and hence enjoy the benefit of Nil Excise Duty and Sales Tax and hence they sell their products in the domestic market approximately 70% cheaper than the organized sector products. Government of India Policy on Housing Sector is very encouraging. The Government has announced Income Tax rebate on housing loan to boost the housing sector. All financial institutions are lending money for construction of house at a very low rate of interest. Government figure shows that Housing Sector is growing by approximately 25% every year. The need of Housing in India with 100 crores population looks to be very potential. As per DGTD Survey Report there is a shortage of about 20 million houses in the country by the end of 8th Five Year Plan. The housing has become a basic necessity, as people in India are looking forward for improved sanitary condition. The concept of making toilet is fast growing even in village areas, where toilet till last two years did not exist.

The cost of producing sanitaryware in India is substantially low as compared to the advance countries, because the labour cost and the basic raw materials for manufacturing quality sanitarywares is available at very cheap rate and in abundance. Because of our low cost of production, Indian sanitarywares are very competitive in the neighboring countries and hence export from India is also growing everyday. Demand Estimates : The total demand for sanitaryware in India for the organized manufacturers is at present approximately 80,000 M.T. per annum. The region wise demand pattern can be estimated as follows: NORTH SOUTH EAST WEST TOTAL 18,000 32,000 15,000 15,000 80,000 Note: Every year the above demand is expected to grow by 15 to 17%. Current Market Size: The Indian Sanitaryware market is worth around 500 crores for the year 2001-02 with an annual market size of around 8 million pieces. This represents a yearly growth rate of about 3-4%. Major players: Until the mid 1940s the only Sanitaryware available in India was imported mainly from UK and was used only in upper class residences in major cities. The first Sanitaryware manufactured in India was by M/s. Parasuram Pottery Works. In the 1960s, companies like EID Parry, in collaboration with Royal Doulton of UK and Hindustan Sanitaryware in collaboration with Twyford of UK, started production of Vitreous China Sanitaryware. Other major players who joined the organized sector were Madhusudan Ceramics and Neyveli Ceramics. In the 1980s, 7-8 other players had entered the organized sector, but most of them have since been taken over by the majors. The large foreign players like American Standard, Toto, Villeroy and Boch have also set up distribution channels in India. In addition to the branded products made by the above companies, there are a large number of small-scale units mainly in Thangad and Morbi districts of Gujarat. Concerns: It has been observed that many sanitaryware manufacturers in the small-scale sector do not manufacture ceramic sanitaryware to standard quality norms. Moreover some of these manufacturers use the word "Vitreous" along with their brand name whereas they do not meet the water absorption standards and thereby are misleading the consumers. Outlook for Sanitaryware Industry in India: In the next decade, India is expected to be one of the world's fastest growing countries for sanitaryware consumption. The sanitation penetration has more than trebled from 8% in 1982 to 18% in 1994 and to 29% in 1999. The comparative penetration levels in neighboring countries are as follows: Pakistan: 50%, Sri Lanka: 65%, Malaysia: 94% and Thailand: 96%.

The government impetus to improve hygiene and sanitation is likely to increase the demand for sanitaryware in India. Moreover the increasing urbanization of India and the consequent requirement for residential and commercial buildings will be a major driver for growth of sanitaryware. Along with this the focus of the central and state governments to provide housing facilities to the poor, is also expected to generate demand. The National Housing Policy formulation that envisages "Housing for all" by the end of Ninth Plan period is a big step towards this. Indira Awaas Yojana, Samgra Awaas Yojana are programs for providing housing to the rural poor is a key step taken by the government in this area. The housing development organizations like HUDCO, State Housing Development Boards and Rajiv Gandhi Rural Housing Corporation Ltd. are also playing a large role in this initiative. It is estimated that there is currently a demand for 20 million housing units in India. Further, a significant number of the 115 million housing units across the country will need reconstruction for improvement. Therefore a replacement market will emerge, though currently original equipment sanitaryware market accounts for nearly 90% of the market. Top
SANITARYWARE INDUSTRY STATISTICS:

1. World production: 187 Million pieces 2. India's Share: 6.7 Million pieces. 3. World ranking (in production): not in the Top 10 (India A/c for 3.30%) 4. Global Industry Growth Rate: 5-7% 5. Growth Rate (India Domestic Market): 10% 6. Organized sector: % Share of Production: 43% No. of units: 6 M.T. per annum Actual Production: 95000 M.T. per annum 7. Unorganized sector: % Share of Production: 57% annum Actual Production: 120000 M.T. per annum Production Capacity: 136700 M.T. per Production Capacity: 103300

Click on the links below to get: Graphical picture of Top 10 Sanitaryware Producing Countries Graphical picture of Production Capacities of Organized Players in India. Top
GEOGRAPHICAL PRESENCE:

Geographical Presence of Sanitaryware Industries in India

Geographical Presence of Sanitaryware Industries in India

Above map and Locations are not as per scale.

Indicates Presence of Sanitaryware industries

Geographical Presence of Ceramic Tile Industries in India

Above map and Locations are not as per scale.

Indicates presence of Ceramic Tiles Industries

Taken from website http://www.icctas.com/ceramictilesind.htm

Company Profile of H & R Johnson

H & R Johnson (India)

Established in 1958, H & R Johnson (India) is the market leader in the field of ceramic tiles in India. HRJ has consistently maintained its leadership position in the field of tiles over the past five decades. Today, HRJ enjoys the reputation of being the only company in India to offer end-to-end solutions of Tiles, Sanitaryware, Bath Fittings and Modular Kitchens. Under its flagship brand, Johnson, HRJ offers glazed wall and floor tiles, bath products, kitchens, laminate and engineered wooden flooring. Marbonite brand offers a complete range of vitrified tiles, and Endura offers outdoors and industrial tiles and tiles for special applications like bathrooms / high traffic areas / swimming pools etc. HRJ has recently launched top-end, premium range of products under Johnson Ceramics International brand. HRJ has a strong service network of technicians and engineers spread across the country. This network complements the range of bath products by offering various services like installation, trouble-shooting, repairs, and AMC. HRJ also has a toll-free customer helpline: 1-800-22-7484. HRJ's sales volume for the year 2010-11 was 43 million m2 of tiles and plans to achieve 90 million m2 by 2014-15. Mission Statement Vision Statement Improving Lifestyles of our customer by providing innovative products and services Core values Honesty, Integrity &Fairness. People as source of our strength. Passion for excellence. Teamwork. Enterpreunership. Performance growth Our unique growth profile, high brand pull and proven track record are symbolic of our strong performance. We are on a constant quest to make superior products through extensive research. The result is evident in the annual revenue of Rs. 1,500 crores in 201011. Our sales volume during the year crossed 43 million square meters. A robust production, infrastructure, distribution, sales network and the ability to predict, prepares us for future growth. The future is ours HRJ (India) has the largest distribution network in the industry, with 30 branch offices and 29 depots spread across India. The companys trade network comprises of over 1,000 dealers and 10,000 sub-dealers. The Institutional Sales Division specializes in servicing the large project requirements of large builders, developers and contractors. At present were targeting 30% growth of this network to the rural markets in India including Class B and C towns. The rural operation is expected to contribute 25% of the total turnover.

Our subsidiary, H. & R. Johnson (India) TBK Limited, focuses on modern retail channel. The House of Johnson showrooms showcase the complete range of products for the upper and upper-mid segment of market, while Tile Bazaar is targeted towards to the lower-mid segment.

Journey of H& R Johnson so far Plz refer the document Journey so far.

Infrastructure

Our Presence
Our distribution network is the largest in the country comprising of 1300 dealers and 15,000 sub-dealers spread across the length and breadth of the country. In addition, we also have 30 branches offices and 39 depots that give us a tremendous reach in the marketplace.

Worldwide Presence
Our association with Johnson Ceramic International ensures that consumers can find our tiles across the world. Our products are sold in all continents of the world and we take pride that the Johnson name is globally associated with high quality design led products.

Our Manufacturing Units


We have the most modern manufacturing plants located at Dewas, Pen, Kunigal and Karaikal, employing the best of technologies from world leaders in tile manufacturing machinery. All our plants are ISO compliant with both 9001, 14001 certifications, as well as OHSAS 18001, which is given for excellence in safety standards. Products By Brands Johnson Tiles Johnson Bath Johnson Kitchen Johnson Woodenza Johnson Cristal

Marbonite Endura By Spaces Living Room Bedroom Outdoor Bathroom Kitchen Plants

DEWAS
H & R Johnson (India) Industrial Area No. 2, A. B. Road, Dewas 455 001 Madhya Pradesh

KUNIGAL
H & R Johnson (India) Plot No. 1 12, KIADB Industrial Area, Near Anchepalya Village Kunigal, Dist. Tumkur, Karnataka 572 130

PEN
H & R Johnson (India) Village Ghadab, Khar Devli, Goa Road, Taluka Pen, Dist. Raigad, Maharashtra 402 107

KARAIKAL
H & R Johnson (India) Plot No. 143, Thirunallar, Ambagarathur, Thennangudi, Sellur, Karaikal 609 607

BADDI
H & R Johnson (India) LTD. C/o Sri Venkateshwara Udyog Private Limited, Industrial Township, Phase 4, Plot No. 30, Himuda, Bhatoli Kalan, Tahsil Nalagarh, Distt. - Solan Baddi, Himachal Pradesh. Tel: +91 98166 48022 / 98166 61881 Exclusive Showrooms North Noida Chandigarh Jaipur Lucknow Gurgaon Delhi South Bangalore 1 Bangalore 2 Calicut Chennai Ernakulam Hubli Hyderabad Madurai Trichy Vizag East Bhubaneshwar Kolkata Patna West Mumbai Thane Navi Mumbai Pune Pune PCMC Solapur Ahmedabad Indore

Jalgaon Aurangabad Nashik Press Release Corporate Communication and Media Contact

H & R Johnson ties-up with IIID to drive InnovationsMay 2012 JBD Turboflow_TOIMay 2012 Financial Chronicle-Johnson launches bath enclosures, JacuzziMay 2012 Interiors and Decor Design beyond limits-NationalMay 2012 Interiors and Decor Stonex - wall tile collection by Johnson-NationalMay 2012 Andhra Jyoti Johnson Store is a milestone in cityApril 2012 Eenadu H R Johnson store in cityApril 2012 Evening PostJohnson Bath Gallery launched JaipurApril 2012 Surya Johnson retail expansion in AP HyderabadApril 2012 Morning News Johnson Bath Gallery at Saraswati JaipurApril 2012 Nafa Nuksan Johnson Bath Gallery at Saraswati JaipurApril 2012 Rashtradoot Johnson Bath Gallery at Saraswati JaipurApril 2012 Vir Arjun Johnson Bath Gallery at Saraswati JaipurApril 2012 Stonex_AfternoonDCApril 2012 Bengal Post Launch Pad-KolkataApril 2012 Times Of India-Timeless AppealApril 2012 Times Of India Cast in stone-MumbaiApril 2012 HR Johnson launches Stonex wall tile collection-BangaloreApril 2012 Ananda Bazar PatrikaJohnson's Stonex wall tile collection-KolkataApril 2012 Nav Bharat Johnson launches stonex wall tile collection-GwaliorApril 2012 Nav Bharat Johnson launches stonex wall tile collection-GwaliorApril 2012 Construction WorldIntellimate and luxuriousNationalApril 2012 Construction WorldNew Age Design NationalApril 2012 Construction WorldThunder rain showers NationalApril 2012 Adding An Edge_Construction WorldApril 2012 Dainik BhaskarJohnson launches stonex wall tiles collection UdaipurMarch 2012 Desh abhimani Johnson Stonex Wall Tiles-KochiMarch 2012 Sambad Johnson stoex wall tile collection-OrissaMarch 2012 Deccan ChronicleStonex range of wall tile-ChennaiMarch 2012 India Today Home Gloss Galore NationalMarch 2012 Jagran HR Johnson expand Business in Punjab ChandigarhMarch 2012 Dainik Bhaskar Johnson launches stonex wall tiles collection-UdaipurMarch 2012 Desh abhimani Johnson Stonex Wall Tiles KochiMarch 2012 Dainik Bhaskar Johnson launches stonex wall tiles collection UdaipurMarch 2012 Deccan ChronicleStonex range of wall tile Chennai March 2012 Pioneer Launched VaranasiMarch 2012 Business Deepika Johnson launches stonex wall tiles collections KochiMarch 2012

Orissa Today Johnson launches stonex wall tiles collection OrissaMarch 2012 Aaj HR Johnson launches stonex tiles VaranasiMarch 2012 The Tribune HR Johnson's new stonex wall collection ChandigarhMarch 2012 Mangalam Johnson launches stonex tiles KochiMarch 2012 Rashtriya SaharaHR Johnson launches stonex tile collection-VaranasiMarch 2012 Punjab Kesari HR Johnson store opens ChandigarhMarch 2012 Business Standard HR Johnson opens first outlet in Chandigarh ChandigarhMarch 2012 Mathrubhumi Johnson Stonex Wall Tiles KochiMarch 2012 The Hindu Tiles BangaloreMarch 2012 The Hindu - Metro Plus Natural Wall ChennaiMarch 2012 Financial Chronicle HR Johnson's new Stonex wall tile collection-MumbaiMarch 2012 The New Indian Express - Property Express Feel one with nature with Johnson's Latest Stonex Wall Tile Collection ChennaiMarch 2012 March 2012 Building and Construction Marbonite GVT Infinity Series NationalMarch 2012 Pudhari House of Johnson store in AurangabadMarch 2012 Divya Marathi Johnson store in town AurangabadMarch 2012 Tarun Bharat First Johnson kitchen store in town AurangabadMarch 2012 Daily Gaonkari-HR Johnson (India) scales up retail distribution in Maharashtra AurangabadMarch 2012 Sanjwarta HR Johnson (India) scales up retail distribution in MaharashtraAurangabadMarch 2012 DNA Property Get floored by brown beauty- MumbaiMarch 2012 Febraury Buildotech Infinity Concepts NationalMarch 2012 Tarun Mitra-HR Johnson (India) scales up retail distribution in UPLucknowFebruary 2012 Hindustan Times-Exclusive Johnson store launched in LucknowLucknowFebruary 2012 Hindustan TimesStain-proof tiles from HR Johnson IndiaMumbaiFebruary 2012 The New Indian Express - Indulge Mabronite GVT Infinity Chennai (2)February 2012 Gujarat Samachar HR Johnson forays into engineered marble quartz business AhmedabadFebruary 2012 Aaj-HR Johnson (India) scales up retail distribution in UP LucknowFebruary 2012 Daily News-HR Johnson (India) scales up retail distribution in UPLucknowFebruary 2012 Mangalam HR Johnson launches Glazed vitrified -GVTKochiFebruary 2012 New AgeHR Johnson launched Glazed Vitrified -GVTFebruary 2012 Patrika-Marbonite GVT Infinity series fuses infinite concepts inspired from nature to add style to interior spacesFebruary 2012 NaiduniaMarbonite_GVT_Infinity_series_fuses__infinite_concepts_inspired_from_nature_t o_add_style_to_interior_spaces_RaipurFebruary 2012

RASHTRIYA_SAHARAMarbonite_GVT_Infinity_series_fuses__infinite_concepts_inspired_from_nature_t o_add_style_to_interior_spacesFebruary 2012 Engineering_and_Construction_ReviewPrism_cement_managing_directorVijay_A ggarwal_awarded_most_innovative_corporate_leader_of_the_year_by_Power_Bra nd-NationalFebruary 2012 Mathrubhumi HR Johnson launches Glazed Vitrified -GVTKochiFebruary 2012 Gujarat_Niti-HR_Johnson_forays_into_engineered_marble quartzFebruary 2012 The_Economic_TimesHR_Johnson_enters_Marble__Quartz_BusinessFebruary 2012 AAJMarbonite_GVT_Infinity_series_fuses__infinite_concepts_inspired_from_nature_t o_add_style_to_interior_spacesFebruary 2012 Swadesh Marbonite_GVT_Infinity_series_fuses__infinite_concepts_inspired_from_nature_t o_add_style_to_interior_spaces-BhopalFebruary 2012 Chattisgarh_watch Marbonite_GVT_Infinity_series_fuses__infinite_concepts_inspired_from_nature_t o_add_style_to_interior_spaces-RaipurFebruary 2012 Divya Bhaksar-HR Johnson launches new unit in state worth Rs 50 crore -AhmedabadFebruary 2012 DNA HR Johnson sees realty reviving by monsoon- AhemdabadFebruary 2012 Business_Standard HR_Johnson_forays_into_engineered_marblequartzFebruary 2012 Financial_ChronicleHR_Johnson_forays_into_engineered_marbleFebruary 2012 HItavadaHR Johnson forays into engineered marblequartz-BhopalFebruary 2012 Hindu Business LineHR Johnson's 3rd venture in Gujurat to start production soonMumbai PuneFebruary 2012 Orissa Today - Johnson woodenza plans business scale-up through franchisee route to drive market penetration BhubaneshwarFebruary 2012 Aaj Kal Woodenza-KolkataFebruary 2012 Hindu Business Line Johnson Woodenza to expand networkFebruary 2012 Apni dunia Marbonite GVT Infinity series fuses infinite concepts inspired from nature to add style to interior spaces-IndoreFebruary 2012 Evening post Marbonite GVT Infinity series fuses infinite concepts inspired from nature to add style to interior spaces-JaipurFebruary 2012 Dainik_BhaskarMarbonite_GVT_Infinity_series_fuses__infinite_concepts_inspired _from_nature_to_add_style_to_interior_spacesFebruary 2012 Blackbook,Glamourising the Bathroom,NationalJanuary 2012 Pudhari,H&R Johnson in Maharashtra,PuneJanuary 2012 Navshakti,H&R Johnson's aggressive expansion in Mumbai,MumbaiJanuary 2012 Loksatta,Prism cement in luxury business,PuneJanuary 2012 Agnibaan,H&R Johnson forays into luxury business,IndoreJanuary 2012 News Today,H&R Johnson in State,IndoreJanuary 2012 Financial Chronicle,KIWA's Amber range of modular kitchens,MumbaiJanuary 2012

The Bengal Post- HR Johnson to set up Durgapur unit KolkataJanuary 2012 Dainik Bhaskar, H&R Johnson in Punjab, ChandigarhJanuary 2012 Financial World, H&R Johnson begins roll out of luxury products in Punjab, ChandigarhJanuary 2012 H&R Johnson starts luxury business in Punjab, Punjab Kesari, ChandigarhJanuary 2012 Divya Bhaskar HR Johnson's luxury roll-out MumbaiJanuary 2012 Gujarat Samachar HR Johnson's luxury roll-out MumbaiJanuary 2012 Rajasthan Patrika HR Johnson expansion in state JaipurJanuary 2012 Hindustan Times EstateHR Johnson's new sanitary product MumbaiJanuary 2012 The HinduHR Johnson to trap prospects in state ChennaiJanuary 2012 H&R Johnson rolls out luxury bathroom productsthehindubusinessline.com/January 2012 Aaj HR Johnson to start new business LucknowJanuary 2012 Sanmarg HR Johnson in West Bengal Pg- 7 KolkattaJanuary 2012 urya - Market roll-out of super-premium productsJanuary 2012 Times of India - Home trends article by Mr Vijay AggarwalJanuary 2012 Better Interiors, IntellimateJanuary 2012 Better Interiors, Thunder Rain ShowersJanuary 2012 Design Matrix,Toilet seatJanuary 2012 Mid-day_MumbaiJanuary 2012 Elle DecorDecember 2011 Better InteriorDecember 2011 The New Indian Express - Acetech2011December 2011 Financial Chronicle - launches intellimateDecember 2011 ACE UpdateDecember 2011 Hindu Business LineNovember 2011 SwadeshNovember 2011 NayadeshNovember 2011 Samachar JagatNovember 2011 Apni DuniaNovember 2011 BBC Good Homes - Engineered WoodOctober 2011 Society InteriorsOctober 2011 Ideal Home & GardenOctober 2011 B2B Purchase, Pg 98 October 2011 Better InteriorsSeptember 2011 Bengal Post, Kolkata September 2011 Eenadu, HyderabadSeptember 2011 Hindu Business LineSeptember 2011 Construction World - Rain DanceSeptember 2011 Financial World-Johnson GVTSeptember 2011 Afternoon Despatch & Courier 26-Mar'11July 2011 Express Hopitality 16-31 Mar'11July 2011 Society Interiors HEALTHY LivingApril 2011 The Hindu, Apr 16, 2011April 2011 The_New_Indian_Express_Bangalore_08-Apr'11April 2011

Ideal Home & Garden, April 2011April 2011 India Today Homes - April 2011April 2011 Wedding Affair, April 11April 2011 Society Interiors, April 11April 2011 Express HospitalityMarch 2011 Times_Journal_of_Construction_&_Design_Mar'11March 2011 The WeekFebruary 2011 Good Homes India - Smart Living Awards January 2011 Times Property (TOI) - Products January 2011 Afternoon - Mumbai's first one-stop shop for Kitchen, bathroom needs January 2011 Living ETC - Style Your Tiles December 2010 Living ETC - Slice of LifeDecember 2010 Better Interiors - H&R Johnson gets personal December 2010 Living ETC - Ideas to Steal December 2010 Economic Times - Vijay Agarwal CMD H&R Johnson November 2010 Living ETC - A Tough One November 2010 Express Hospitality - Johnson Digital November 2010 Design Today - Interior Finishes November 2010 Times of India - H&R Johnson November 2010 India Today (Homes) - Tile tales November 2010 Ideal Home And Garden - Digital Preferences November 2010 Economic Times - Tiles, Marble, Ceramic & Others November 2010 Living ETC - The Right Fit September 2010 Architect & Interiors India - Shower Power September 2010 India Today (Home) - Tile files August 2010 IFJ, Nov-Dec 2010August 2010

Reference http://www.hrjohnsonindia.com/ Organisation Structure of Thane Branch Office Departments and their work Recruitment Training Orientation Program Employee Promotion Record maintenance Statuatory Facilities Leave Half Day leave Conveyance allowance Uniform

Transfer Retirement Benefits Medical Facilities Canteen Facilities Production department Marketing Department Power Channel of distribution Study on Employee Job Satisfaction at Liberty Garments About Garment Industry Introduction: About GIDC: Use of Computers in Garment Industry Garment Industry In India Current Scenario Indian Garment Export Industry Latest Trends in Garment and textile Sector Company Profile Chapter 1 Introduction Job satisfaction Determinants of Job Satisfaction Individual Factors Level of Education Age Other Factors Nature of Job 1Occupational level 2Job Content Situational Variables 1Working Condition 2Supervision 3Equitable Rewards 4Opportunity for promotion 5Work Group

Effect of Job Satisfaction Physical and mental health Productivity Abseenteism Employee turnover Improving Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction is influenced by Opportunity Stress Leadership Work Standards Fair Rewards Adequate Authority Statement of the problem A Study on employee job satisfaction Objectives 1 To know the satisfaction level towards peers and superiors. 2. To study the level of satisfaction towards his salary and also other benefits which are provided by the company? 3To study the ESI Facilities and safety measures which are provided by the company. 4To Suggest the company about the measures to be taken for more employee satisfaction. Research Design and methodology Sampling method The 2 major methods are probability and non probability sampling techniques.The study requires probability method since the sample was chosen random http://www.slideshare.net/hemanthcrpatna/study-on-employee-job-satisfaction-at-libertygarments

The Chi Square Statistic


Types of Data:
There are basically two types of random variables and they yield two types of data: numerical and categorical. A chi square (X ) statistic is used to investigate whether distributions of categorical variables differ from one another. Basically categorical variable yield data in the categories and numerical variables yield data in numerical form. Responses to such questions as "What is your major?" or Do you own a car?" are categorical because they yield data such as "biology" or "no." In contrast, responses to such
2

questions as "How tall are you?" or "What is your G.P.A.?" are numerical. Numerical data can be either discrete or continuous. The table below may help you see the differences between these two variables. Data Type Categorical Numerical Numerical Question Type What is your sex? Disrete- How many cars do you own? Continuous - How tall are you? Possible Responses male or female two or three 72 inches

Notice that discrete data arise fom a counting process, while continuous data arise from a measuring process. The Chi Square statistic compares the tallies or counts of categorical responses between two (or more) independent groups. (note: Chi square tests can only be used on actual numbers and not on percentages, proportions, means, etc.)

2 x 2 Contingency Table
There are several types of chi square tests depending on the way the data was collected and the hypothesis being tested. We'll begin with the simplest case: a 2 x 2 contingency table. If we set the 2 x 2 table to the general notation shown below in Table 1, using the letters a, b, c, and d to denote the contents of the cells, then we would have the following table: Table 1. General notation for a 2 x 2 contingency table. Variable 1 Variable 2 Data type 1 Data type 2 Totals Category 1 a b a+b Category 2 c d c+d Total a+c b+d a+b+c+d=N For a 2 x 2 contingency table the Chi Square statistic is calculated by the formula:

Note: notice that the four components of the denominator are the four totals from the table columns and rows. Suppose you conducted a drug trial on a group of animals and you hypothesized that the animals receiving the drug would survive better than those that did not receive the drug. You conduct the study and collect the following data: Ho: The survival of the animals is independent of drug treatment.

Ha: The survival of the animals is associated with drug treatment.

Table 2. Number of animals that survived a treatment. Dead Alive Total Treated 36 14 50 Not 30 25 55 treated Total 66 39 105 Applying the formula above we get: Chi square = 105[(36)(25) - (14)(30)] / (50)(55)(39)(66) = 3.418
2

Before we can proceed we eed to know how many degrees of freedom we have. When a comparison is made between one sample and another, a simple rule is that the degrees of freedom equal (number of columns minus one) x (number of rows minus one) not counting the totals for rows or columns. For our data this gives (2-1) x (2-1) = 1. We now have our chi square statistic (x = 3.418), our predetermined alpha level of significalnce (0.05), and our degrees of freedom (df =1). Entering the Chi square distribution table with 1 degree of freedom and reading along the row we find our value of x (3.418) lies between 2.706 and 3.841. The corresponding probability is 0.10<P<0.05. This is below the conventionally accepted significance level of 0.05 or 5%, so the null hypothesis that the two distributions are the same is verified. In other words, when the computed x statistic exceeds the critical value in the table for a 0.05 probability level, then we can reject the null hypothesis of equal distributions. Since our x statistic (3.418) did not exceed the critical value for 0.05 probability level (3.841) we can accept the null hypothesis that the survival of the animals is independent of drug treatment (i.e. the drug had no effect on survival).
2 2 2 2

Table 3. Chi Square distribution table. probability level (alpha)


Df 1 2 3 4 0.5 0.10 0.05 0.02 5.412 7.824 9.837 0.01 6.635 9.210 0.001 10.827 13.815

0.455 2.706 3.841 1.386 4.605 5.991 2.366 6.251 7.815 3.357 7.779 9.488

11.345 16.268

11.668 13.277 18.465

4.351 9.236 11.070 13.388 15.086 20.517

To make the chi square calculations a bit easier, plug your observed and expected values into the following applet. Click on the cell and then enter the value. Click the compute button on the lower right corner to see the chi square value printed in the lower left hand coner.

--> Note: Some earlier versions of Netscape for the Macintosh do not support java 1.1 and if you are using one of these browsers you will not see the applet.

Chi Square Goodness of Fit (One Sample Test)


This test allows us to compae a collection of categorical data with some theoretical expected distribution. This test is often used in genetics to compare the results of a cross with the theoretical distribution based on genetic theory. Suppose you preformed a simpe monohybrid cross between two individuals that were heterozygous for the trait of interest. Aa x Aa The results of your cross are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Results of a monohybrid coss between two heterozygotes for the 'a' gene. A 10 33 43 a 42 15 57 Totals 52 48 100

A a Totals

The penotypic ratio 85 of the A type and 15 of the a-type (homozygous recessive). In a monohybrid cross between two heterozygotes, however, we would have predicted a 3:1 ratio of phenotypes. In other words, we would have expected to get 75 A-type and 25 atype. Are or resuls different?

Calculate the chi square statistic x by completing the following steps:


2

1. For each observed number in the table subtract the corresponding expected number (O E). 2. Square the difference [ (O E) ]. 3. Divide the squares obtained for each cell in the table by the expected number for that cell [ (O - E) / E ]. 4. Sum all the values for (O - E) / E. This is the chi square statistic.
2 2 2

For our example, the calculation would be:


Observed Expected (O E) (O E)2 (O E)2/ E

Atype

85

75

10

100

1.33

a-type 15 Total 100

25 100

10

100

4.0 5.33 x2 = 5.33

We now have our chi square statistic (x = 5.33), our predetermined alpha level of significalnce (0.05), and our degrees of freedom (df =1). Entering the Chi square distribution table with 1 degree of freedom and reading along the row we find our value of x 5.33) lies between 3.841 and 5.412. The corresponding probability is 0.05<P<0.02. This is smaller than the conventionally accepted significance level of 0.05 or 5%, so the null hypothesis that the two distributions are the same is rejected. In other words, when the computed x statistic exceeds the critical value in the table for a 0.05 probability level, then we can reject the null hypothesis of equal distributions. Since our x2 statistic (5.33) exceeded the critical value for 0.05 probability level (3.841) we can reject the null hypothesis that the observed values of our cross are the same as the theoretical distribution of a 3:1 ratio.
2 2 2

Table 3. Chi Square distribution table. probability level (alpha)


Df 1 0.5 0.10 0.05 0.02 5.412 0.01 6.635 0.001 10.827

0.455 2.706 3.841

2 3 4 5

1.386 4.605 5.991 2.366 6.251 7.815 3.357 7.779 9.488

7.824 9.837

9.210

13.815

11.345 16.268

11.668 13.277 18.465

4.351 9.236 11.070 13.388 15.086 20.517

To put this into context, it means that we do not have a 3:1 ratio of A_ to aa offspring. To make the chi square calculations a bit easier, plug your observed and expected values into the following java applet. Click on the cell and then enter the value. Click the compute button on the lower right corner to see the chi square value printed in the lower left hand coner.

--> Note: Some versions of Netscape for the Macintosh do not support java 1.1 and if you are using one of these browsers you will not see the applet.

Chi Square Test of Independence


For a contingency table that has r rows and c columns, the chi square test can be thought of as a test of independence. In a test ofindependence the null and alternative hypotheses are: Ho: The two categorical variables are independent. Ha: The two categorical variables are related. We can use the equation Chi Square = the sum of all the (fo - fe) / fe
2

Here fo denotes the frequency of the observed data and fe is the frequency of the expected values. The general table would look something like the one below: Category Category Category I II III Sample A a b c Sample B d e f Row Totals a+b+c d+e+f

Sample C Column Totals

g a+d+g

h b+e+h

i c+f+i

g+h+i a+b+c+d+e+f+g+h+i=N

Now we need to calculate the expected values for each cell in the table and we can do that using the the row total times the column total divided by the grand total (N). For example, for cell a the expected value would be (a+b+c)(a+d+g)/N. Once the expected values have been calculated for each cell, we can use the same procedure are before for a simple 2 x 2 table. Observed Expected |O (O E)2 E|
(O E)2/ E

Suppose you have the following categorical data set. Table . Incidence of three types of malaria in three tropical regions. South Asia Africa Totals America Malaria 31 14 45 90 A Malaria 2 5 53 60 B Malaria 53 45 2 100 C Totals 86 64 100 250

We could now set up the following table: Observed 31 14 45 2 5 53 53 45 2 Expected 30.96 23.04 36.00 20.64 15.36 24.00 34.40 25.60 40.00 |O -E| 0.04 9.04 9.00 18.64 10.36 29.00 18.60 19.40 38.00
(O E)2 (O E)2/ E

0.0016 81.72 81.00 347.45 107.33 841.00 345.96 376.36 1444.00

0.0000516 3.546 2.25 16.83 6.99 35.04 10.06 14.70 36.10

Chi Square = 125.516 Degrees of Freedom = (c - 1)(r - 1) = 2(2) = 4 Table 3. Chi Square distribution table. probability level (alpha)
Df 1 2 3 4 5 0.5 0.10 0.05 0.02 5.412 7.824 9.837 0.01 6.635 9.210 0.001 10.827 13.815

0.455 2.706 3.841 1.386 4.605 5.991 2.366 6.251 7.815 3.357 7.779 9.488

11.345 16.268

11.668 13.277 18.465

4.351 9.236 11.070 13.388 15.086 20.517

Reject Ho because 125.516 is greater than 9.488 (for alpha = 0.05) Thus, we would reject the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between location and type of malaria. Our data tell us there is a relationship between type of malaria and location, but that's all it says. Follow the link below to access a java-based program for calculating Chi Square statistics for contingency tables of up to 9 rows by 9 columns. Enter the number of row and colums in the spaces provided on the page and click the submit button. A new form will appear asking you to enter your actual data into the cells of the contingency table. When finished entering your data, click the "calculate now" button to see the results of your Chi Square analysis. You may wish to print this last page to keep as a record.

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