Basic Civil Engineering

Basic Civil Engineering
Basic civil engineering

Lecture notes
(For students of SKCT)
Complied by
Dr.R.Venkatasubramani Dr.P.Muthupriya Mr.S.Praveenkumar
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

R.Ventakasubramani/P.Muthupriya /S.Praveenkumar-SKCT
SRI KRISHNA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY KOVAIPUDUR, COIMBATORE-42
UNIT-1 CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Uses of stones- Tests for stone qualities of good building stone- Composition of brickComparison of brick work & stone work Manufacturing of brick- Tests for brickComposition of cement- Properties of cement- Manufacturing of cement- Test for cementTypes of sand- proportioning of concrete- Workability- curing of concrete - Tests on concrete-properties of mild steel Stones Stone is a naturally available building material which has been used from the early age of civilization. It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used as building block. It has been used to construct small residential buildings to large palaces and temples all over the world. Red Fort, TajMahal, VidhanSabha at Bangalore and several palaces of medieval age all over India are the famous stone buildings.
Type of Stones Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways: Geological Classification Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groupsIgneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their molten magmatic condition of the material of the earth. Generally igneous rocks are strong and durable. Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks belonging to this category; Granites are formed by slow cooling of the lava under thick cover on the top.
Geological Physical Chemical
Hence they have crystalline surface. The cooling of lava at the top surface of earth results into non-crystalline and glassy texture. Trap and basalt belong to this category. Sedimentary Rocks: Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks disintegrates. The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the water being most powerful medium. Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some points of obstacles to its flow. These deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressure and by heat. Chemical agents also contribute to the cementing of the deposits. The rocks thus formed are more uniform, fine grained and compact in their nature. They represent a bedded or stratified structure in general. Sand stones, lime stones, mud stones etc. belong to this class of rock. Metamorphic Rocks: Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo changes due to metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat. For example due to metamorphic action granite becomes greisses, trap and basalt change to schist and laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand stone becomes quartzite and mud stone becomes slate.
Physical Classification Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as: Stratified rocks Unstratified rocks Foliated rocks
Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of stratification or cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the examples of this class of stones.
Unstratified Rocks: These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of rocks.
Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only. The direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.
Chemical Classification On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as: Siliceous rocks Argillaceous rocks and Calcareous rocks
Siliceous rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc. Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of this type of rocks.
Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.
Properties of Stones The following properties of the stones should be looked into before selecting them for engineering works: Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works. Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable. Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings. Appearance: A stone with uniform and attractive color is durable, if grains are compact. Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in buildings. Strength: Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building block. Indian standard code recommends a minimum crushing strength of 3.5
N/mm2 for any building block. Table 1.1 shows the crushing strength of various stones. Due to non-uniformity of the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used to find the permissible stress in a stone. Hence even laterite can be used safely for a single storey building, because in such structures expected load can hardly give a stress of 0.15 N/mm2. However in stone masonry buildings care should be taken to check the stresses when the beams (Concentrated Loads) are placed on laterite wall.
Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in Dorys testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used. Percentage wear: It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be considered in selecting aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear of more than 2%. Porosity and Absorption: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reactions of water with material of stone cause disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5. Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good weather resistance should be used for face works. Toughness: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test. Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness
indexes 13 to 19 are considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones. Resistance to Fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are good in resisting fire. Ease in Dressing: Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent. Dressing is easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather than high strength while selecting stones for building works. Seasoning: The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of the stone improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of removing moisture from pores is called seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to allow it to the action of nature for 6 to 12 months. This is very much required in the case of laterite stones.
Requirements of Good Building Stones The following are the requirements of good building stones: Strength: The stone should be able to resist the load coming on it. Ordinarily this is not of primary concern since all stones are having good strength. However in case of large structure, it may be necessary to check the strength. Durability: Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces like wind, rain and heat. Hardness: The stone used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by movement of men and materials over them. Toughness: Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations. The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads moving over them. The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough. Specific Gravity: Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbors. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.
Porosity and Absorption: Building stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain water enters into the pour and reacts with stone and crumbles it. In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place and it results into the disintegration of the stone. Dressing: Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so that the cost of dressing is reduced. However the care should be taken so that, this is not be at the cost of the required strength and the durability. Appearance: In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary requirement, its color and ability to receive polish is an important factor. Seasoning: Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Laterite stones should not be used for 6 to 12 months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the action of nature. This process of removing quarry sap is called seasoning. Cost: Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of the quarry to building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones comes down. However it may be noted that not a single stone can satisfy all the requirements of a good building stones, since one requirement may contradict another. For example, strength and durability requirement contradicts ease of dressing requirement. Hence it is necessary that site engineer looks into the properties required for the intended work and selects the stone. Dressing of stone A quarried stone has rough surfaces, which are dressed to obtain a definite and regular shape. Dressing of stones is done immediately after quarrying and before seasoning to achieve less weight for transportation. Dressing of stone provides pleasing appearance, proper bedding with good mortar joints, special shapes for arches, copings, pillars, etc. The various types of dressed stones are shown in Figure.
Stone dressing tools The dressing tools are shown in Figure. They are wedge, pitching tool, boaster, scabbing hammer, mash hammer, separated pick, punch, scabbing pick, crow bar, axe punch, dressing knife, splitting chisel.
Tests on Stones To ascertain the required properties of stones, the following tests can be conducted: Crushing strength test Water absorption test Abrasion test
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Impact test Acid test. Hardness test Fire resistance test Attrition test Smiths test Crystallization test Microscopic test Freezing and thawing test
Crushing Strength Test: For conducting this test, specimens of size 40 40 40 mm are prepared from parent stone. Then the sides are finely dressed and placed in water for 3 days. The saturated specimen is provided with a layer of plaster of Paris on its top and bottom surfaces to get even surface so that load applied is distributed uniformly. Uniform load distribution can be obtained satisfactorily by providing a pair of 5 mm thick plywood instead of using plaster of Paris layer also. The specimen so placed in the compression testing machine is loaded at the rate of 14 N/mm2 per minute. The crushing load is noted. Then crushing strength is equal to the crushing load divided by the area over which the load is applied. At least three specimens should be tested and the average should be taken as crushing strength. Water Absorption Test: For this test cube specimen weighing about 50 grams are prepared and the test is carried out in the steps given below: Note the weight of dry specimen as W1.
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Place the specimen in water for 24 hours. Take out the specimen, wipe out the surface with a piece of cloth and weigh the specimen. Let its weight be W2. Suspend the specimen freely in water and weight it. Let its weight be W3. Place the specimen in boiling water for 5 hours. Then take it out, wipe the surface with Cloth and weigh it. Let this weight be W4. Then,
Abrasion Test: This test is carried out on stones which are used as aggregates for road construction. The test result indicates the suitability of stones against the grinding action under traffic. Any one of the following test may be conducted to find out the suitability of aggregates: Los Angeles abrasion test Deval abrasion test Dorrys abrasion test. However Los Angeles abrasion test is preferred since these test results are having good correlation with the performance of the pavements. The Los Angeles apparatus [Fig.] consists of a hollow cylinder 0.7 m inside diameter and 0.5 m long with both ends closed. It is mounted on a
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frame so that it can be rotated about horizontal axis. IS code has standardized the test procedure for different gradation of specimen. Along with specified weight of specimen a specified number of cast iron balls of 48 mm diameter are placed in the cylinder.
Then the cylinder is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33 rpm for specified number of times (500 to 1000). Then the aggregate is removed and sieved on 1.7 mm. IS sieve. The weight of aggregate passing is found. Then Los Angeles value is found as
The following values are recommended for road works: For bituminous mixes 30% For base course 50% Impact Test: The resistance of stones to impact is found by conducting tests in impacting testing machine (Fig.). It consists of a frame with guides in which a metal hammer weighing 13.5 to15 kg can freely fall from a height of 380 mm.
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Aggregates of size 10 mm to 12.5 mm are filled in cylinder in 3 equal layers; each layer being tamped 25 times. The same is then transferred to the cup and again tamped 25 times. The hammer is then allowed to fall freely on the specimen 15 times. The specimen is then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve. Then,
Where W2 = weight of fines W1 = original weight. The recommended impact values for various works are: (i) (ii) (iii) for wearing course >/ 30% for bituminous macadam >/ 35% for water bound macadam >/ 40%
Acid Test: This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the presence of calcium carbonate, which weakens the weather resisting quality. In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken and kept in a solution of one per cent hydrochloric acid for seven days. The solution is agitated at intervals. A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface intact. If edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it indicates the presence of calcium carbonate. Such stones will have poor weather resistance.
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Hardness test: Hardness of a stone is tested by a pen knife which will not be able to produce a scratch on a hard stone (like granite) Hardness is determined with the aid of mohs scale of hardness. If a pocket knife makes a mark on a fresh surface of a stone say on limestone ,the hardness of that limestone may be taken as H=3, a scratch with the aid of a finger nail indicates a harness of H=2. Hard siliceous rock which cannot be scratched by a knife represents a hardness of H=7.
The hardness test, for finding out the coefficient of hardness is carried out as follows: A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from the sample of stone. It is then weighed It is placed in Dorrys testing machine and pressed with a load of 1250 gm. The annular steel disc of the machine is then rotated at a speed of 28 r.p.m During rotation, coarse sand of standard specification is sprinkled on top of the disc. After 1000 revolution ,the specimen is taken out and weighed Coefficient of hardness is found out from the following equation: Coefficient of hardness=20-(loss in weight in gm/3) Fire resistance test: The stone which is free calcium carbonate can resist fire .the presence of calcium carbonate in the stone can be detected by dropping a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid which will produce bubbles. Attrition test: The attrition test is carried out to determine the rate of wear of stones employed for the construction of road. This test also known as abrasion test is carried out in Devals attrition testing machine as follows: The sample of stone is broken into pieces of about 60 mm size. Such pieces, weighing 50N, are then put in both the cylinders of Devals attrition testing machine. The diameter and length of cylinders are 200 mm and 340 mm respectively.
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The cylinders are then closed, their axes making an angle of 30 degree with the horizontal. The cylinders are rotated about the horizontal axis for 5 hours at the rate of 30 r.p.m. The contents are then taken out from the cylinders and passed through a size of 1.5 mm mesh. The quantity of material which is retained on the sieve is then weighed. The percentage wear is worked out as follows: Percentage wear = (Loss in weight/Initial weight)/100
Smiths test: This test indicates the presence of earthly matter. The sample of the stone is broken into small pieces and put into a test tube containing clear water. The test tube is then shaken vigorously; the dirty color will show the presence of argillaceous matter. Crystallization test: This test determines the durability or weathering quality of a stone. A sample of stone is immersed in the solution of sodium sulphate at room temperature and dried in hot air. The process of wetting and drying is carried out for two hours; the difference in weight if any is recorded .little differences in weight indicates durability and good weathering quality of the stone. Microscopic test: This is essentially a geologists test. In this test, the sample of stone is subjected to microscopic examination to study the following properties: Mineral constituents Texture of stone Average grain size Nature of cementing material Existence of fissures,pores,veins and shakes
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Presence of any harmful substance etc. The fractured surface of a durable stone should be bright, clean and sharp with grains well commented together. Stone likely to decay shows a dull earthy appearance. Freezing and thawing test: This test is carried out as follows: The specimen of stone is kept immersed in water for 24 days. It is then placed in a freezing mixture at -12 degree centigrade for 24 hours. It is then thawed or warmed to atmospheric temperature. This should be done in shadow to prevent any effect due to wind, sun, rays, rain etc. The above procedure is repeated several times and behavior of the stone carefully studied. Uses of Stones Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions: Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches. Stones are used for flooring. Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials. Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face works. Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings. Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls. Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with tar they form finishing coat. Crushed stones are used in the following works also: (a) As a basic inert material in concrete (b) For making artificial stones and building blocks (c) As railway ballast.
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Bricks One of the oldest building material brick continues to be a most popular and leading construction material because of being cheap, durable and easy to handle and work with. Clay bricks are used for building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings and other load bearing structures. A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with one hand. Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement concrete. Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and easily available. The length, width and height of a brick are interrelated as below: Length of brick = 2 width of brick + thickness of mortar Height of brick = width of brick Size of a standard brick (also known as modular brick) should be 19 9 9 cm and 19 9 4 cm. When placed in masonry the 19 9 9 cm brick with mortar becomes 20 10 10 cm. However, the bricks available in most part of the country still are 9" 4.5" 3" and are known as field bricks. Weight of such a brick is 3.0 kg. An indent called frog, 12 cm deep, as shown in Figure, is provided for 9 cm high bricks. The size of frog should be 10 4 1 cm. The purpose of providing frog is to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the bricks are laid with frogs on top. Frog is not provided in 4 cm high bricks and extruded bricks.
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Comparison of stone and brick
S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Stone It is heavier than brick It is obtained from rocks Free from clay holes and flaws Hard and tough It absorbs heat more than a brick Water absorption less than 5 %
Brick It is higher than stone Made from clay Free from lumps ,flaws and cracks Hard and sound It absorbs less heat comparatively Water absorption less than 16%
It is uniform in color and can be shaped Uniform in color ,shape and size to the desired size
8.
It has high durability which depends Its durability is less than that of stone upon its chemical composition and its physical structure.
9.
Particularly suitable for construction Acid and smoke resistance is good but less work in industrial area as it acid and than that of stone smoke proof.
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10.
Quarrying dressing and transportation Overall cost of manufacture less than stone. costly
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Labor cost for laying is high
Easily laid to form walls of required uniform thickness ,labor cost for brick masonry much less
Types of Bricks Bricks may be broadly classified as: Building bricks Paving bricks Fire bricks Special bricks.
Building Bricks: These bricks are used for the construction of walls. Paving Bricks: These are vitrified bricks and are used as pavers. Fire Bricks: These bricks are specially made to withstand furnace temperature. Silica bricks belong to this category. Special Bricks: These bricks are different from the commonly used building bricks with respect to their shape and the purpose for which they are made. Some of such bricks are listed below:
Specially shaped bricks Facing bricks Perforated building bricks Burnt clay hollow bricks Sewer bricks ( f) Acid resistant bricks.
Specially Shaped Bricks: Bricks of special shapes are manufactured to meet the requirements of different situations. Some of them are shown in Fig.
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Facing Bricks: These bricks are used in the outer face of masonry. Once these bricks are provided, plastering is not required. The standard sizes of these bricks are 190 90 90 mm or 190 90 40 mm. Perforated Building Bricks: These bricks are manufactured with area of perforation of 30 to 45 per cent. The area of each perforation should not exceed 500 mm2. The perforation should be uniformly distributed over the surface. They are manufactured in the size 190 190 90 mm and 290 90 90 mm. Burnt Clay Hollow Bricks: Figure shows a burnt clay hollow brick. They are light in weight. They are used for the construction of partition walls. They provide good thermal insulation to buildings. They are manufactured in the sizes 190 190 90 mm, 290 90 90 mm and 290 140 90 mm. The thickness of any shell should not be less than 11 mm and that of any web not less than 8 mm.
Sewer Bricks: These bricks are used for the construction of sewage lines. They are manufactured from surface clay, fire clay shale or with the combination of these. They are manufactured in the sizes 190 90 90 mm and 190 90 40 mm. The average
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strength of these bricks should be a minimum of 17.5 N/mm2. The water absorption should not be more than 10 per cent. Acid Resistant Bricks: These bricks are used for floorings likely to be subjected to acid attacks, lining of chambers in chemical plants, lining of sewers carrying industrial waste etc. These bricks are made of clay or shale of suitable composition with low lime andiron content, flint or sand and vitrified at high temperature in a ceramic kiln.
Classification of Bricks Based on their Quality
The bricks used in construction are classified as: First class bricks Second class bricks Third class bricks and Fourth class bricks
First Class Bricks: These bricks are of standard shape and size. They are burnt I kilns. They fulfill all desirable properties of bricks. Second Class Bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in kilns. The edges may not be sharp and uniform. The surface may be somewhat rough. Such bricks are commonly used for the construction of walls which are going to be plastered. Third Class Bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in clamps. Their edges are somewhat distorted. They produce dull sound when struck together. They are used for temporary and unimportant structures. Fourth Class Bricks: These are the over burnt bricks. They are dark in colour. The shape is irregular. They are used as aggregates for concrete in foundations, floors and roads. Properties of Bricks The following are the required properties of good bricks: Color: Color should be uniform and bright. Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners. Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.
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Texture: They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures, cavities, loose grit and unburnt lime. Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic sound. Hardness: Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick. Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick should not break into pieces. Water Absorption: After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not be more than 20 per cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15 per cent. Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and then allowed to dry in shade. White patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium, magnesium and potassium. They keep the masonry permanently in damp and wet conditions. Thermal Conductivity: Bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that buildings built with them are cool in summer and warm in winter. Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weight and hollow bricks provide good sound insulation. Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact bricks are used to encase steel columns to protect them from fire.
Composition of brick For the preparation of bricks, clay or other suitable earth is moulded to the desired shape after subjecting it to several processes. After drying, it should not shrink and no crack should develop. The clay used for brick making consists mainly of silica and alumina mixed in such a proportion that the clay becomes plastic when water is added to it. It also consists of small proportions of lime, iron, manganese, sulphur, etc. The proportions of various ingredients are as follows: 1) Silica 5060% 2) Alumina 2030% 3) Lime 10%
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4) Magnesia < 1% Ferric oxide < 7% Alkalis < 10% 5) Carbon dioxide Sulphur trioxide Water Very small percentage Less than 20%
Functions of various ingredients: Silica: It enables the brick to retain its shape and imparts durability, prevents shrinkage and warping. Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak on burning. A large percentage of sand or uncombined silica in clay is undesirable. However, it is added to decrease shrinkage in burning and to increase the refractoriness of low alumina clays. Alumina: absorbs water and renders the clay plastic. If alumina is present in excess of the specified quantity, it produces cracks in brick on drying. Clays having exceedingly high alumina content are likely to be very refractory. Lime: normally constitutes less than 10 per cent of clay. Lime in brick clay has the following effects: Reduces the shrinkage on drying. Causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it. In carbonated form, lime lowers the fusion point. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and the brick looses its shape. Red bricks are obtained on burning at considerably high temperature (more than 800C)and buff-burning bricks are made by increasing the lime content. Magnesia: rarely exceeding 1 percent affects the colour and makes the brick yellow, in burning; it causes the clay to soften at slower rate than in most case is lime and reduces warping. Iron: Iron oxide constituting less than 7 per cent of clay, imparts the following properties:
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Gives red color on burning when excess of oxygen is available and dark brown or even black color when oxygen available is insufficient; however, excess of ferric oxide makes the brick dark blue.
Improves impermeability and durability. Tends to lower the fusion point of the clay, especially if present as ferrous oxide. Gives strength and hardness.
Harmful substances in brick earth Lime: When a desirable amount of lime is present in the clay, it results in good bricks, but if in excess, it changes the color of the brick from red to yellow. When lime is present in lumps, it absorbs moisture, swells and causes disintegration of the bricks. Therefore, lime should be present in finely divided state and lumps, if any, should be removed in the beginning itself. Experience has shown, however, that when line particles smaller than 3 mm diameter hydrate they produce only small pock mark which, provided that there are not many of them, can usually be ignored. Particles larger than this might, if present in any quantity, cause unsightly blemishes or even severe cracking. Pebbles, gravels, and grits: do not allow the clay to be mixed thoroughly and spoil the appearance of the brick. Bricks with pebbles and gravels may crack while working. Iron pyrites tend to oxidize and decompose the brick during burning. The brick may split into pieces. Pyrites discolourise the bricks. Alkalis (alkaline salts):forming less than 10 per cent of the raw clay is of great value as fluxes, especially when combined with silicates of alumina. These are mainly in the form of soda or potash. However, when present in excess, alkali makes the clay unsuitable for bricks. They melt the clay on burning and make the bricks unsymmetrical. When bricks come in contact with moisture, water is absorbed and the alkalis crystallize. On drying, the moisture evaporates, leaving behind grey or white powder deposits on the brick which spoil the appearance. This phenomenon is called efflorescence. Efflorescence should always be dry brushed away before rendering or plastering a wall; wetting it will carry the salts back into the wall to reappear later. If bricks become saturated before the work is
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completed, the probability of subsequent efflorescence is increased, brick stacks should, therefore be protected from rain at all times. During lying, the bricks should be moistened only to the extent that is found absolutely essential to obtain adequate bond between bricks and mortar; newly built brickwork should be protected from rain. Organic matter: On burning green bricks, the organic matter gets charred and leaves pores making the bricks porous; the water absorption is increased and the strength is reduced. Carbonaceous materials: in the form of bituminous matter or carbon greatly affects the color of raw clay. Unless proper precaution is taken to effect complete removal of such matter by oxidation, the brick is likely to have a black core. Sulphur: is usually found in clay as the sulphate of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium or iron, or as iron sulphide. Generally, the proportion is small. If, however, there is carbon in the clay and insufficient time is given during burning for proper oxidation of carbon and sulphur, the latter will cause the formation of a spongy, swollen structure in the brick and the brick will be decoloured by white blotches. Water: A large proportion of free water generally causes clay to shrink considerably during drying, whereas combined water causes shrinkage during burning. The use of water containing small quantities of magnesium or calcium carbonates, together with a sulphurous fuel often causes similar effects as those by sulphur.
Manufacturing of bricks
Additives in manufacture of bricks Certain additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, basalt stone dust, etc. are often required not only to modify the shaping, drying and firing behaviour of clay mass, but also to help conserve agricultural land and utilise waste materials available in large quantities. These additives should, however, have a desirable level of physical and chemical characteristics so as to modify the behaviour of clay mass within the optimum range without any adverse effect on the performance and durability. Some of the basic physio-chemical requirements of conventional additives are as under: Fly ash:
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A waste material available in large quantities from thermal power plants can be added to alluvial, red, black, marine clays, etc. The fly ash contains amorphous glassy material, mullite, haematite, magnetite, etc. and shows a chemical composition similar to brick earths. These silicates also help towards strength development in clay bodies on firing, when mixed in optimum proportion depending on the physio-chemical and plastic properties of soils to be used for brick making. The proportion of fly ash mixed as an additive to the brick earth should be optimum to reduce drying shrinkage, check drying losses and to develop strength on firing without bloating or black coring in fired product. The crystallites present in the fly ash should comply with the resultant high temperature phases in the finished product. The desirable characteristics of fly ash which could be used as an additive to the soil mass are given in Table
Sandy loam: Addition of sandy loam is often found effective in controlling the drying behavior of highly plastic soil mass containing expanding group of clay minerals. Sandy loam should preferably have a mechanical composition as specified below. The material should, however, meet the other requirement as well.
Rice husk ash: The ash should preferably have unburnt carbon content in the range of 35%and should be free from extraneous material. It can be used with plastic black red soils showing excessive shrinkage.
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Basalt stone dust: Basalt stone occurs underneath the black cotton soil and its dust is a waste product available in large quantity from basalt stone crushing units. The finer fraction from basalt stone units is mixed with soil mass to modify the shaping, drying and firing behavior of bricks. The dust recommended for use as an additive with brick earth should be fine (passing 1 mm sieve), free from coarse materials or mica flakes and should be of noncalcitic ordolomitic origin.
The operations involved in the manufacture of clay bricks are represented diagrammatically in Figure.
Preparation of brick earth It consists of following operations Unsoiling: The soil used for making building bricks should be processed so as to be free of gravel, coarse sand (practical size more than 2 mm), lime and kankar particles, organic matter, etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of the earth, normally containing stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, etc., is removed after clearing the trees and vegetation. Digging: After removing the top layer of the earth, proportions of additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, stone dust, etc. should be spread over the plane ground surface on volume basis. The soil mass is then manually excavated, puddled, watered and left over for weathering and subsequent processing. The digging operation should be done before rains.
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Weathering: Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and the soil is heaped on level ground in layers of 60120 cm. The soil is left in heaps and exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where such weathering is considered necessary for the soil. This is done to develop homogeneity in the mass of soil, particularly if they are from different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized. Soluble salts in the clay would also be eroded by rain to some extent, which otherwise could have caused scumming at the time of burning of the bricks in the kiln. The soil should be turned over at least twice and it should be ensured that the entire soil is wet throughout the period of weathering. In order to keep it wet, water may be sprayed as often as necessary. The plasticity and strength of the clay are improved by exposing the clay to weather. Blending: The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in suitable proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount of water is mixed so as to obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass is then mixed uniformly with spades. Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and workability, but the addition of water should be controlled in such a way that it may not create a problem in moulding and drying. Excessive moisture content may affect the size and shape of the finished brick. Tempering: Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the mass stiff and plastics (by plasticity, we mean the property which wet clay has of being permanently deformed without cracking). It should preferably be carried out by storing the soil in a cool place in layers of about 30 cm thickness for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure homogeneity in the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For manufacturing good brick, tempering is done in pug mills and the operation is called pugging. Pug mill consists of a conical iron tube as shown in Fig. The mill is sunk 60 cm into the earth. A vertical shaft, with a number of horizontal arms fitted with knives, is provided at the centre of the tube. This central shaft is rotated with the help of bullocks yoked at the end of long arms. However, steam, diesel or electric power may be used for this purpose. Blended earth along with required water is fed into the pug mill from the top. The knives cut through the clay and break all the clods or lump-clays when the shaft
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rotates. The thoroughly pugged clay is then taken out from opening provided in the side near the bottom. The yield from a pug mill is about 1500 bricks.
Moulding: It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by hand or by machines. The process of moulding of bricks may be the soft-mud (hand moulding), the stiff-mud (machine moulding) or the dry press process (moulding using maximum 10 per cent water and forming bricks at higher pressures). Fire-brick is made by the soft mud process. Roofing, floor and wall tiles are made by dry-press method. However, the stiff-mud process is used for making all the structural clay products i) Hand Moulding: A typical mould is shown in Figure. Hand moulding is further classified as ground moulding and table moulding.
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ii)
Ground Moulding: In this process, the ground is leveled and sand is sprinkled on it. The moulded bricks are left on the ground for drying. Such bricks do not have frog and the lower brick surface becomes too rough. To overcome these defects, moulding blocks or boards are used at the base of the mould. The process consists of shaping in hands a lump of well pugged earth, slightly more than that of the brick volume. It is then rolled into the sand and with a jerk it is dashed into the mould. The moulder then gives blows with his fists and presses the earth properly in the corners of the mould with his thumb. The surplus clay on the top surface is removed with a sharp edge metal plate called strike (Figure) or with a thin wire stretched over the mould. After this the mould is given a gentle slope and is lifted leaving the brick on the ground to dry.
iii)
Table Mouldling: The bricks are moulded on stock boards nailed on the moulding table (Figure). Stock boards have the projection for forming the frog. The process of filling clay in the mould is the same as explained above. After this, a thin board called pallet is placed over the mould. The mould containing the brick is then smartly lifted off the stock board and inverted so that the moulded clay along with the mould rests on the pallet. The mould is then removed as explained before and the brick is carried to the drying site.
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iv)
Machine Moulding: can be done by either of the following processes Plastic method: The pugged, stiffer clay is forced through a rectangular opening of brick size by means of an auger. Clay comes out of the opening in the form of a bar. The bricks are cut from the bar by a frame consisting of several wires at a distance of brick size as shown in Figure. This is a quick and economical process.
Dry process method: The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a mechanically operated press, where it is subjected to high pressure and the clay in the mould takes the shape of bricks. Such pressed bricks are more dense, smooth and uniform than ordinary bricks. These are burnt carefully as they are likely to crack. Drying: Green bricks contain about 730% moisture epending upon the method of manufacture. The object of drying is to remove the moisture to control the shrinkage and
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save fuel and time during burning.The drying shrinkage is dependent upon pore spaces within the clay and the mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay reduces shrinkage, increases porosity and facilities drying. The moisture content is brought down to about 3 per cent underexposed conditions within three to four days. Thus, the strength of the green bricks is increased and the bricks can be handled safely. Clay products can be dried in open air driers or inartificial driers. The artificial driers are of two types, the hot floor drier and the tunnel drier. In the former, heat is applied by a furnace placed at one end of the drier or by exhaust steam from the engine used to furnish power and is used for fire bricks, clay pipes and terracotta. Tunnel driers are heated by fuels underneath, by steam pipes, or by hot air from cooling kilns. They are more economical than floor driers. Inartificial driers, temperature rarely exceeds 120C.The time varies from one to three days. In developing countries, bricks are normally dried in natural open-air driers (Figure). They are stacked on raised ground and are protected from bad weather and direct sunlight. A gap of about 1.0 m is left in the adjacent layers of the stacks so as to allow free movement for the workers.
Method of drying Burning: The burning of clay may be divided into three main stages. Dehydration (450-650 C): This is also known as water smoking stage. During dehydration, The water which has been retained in the pores of the clay after drying is driven off and the clay loses its plasticity, Some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt,
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A portion of sulphuris distilled from pyrites. Hydrous minerals like ferric hydroxide are dehydrated, and The carbonate minerals are more or less decarbonized. Too rapid heating causes cracking or bursting of the bricks. On the other hand, if alkali is contained in the clay or sulphur is present in large amount in the coal, too slow heating of clay produces a scum on the surface of the bricks. Oxidation period (650-900 C): During the oxidation period, (1) remainder of carbon is eliminated and, (2) the ferrous iron is oxidized to the ferric form. The removal of sulphur is completed only after the carbon has been eliminated. Sulphur on account of its affinity for oxygen, also holds back the oxidation of iron. Consequently, in order to avoid black or spongy cores, oxidation must proceed at such a rate which will allow these changes to occur before the heat becomes sufficient to soften the clay and close its pore. Sand is often added to the raw clay to produce a more open structure and thus provide escape of gases generated in burning. Vitrification: To convert the mass into glass like substance the temperature ranges from9001100C for low melting clay and 10001250C for high melting clay. Great care is required in cooling the bricks below the cherry red heat in order to avoid checking and cracking. Vitrification period may further be divided into (a) incipient vitrification, at which the clay has softened sufficiently to cause adherence but not enough to close the pores or cause loss of spaceon cooling the material cannot be scratched by the knife; (b) complete vitrification, more or less well-marked by maximum shrinkage; (c) viscous vitrification, produced by a further increase in temperature which results in a soft molten mass, a gradual loss in shape, and a glassy structure after cooling. Generally, clay products are vitrified to the point of viscosity. However, paving bricks are burnt to the stage of complete vitrification to achieve maximum hardness as well as toughness.
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Burning of bricks is done in a clamp or kiln. A clamp is a temporary structure whereas kiln is a permanent one. Burning in clamp or pazawah:A typical clamp is shown in Figure. The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each brick tier consists of 45 layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free circulation of hot gasses. After 30 per cent loading of the clamp, the fuel in the lowest layer is fired and the remaining loading of bricks and fuel is carried out hurriedly. The top and sides of the clamp are plastered with mud. Then a coat of cow dung is given, which prevents the escape of heat. The production of bricks is 23 lacs and the process is completed in six months. This process yields about 60 per cent first class bricks.
Kiln burning: The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, e.g. Bulls trench kiln or over ground, e.g. Hoffmans kiln. These may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape. When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is known as continuous kiln, e.g. Bulls trench and Hoffmans kilns. On the other hand if the process of burning bricks is discontinuous, the kiln is known as intermittent kiln. i) Intermittent kiln: The example of this type of an over ground, rectangular kiln is shown in Figure. After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading is done. Since the walls and sides get cooled during reloading and are to be heated again during next firing, there is wastage of fuel.
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ii)
Continuous kiln: The examples of continuous kiln are Hoffmans kiln (Figure) and Bulls trench kiln (Figure). In a continuous kiln, bricks are stacked in various chambers wherein the undergo different treatments at the same time. When the bricks in one of the chambers are fired, the bricks in the next set of chambers are dried and preheated while bricks in the other set of chambers are loaded and in the last are cooled.
Tests on Bricks The following are the field tests by judgment for assembling the quality of bricks
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The bricks should be truly rectangular in shape with sharp edges and plane faces and of same size They should be hard and well burnt and should give metallic ringing sound when struck with a steel rod. They should be of uniform red color and of fine texture When the bricks are dropped on the ground from one meter height , they should not crack or break They should be free from cracks ,fissures, pebbles or modules of free lime
The following laboratory tests may be conducted on the bricks to find their suitability: Crushing strength Absorption Shape and size and Efflorescence. Structure test Soundness test Hardness test
Crushing Strength: The brick specimen is immersed in water for 24 hours. The frog of the brick is filled flush with 1:3 cement mortars and the specimen is stored in damp jute bag for 24 hours and then immersed in clean water for 24 hours. The specimen is placed in compression testing machine with 6 mm plywood on top and bottom of it to get uniform load on the specimen. Then load is applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 . The crushing load is noted. Then the crushing strength is the ratio of crushing load to the area of brick loaded. Average of five specimens is taken as the crushing strength. Absorption Test: Brick specimen is weighed dry. Then they are immersed in water for a period of 24 hours. The specimen are taken out and wiped with cloth. The weight of each specimen in wet condition is determined. The difference in weight indicates the water absorbed. Then the percentage absorption is the ratio of water absorbed to dry weight
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multiplied by 100. The average of five specimens is taken. This value should not exceed 20 per cent. Shape and Size: Bricks should be of standard size and edges should be truely rectangular with sharp edges. To check it, 20 bricks are selected at random and they are stacked along the length, along the width and then along the height. For the standard bricks of size 190 mm 90 mm 90 mm. IS code permits the following limits: Lengthwise: 3680 to 3920 mm Widthwise: 1740 to 1860 mm Height wise: 1740 to 1860 mm. The following field tests help in ascertaining the good quality bricks: Uniformity in size Uniformity in colour Structure Hardness test Sound test Strength test.
Uniformity in Size: A good brick should have rectangular plane surface and uniform in size. This check is made in the field by observation. Uniformity in Colour: A good brick will be having uniform colour throughout. This observation may be made before purchasing the brick. Structure: A few bricks may be broken in the field and their cross-section observed. The section should be homogeneous, compact and free from defects such as holes and lumps. Sound Test: If two bricks are struck with each other they should produce clear ringing sound. The sound should not be dull. Hardness Test: For this a simple field test is scratch the brick with nail. If no impression is marked on the surface, the brick is sufficiently hard Efflorescence: The presence of alkalies in brick is not desirable because they form patches of gray powder by absorbing moisture. Hence to determine the presence of alkalies this test is performed as explained below: Place the brick specimen in a glass dish containing water to a depth of 25 mm in a well-ventilated room. After all the water
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is absorbed or evaporated again add water for a depth of 25 mm. After second evaporation observe the bricks for white/grey patches. The observation is reported as nil, slight, moderate, heavy or serious to mean Nil: No patches Slight: 10% of area covered with deposits Moderate: 10 to 50% area covered with deposit but
unaccompanied by flaking of the surface. Heavy: More than 50 per cent area covered with deposits but unaccompanied by flaking of the surface. Serious: Heavy deposits of salt accompanied by flaking of the surface. Structure test: A Specimen brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogenous, compact and free from any defects. Example: lumps, holes, etc. Soundness test: This test is performed by striking two specimen bricks with each other, the bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound should be produced. Hardness test: This test is conducted by making a scratch on brick surface with the help of a finger nail, if no impression is left on the surface, the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.
Uses of Bricks Bricks are used in the following civil works: As building blocks. For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys. For protecting steel columns from fire. As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C. roofs. For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks. For lining sewer lines.
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Sand Sand is a natural product which is obtained as river sand, nalla sand and pit sand. According to the nature of source, sand is classified into groups: a) Natural sand b) Artificial sand However sea sand should not be used for the following reasons: It contains salt and hence structure will remain damp. The mortar is affected by efflorescence and blisters appear. It contains shells and other organic matter, which decompose after some time, reducing the life of the mortar. Sand may be obtained artificially by crushing hard stones. Usually artificial sand is obtained as a by-product while crushing stones to get jelly (coarse aggregate). Sand is used in mortar and concrete for the following purpose: It sub-divides the paste of binding material into thin films and allows it to adhere and spread. It fills up the gap between the building blocks and spreads the binding material. It adds to the density of the mortar. It prevents the shrinkage of the cementing material. It allows carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to reach some depth and thereby improve setting power.
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The cost of cementing material per unit volume is reduced as this low cost material increases the volume of mortar Silica of sand contributes to formation of silicates resulting into the hardened mass.
The properties of good sand are: It should be chemically inert. It should be free from organic or vegetable matter. It should be free from salt. It should contain sharp, angular and coarse grains. It should be well graded. It should be hard. Concrete Concrete a composite man-made material is the most widely used building material in the construction industry. It consists of a rationally chosen mixture of binding material such as lime or cement, well graded fine and coarse aggregates, water and admixtures (to produce concrete with special properties). In a concrete mix, cement and water form a paste or matrix which in addition to filling the voids of the fine aggregate, coats the surface of fine and coarse aggregates and binds them together. The matrix is usually 22-34% of the total volume. Freshly mixed concrete before set is known as wet or green concrete whereas after setting and hardening it is known as set or hardened concrete. The moulded concrete mix after sufficient curing becomes hard like stone due to chemical action between the water and binding material. It would be impossible to discuss all the aspects of this material in few pages and the discussion is confined to the general characteristics and quality tests necessary for its use by civil engineers and architects. Proportioning of concrete Major ingredients of concrete are:
/S.Praveenkumar-SKCT
Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer) Fine aggregate (sand) Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly) Water.
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R.Ventakasubramani/P.Muthupriya
A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents, workability agents etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain concrete mixture. Depending upon the proportion of ingredient, strength of concrete varies. It is possible to determine the proportion of the ingredients for a particular strength by mix design procedure. In the absence of mix design the ingredients are proportioned as 1:1:2, 1:1.5:3, 1:2:4, 1:3:6 and 1:4:8, which is the ratio of weights of cement to sand to coarse aggregate. In proportioning of concrete it is kept in mind that voids in coarse aggregates are filled with sand and the voids in sand are filled with cement paste. Proportion of ingredients usually adopted for various works are shown in Table
Functions of Various Ingredients
Cement is the binding material. After addition of water it hydrates and binds aggregates and the surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix (with more cement) gives more strength. Setting time starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6 hours. Hence concrete should be laid in its mould before 30 minutes of mixing of water and should not be subjected to any external forces till final setting takes place. Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should be well graded and the stones should be of igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular and hard. They give mass to the concrete and prevent shrinkage of cement. Fine aggregate consists of river sand. It prevents shrinkage of cement. When surrounded by cement it gains mobility enters the voids in coarse aggregates and binding of ingredients takes
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place. It adds density to concrete, since it fills the voids. Denser the concrete higher is its strength. Water used for making concrete should be clean. It activates the hydration of cement and forms plastic mass. As it sets completely concrete becomes hard mass. Water gives workability to concrete which means water makes it possible to mix the concrete with ease and place it in final position. More the water better is the workability. However excess water reduces the strength of concrete. Figure shows the variation of strength of concrete with water cement ratio. To achieve required workability and at the same time good strength a water cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.45 is used, in case of machine mixing and water cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.6 is used for hand mixing.
Preparing and Placing of Concrete The following steps are involved in the concreting: Batching Mixing Transporting and placing and Compacting.
1. Batching: The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. The following two methods of batching are practiced: Volume batching Weight batching. Volume Batching: In this method cement, sand and concrete are batched by volume. A gauge box is made with wooden plates, its volume being equal to that of one bag of
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cement. One bag of cement has volume of 35 litres. The required amount of sand and coarse aggregate is added by measuring on to the gauge box. The quantity of water required for making concrete is found after deciding water cement ratio. For example, if water cement ratio is 0.5, for one bag of cement (50 kg), water required is 0.5 50 = 25 kg, which is equal to 25 litres. Suitable measure is used to select required quantity of water. Volume batching is not ideal method of batching. Wet sand has higher volume for the same weight of dry sand. It is called bulking of sand. Hence it upsets the calculated volume required. Weight Batching: This is the recommended method of batching. A weighing platform is used in the field to pick up correct proportion of sand and coarse aggregates. Large weigh batching plants have automatic weighing equipments. 2. Mixing: To produce uniform and good concrete, it is necessary to mix cement, sand and Coarse aggregate, first in dry condition and then in wet condition after adding water. The following methods are practiced: Hand Mixing Machine Mixing. Hand Mixing: Required amount of coarse aggregate for a batch is weighed and is spread on an impervious platform. Then the sand required for the batch is spread over coarse aggregate. They are mixed in dry condition by overturning the mix with shovels. Then the cement required for the batch is spread over the dry mix and mixed by shovels. After uniform texture is observed water is added gradually and mixing is continued. Full amount of water is added and mixing is completed when uniform color and consistency is observed. The process of mixing is completed in 68 minutes of adding water. This method of mixing is not very good but for small works it is commonly adopted. Machine Mixing: In large and important works machine mixing is preferred. Figure shows a typical concrete mixer. Required quantities if sand and coarse aggregates are placed in the drum of the mixer. 4 to 5 rotations are made for dry mixing and then required quantity of cement is added and dry mixing is made with another 4 to 5 rotations. Water is gradually added and drum is rotated for 2 to 3 minutes during which period it makes about 50 rotations. At this stage uniform and homogeneous mix is obtained.
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3. Transporting and Placing of Concrete. After mixing, concrete should be transported to the final position. In small works it is transported in iron pans from hand to hand of a set of workers. Wheel barrow and hand carts also may be employed. In large scale concreting chutes and belt conveyors or pipes with pumps are employed. In transporting care should be taken to see that segregation of aggregate from matrix of cement do not take place. Concrete is placed on form works. The form works should be cleaned and properly oiled. If concrete is to be placed for foundation, the soil bed should be compacted well and is made free from loose soil. Concrete should be dropped on its final position as closely as possible. If it is dropped from a height, the coarse aggregates fall early and then mortar matrix. This segregation results into weaker concrete. 4. Compaction of Concrete: In the process of placing concrete, air is entrapped. The entrapped air reduces the strength of concrete up to 30%. Hence it is necessary to remove this entrapped air. This is achieved by compacting the concrete after placing it in its final position. Compaction can be carried out either by hand or with the help of vibrators. Hand Compaction: In this method concrete is compacted by ramming, tamping, spading or by slicing with tools. In intricate portions a pointed steel rod of 16 mm diameter and about a metre long is used for poking the concrete. Compaction by Vibrators: Concrete can be compacted by using high frequency vibrators. Vibration reduces the friction between the particles and set the motion of particles. As a result entrapped air is removed and the concrete is compacted. The use of vibrators reduces the compaction time. When vibrators are used for compaction, water cement ratio can be less, which also helps in improving the strength of concrete. Vibration should be stopped as soon as cement paste is seen on the surface of concrete. Over vibration is not good for the concrete.
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The following types of vibrators are commonly used in concreting: Needle or immersion vibrators Surface vibrators Form or shutter vibrators Vibrating tables. Needle vibrators are used in concreting beams and columns. Surface vibrators and form vibrators are useful in concreting slabs. Vibrating tables are useful in preparing precast concrete elements. Curing of Concrete Curing may be defined as the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture and temperature conditions for freshly placed concrete for some specified time for proper hardening of concrete. Curing in the early ages of concrete is more important. Curing for 14 days is very important. Better to continue it for 7 to 14 days more. If curing is not done properly, the strength of concrete reduces. Cracks develop due shrinkage. The durability of concrete structure reduces. The following curing methods are employed: Spraying of water Covering the surface with wet gunny bags, straw etc. Ponding Steam curing and Application of curing compounds. Spraying of water: Walls, columns, plastered surfaces are cured by sprinkling water. Wet covering the surface: Columns and other vertical surfaces may be cured by covering the surfaces with wet gunny bags or straw. Ponding: The horizontal surfaces like slab and floors are cured by stagnating the water to a height of 25 to 50 mm by providing temporary small hunds with mortar. Steam curing: In the manufacture of pre-fabricated concrete units steam is passed over the units kept in closed chambers. It accelerates curing process, resulting into the reduction of curing period. Application of curing compounds: Compounds like calcium chloride may be applied on the curing surface. The compound shows affinity to the moisture and retains it on the surface. It keeps the concrete surface wet for a long time.
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Properties of Concrete Concrete has completely different properties when it is the plastic stage and when hardened. Concrete in the plastic stage is also known as green concrete. The properties of green concrete include: Workability Segregation Bleeding Harshness. The properties of hardened concrete are: Strength Resistance to wear Dimensional changes Durability Impermeability. Properties of Green Concrete
1. Workability: This is defined as the ease with which concrete can be compacted fully without segregating and bleeding. It can also be defined as the amount of internal work required to fully compact the concrete to optimum density. The workability depends upon the quantity of water, grading, shape and the percentage of the aggregates present in the concrete. Workability is measured by The slump observed when the frustum of the standard cone filled with concrete is lifted and removed.
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The compaction factor determined after allowing the concrete to fall through the compaction testing machine. The time taken in seconds for the shape of the concrete to change from cone to cylinder when tested in Vee-Bee consistometer. The suggested values of workability for different works are as shown in Table
2. Segregation: Separation of coarse particles from the green concrete is called segregation. This may happen due to lack of sufficient quantity of finer particles in concrete or due to throwing of the concrete from greater heights at the time of placing the concrete. Because of the segregation, the cohesiveness of the concrete is lost and honey combing results. Ultimately it results in the loss of strength of hardened concrete. Hence utmost care is to be taken to avoid segregation. 3. Bleeding: This refers to the appearance of the water along with cement particles on the surface of the freshly laid concrete. This happens when there is excessive quantity of water in the mix or due to excessive compaction. Bleeding causes the formation of pores and renders the concrete weak. Bleeding can be avoided by suitably controlling the quantity of water in the concrete and by using finer grading of aggregates. 4. Harshness: Harshness is the resistance offered by concrete to its surface finish. Harshness is due to presence of lesser quantity of fine aggregates, lesser cement mortar and due to use of poorly graded aggregates. It may result due to insufficient quantity of water also. With harsh concrete it is difficult to get a smooth surface finish and concrete becomes porous.
Properties of Hardened Concrete
1. Strength: The characteristic strength of concrete is defined as the compressive strength of 150 mm size cubes after 28 days of curing below which not more than 5 per cent of the test results
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are expected to fail. The unit of stress used is N/mm2. IS 456 grades the concrete based on its characteristic strength as shown in Table
Till year 2000, M15 concrete was permitted to be used for reinforced concrete works. But IS 4562000 specifies minimum grade of M20 to be used for reinforced concrete works. Strength of concrete depends upon the amount of cement content, quality and grading of aggregates, water cement ratio, compaction and curing. Strength of concrete is gained in the initial stages. In 7 days the strength gained is as much as 60 to 65 per cent of 28 days strength. It is customary to assume the 28 days strength as the full strength of concrete. However concrete gains strength after 28 days also. The characteristic strength may be increased by the as factor given in Table
2. Dimensional Change: Concrete shrinks with age. The total shrinkage depends upon the constituents of concrete, size of the member and the environmental conditions. Total shrinkage is approximately 0.0003 of original dimension. The permanent dimension change due to loading over a long period is termed as creep. Its value depends upon the stress in concrete, the age of the concrete at the time of loading and the duration of the loading. The ultimate creep strain may be estimated from the values of creep coefficient. The creep coefficient is defined as ultimate creep strain divided by the elastic strain at the age of loading. These values are listed in Table
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The size of concrete may change due to thermal expansion also. The coefficient of thermal expansion depends upon the nature of cement, the type of aggregates, cement content, relative humidity and the size of the sections of the structural elements. Table shows the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete with different types of aggregates.
3. Durability: Environmental forces such as weathering, chemical attack, heat, freezing and thawing try to destroy concrete. The period of existence of concrete without getting adversely affected by these forces is known as durability. Generally dense and strong concretes have better durability. The cube crushing strength alone is not a reliable guide to the durability. Concrete should have adequate cement content and should have low water cement ratio. 4. Impermeability: This is the resistance of concrete to the flow of water through its pores. Excess water during concreting leaves a large number of continuous pores leading to the permeability. Since the permeability reduces the durability of concrete, it should be kept very low by using low water cement ratio, dense and well graded aggregates, good compaction and continuous curing at low temperature conditions. The cement content used should be sufficient to provide adequate workability with low water cement ratio and the available compaction method.
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Workability of concrete: In fresh concreteconcrete in the plastic state, which can be moulded into desired shapethe theoretical w/c ratio to meet the requirements of water for chemical combination with cement, and to occupy the gel-space is about 0.4 for maximum strength. The w/c ratio used at site may vary because of: (a) The presence of free surface moisture in the aggregates, and (b) The absorption of moisture by the dry or porous aggregates. Because of the above limitations another characteristic workability, which is again a reflection of w/c ratio, becomes important. The theoretical w/c ratio used will not give the maximum strength because of the reasons stated above. 100 per cent compaction of concrete will give maximum strength and this can be obtained by increasing the w/c ratio. The water lubricates the concrete which can be compacted at site with the specified efforts. The lubrication required for handling concrete without segregation, for placing without loss of homogeneity, for compacting with specified effort and for easy finish are indications of workable concrete. For example a concrete workable for foundation may not be workable for slab. Even for slab different workabilitys will be required for compaction by hand and that by vibration. It is because the requirement of workability is less.
Factors affecting workability of concrete A workable concrete exhibits very little internal friction between the particles forming the concrete and overcomes the frictional resistance offered by the internal surface of formwork as well as that by the reinforcement contained in the concrete with just the amount of compacting efforts forthcoming. The factors helping concrete to achieve these are as follows.
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Water content: The fluidity of concrete increases with water content. At site the normal practice is to increase the water content to make the concrete workable which lowers strength. In controlled concrete this cannot be resorted and even in uncontrolled concrete this should be the last choice. However, in case if more water is added due to any reason the cement content should be proportionately increased. Mix-proportion: Aggregate-cement ratio influences the workability to a large extent. The higher the ratio leaner will be the concrete. In a lean concrete, paste available for lubrication of per unit surface area of aggregates will be less and hence the workability is reduced. Aggregate size: For big size aggregate the total surface area to be wetted is less, also less paste is required for lubricating the surface to reduce internal friction. For given water content big size aggregate give high workability. Shape of aggregate: For given water content, round and cubical shape aggregates are more workable than rough, angular or flaky aggregates, because the former type of aggregates requires less cement paste for lubrication as these have less surface area and lesser voids. In case of round aggregates frictional resistance is also small so less lubrication is required. For this reason river sand and gravel provide greater workability than crushed sand and aggregates. Surface texture: A rough surface aggregate will have more surface area than a smooth round textured aggregate. Hence, latter will be more workable for the reasons discussed above. Grading of aggregates: Properly graded aggregates are more workable. It is so because such a mix will have least voids and thus excess cement paste will be available as lubricant. This also prevents segregation. Admixtures: Air entrained concrete is more workable. It is so because air forms bubbles, on which the aggregates slide past each other increasing the workability. Another factor is that air entraining agents are surface active and they reduce the internal friction between the aggregates.
Testing of concrete Tests for fresh concrete 1) Slump test:
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This method of test specifies the procedure to be adopted, either in the laboratory or during the progress of work in the field, for determining the consistency of concrete where the nominal maximum size of the aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.
The mould used for the test specimen is shown in Figure. The internal dimensions of the mould are bottom diameter = 200 mm, top diameter = 100 mm, and height = 300 mm. The mould is filled in with fresh concrete in four layers, each approximately one-quarter of the height and tamped with twenty-five strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. The strokes are distributed in a uniform manner over the cross-section and for the second and subsequent layers should penetrate into the underlying layer.
The bottom layer is tamped throughout its depth. After the top layer has been rodded, the concrete is struck off level with a trowel or the tamping rod, so that the mould is exactly filled. The mould is removed immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump is measured immediately by determining the difference between the height of the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen being tested (Figure).
The slump measured is recorded in terms of millimeters of subsidence of the specimen.
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2) Compacting factor test: This test is more precise and sensitive than the slump test. It is particularly useful for concrete mixes of medium and low workabilitys as are normally used when concrete is to be compacted by vibration; such dry concretes are insensitive to slump test. For concrete of very low workability of the order of 0.7 or below, the test is not suitable, because this concrete cannot be fully compacted for comparison in the manner described in the test. A diagram of the apparatus used in compacting factor test is shown in Figure. The sample of concrete to be tested is placed gently in the upper hopper. The hopper is filled level with its brim and the trap-door is opened to allow the concrete to fall into the lower hopper. Certain mixes have a tendency to stick in one or both of the hoppers. If this occurs, the concrete may be helped through by pushing the rod gently into the concrete from the top. During this process, the cylinder should be covered by the trowels. Immediately after the concrete has come to rest, the cylinder is uncovered, the trapdoor of the lower hopper is opened, and the concrete is allowed to fall into the cylinder. The excess of concrete remaining above the level of the top of the cylinder is then cutoff. The weight of the concrete in the cylinder is then determined to the nearest 10 g as the weight or partially compacted concrete. The cylinder is refilled with concrete from the same sample in layers of approximately 50 mm, the layers being heavily rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full compaction.
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The top surface of the fully compacted concrete is carefully struck off level with the top of the cylinder. Compacting factor is defined as the ratio of the weight of partially compacted concrete to the weight of fully compacted concrete.
It is normally stated to the nearest second decimal place.
3) Vee-bee consistometer method: The test determines the time required for transforming, by vibration, a concrete specimen in the shape of a conical frustum into a cylinder. The apparatus (Figure) consists of a vibrator table resting upon elastic supports, a metal pot, a sheet metal cone, open at both ends, and a standard iron rod. A slump test as described earlier is performed in the cylindrical pot of the consistometer. The glass disc attached to the swivel arm is moved and placed just on the top of the slump cone in the pot and before the cone is lifted up, the position of the concrete cone is noted by adjusting the glass disc attached to the swivel arm. The cone is then lifted up and the slump noted on the graduated rod by lowering the glass disc on top of the concrete cone. The electrical vibrator is switched on and the concrete is allowed to spread out in the pot.
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The vibration is continued until the whole concrete surface uniformly adheres to the glass disc and the time taken for this to be attained is noted with a stop watch. The consistency of the concrete is expressed in VB degree which is equal to the recorded time in seconds. The required slump is obtained on the basis of the consistency scale given in Table.
The curve in Figure indicates the relationship between slump in mm and Vee-Bee degrees covered by the consistency scale in seconds and are given in Table.
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Tests for hardened concrete Testing plays an important role in controlling the quality of cement concrete work. Systematic testing of the raw materials, the fresh concrete and the hardened concrete is inseparable part of any quality control programme for concrete which helps to achieve higher efficiency of the materials used and greater assurance of the performance of the concrete in regards to both strength and durability. Since the strength of concrete is related to the structure of hardened cement paste, it assumes more importance. Indian Standard specifies compression test, flexure and test tensile strength test for assessing the strength of concrete.
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1) Compression test Cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate (up to 38 mm) to be used for making concrete are brought to room temperature (preferably 27 3C) before commencing the test. The ingredients are weighed in the ratio to be used in the field and are mixed by hand mixing or by machine mixing. First, the cement and sand are mixed thoroughly till a uniform color is achieved. The coarse aggregate are then added and mixed till these are distributed uniformly throughout the mix. The water is then added and the entire batch mixed until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and has the desired consistency. The test specimens recommended are 150 150 150 mm cubes or cylinders of 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height. The mixed concrete is filled into the moulds in layers of 50 mm to achieve full compaction. Each layer of mix so placed is tamped with bar, 16 mm in diameter and 600 mm long, 35 times or with a vibrator. The test specimens are stored at a temperature of 27 3C and at 90 per cent humidity for 24 hour from the time of addition of water to the dry ingredients. After this period the specimens are removed from the moulds and placed in water and kept there until taken out just prior to test. Normally, the recognized age of test of specimens is 7 and 28 days. At least three specimens, preferably from different batches, are tested at each selected age. The specimens should be tested immediately after taking out them from water with surface water wiped off. The specimen is placed between the platens of the compression testing machine with the care that the axis of specimen is aligned with the centre of thrust of the spherically seated platen. The compression testing machine should be able to apply gradual load of 14 N/mm2/ minute. Until the specimen is crushed.
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The average of the three values is taken as the compressive strength of concrete of the batch, provided the individual variation is not more than 15 per cent of the average.
2) Flexure test The flexural tensile strength test is performed to estimate the tensile load at which concrete may crack. This is an indirect test for assessing the tensile strength of concrete. The test consists in determining the tensile strength at failure or the modulus of rupture. The ingredients of concrete are mixed as explained in the compression strength test. The concrete is filled in the mould of size 150 150 700 mm and compacted with the tamping bar weighing 2 kg, 400 mm long and with a ramming face 25 mm square. The specimen to be tested is placed in the testing machine on two 38 mm diameter rollers with a c/c distance of 600 mm. The load is applied through two similar rollers mounted at the third points, i.e., spaced at 200 mm c/c. The specimen are stored in water at a temperature of 27 3C for 48 hours before testing and are tested in wet condition. The load is applied without shock and increasing continuously at a rate of 0.7 N/mm2/minute until the specimen fails.
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where, a is the distance between the line of fracture and the nearest support, b and d are width and depth of specimen, l is the length of the span on which the specimen is supported, and p is the maximum load applied to the specimen.
3) Split tensile strength test Some of the other methods to estimate the tensile strength of concrete are briquette test (direct method) and split tensile strength test (indirect method). Direct methods may not reflect the correct tensile strength because of the practical difficulties involved (e.g., application of uniaxial tensile load) in the test. This has lead to the development of a number of indirect methods to determine tensile strength of which splitting tests are most common. The test consists in applying a compressive force to the concrete specimen in a way that the specimen fails due to induced tensile stresses in the specimen. The specimen is made of cylindrical shape with the diameter not less than four times the maximum size of coarse aggregate and not less than 150 mm. The length of cylinder varies from one to two diameters. Normally the test cylinder is 150 mm diameter and 300 mm long.
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The test consists of applying compressive line loads along the opposite generators of the concrete cylinder placed with its axis horizontal between the platens as shown in Figure. The load is applied at a rate so as to produce a tensile splitting stress of about 2.0 N/mm2/ minute until the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no greater load can be sustained.
The specimen fails finally by splitting along the loaded diameter. The maximum load applied is recorded. The splitting tensile strength is given by
The relationship between compressive strength and split tensile strength, and flexural strength and split tensile strength are shown in Figures respectively.
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Non Destructive tests
1) Rebound hammer test In 1948 a Swiss engineer, Ernst Schmidt,79 developed a test hammer for measuring the hardness of concrete by the rebound principle. Results of his work were presented to the Swiss Federal Materials Testing and Experimental Institute of Zurich, where the hammer was constructed and extensively tested. About 50,000 Schmidt rebound hammers had been sold by 1986 on a worldwide basis. Principle The Schmidt rebound hammer is principally a surface hardness tester with little apparent theoretical relationship between the strength of concrete and the rebound number of the hammer. However, within limits, empirical correlations have been established between strength properties and the rebound number. Further, Kolek10 has attempted to establish a correlation between the hammer rebound number and the hardness as measured by the Brinell method. Description The Schmidt rebound hammer is shown in Figure. The hammer weighs about 1.8 kg and is suitable for use both in a laboratory and in the field. A schematic cutaway view of the rebound hammer is shown in Figure. The main components include the outer body, the plunger, the hammer mass, and the main spring. Other features include a latching mechanism that locks the hammer mass to the plunger rod and a sliding rider to measure the rebound of the
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hammer mass. The rebound distance is measured on an arbitrary scale marked from 10 to 100. The rebound distance is recorded as a rebound number corresponding to the position of the rider on the scale.
Method of Testing To prepare the instrument for a test, releases the plunger from its locked position by pushing the plunger against the concrete and slowly moving the body away from the concrete. This causes the plunger to extend from the body and the latch engages the hammer mass to the plunger rod (Figure A). Hold the plunger perpendicular to the concrete surface and slowly push the body toward the test object. As the body is pushed, the main spring connecting the hammer mass to the body is stretched (Figure B). When the body is pushed to the limit, the latch is automatically released, and the energy stored in the spring propels the hammer mass toward the plunger tip (Figure C). The mass impacts the shoulder of the plunger rod and rebounds. During rebound, the slide indicator travels with the hammer mass and records the rebound distance (Figure D). A button on the side of the body is pushed to lock the plunger in the retracted position, and the rebound number is read from the scale. The test can be conducted horizontally, vertically upward or downward, or at any intermediate angle. Due to different effects of gravity on the rebound as the test angle is changed, the rebound number will be different for the same concrete and will require separate calibration or correction charts.
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Limitations Although the rebound hammer provides a quick, inexpensive means of checking the uniformity of concrete, it has serious limitations and these must be recognized. The results of the Schmidt rebound hammer are affected by: Smoothness of test surface Size, shape, and rigidity of the specimens Age of test specimens Surface and internal moisture conditions of the concrete Type of coarse aggregate Type of cement Type of mold Carbonation of the concrete surface
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2) Ultrasonic pulse velocity method In ultrasonic pulse velocity method, the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse, passing through the concrete to be tested is measured. This is shown in figure. The pulse generator circuit consists of an electronic circuit for generating pulses and also a transducer which transforms theses electronic pulses into mechanical energy and also a transducer which transforms these electronic pulses into mechanical energy having vibration frequencies in the range of 15-50 kHz. The time of travel between initial onset and the reception of the pulse is measured electronically. The path length between transducer when divided by the time of travel, gives the average velocity of wave propagation. With the velocity of wave propagation, the quality and compressive strength of concrete can be obtained.
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Uses of Concrete As bed concrete below column footings, wall footings, on wall at supports to beams As sill concrete Over the parapet walls as coping concrete For flagging the area around buildings For pavements For making building blocks. However major use of concrete is as a major ingredient of reinforced and prestressed concrete. Many structural elements like footings, columns, beams, chejjas, lintels, roofs are made with R.C.C. Cement concrete is used for making storage structures like water tanks, bins, silos, bunkers etc. Bridges, dams, retaining walls are R.C.C. structures in which concrete are the major ingredient.
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Mild Steel It contains a maximum of 0.25% carbon, 0.055% of sulphur and 0.55% of phosphorus. Properties of Mild Steel It is malleable and ductile It is tough and more elastic It can be magnetized permanently. Its specific gravity is 7.8. Its Youngs modulus is 2.1 105 N/mm2. It can be forged and welded easily. It is equally strong in tension and in compression. It contain 0.08 to 0.35% carbon It can be hardened and tempered but not easily It rusts readily and absorbs shocks It is not much affected by salty water
Uses of Mild Steel Round bars are extensively used as reinforcement in R.C.C. works. Rolled sections like I, T, L, C, plates etc. are used to build steel columns, beams, trusses etc. Tubular sections are used as poles and members of trusses. Plain and corrugated mild steel are used as roofing materials. Mild steel sections are used in making parts of many types of machinery.
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Short Answer questions 1) What are the classifications of rocks? 2) Give examples for igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. 3) How igneous rocks are formed? 4) Mention some important uses of stones in civil engineering works? 5) What are the characteristics of good building stone? 6) How to select the stones for variety of civil engineering works? 7) What is meant be coefficient of hardness? 8) What is meant by dressing of stones? 9) How to do fire resistance test in stones? 10) How to calculate percentage of wear in stone? 11) Explain the test which determines durability of the stone? 12) What is meant by dressing of stone? 13) What are the agents that destroy stone? 14) Compare the brick work and stone work 15) What are the chemical compositions of brick? 16) What are the major operations involved in the manufacture of bricks? 17) What are the harmful ingredients in brick? 18) What is meant by blending? 19) What is meant by weathering? 20) What are the advantages of continuous kiln over the open kiln? 21) What are the tests to be conducted for bricks? 22) Write the properties of cement? 23) What are the chemical constituents of cement? 24) What are the steps to be followed in the manufacture of Portland cement? 25) What are the field tests to be adopted for cement? 26) Write the properties of green concrete? 27) What are the types of sands? 28) Define workability 29) Mention the tests for finding the workability of the concrete. 30) What are the tests for determining the strength of the concrete?
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31) What do you understand by non destructive testing of concrete? 32) Write down the curing methods 33) What are the properties of the mild steel? 34) Mention the factor which affects the workability of the concrete. 35) What are the effects of improper curing? 36) Give few lines about rebound hammer test. Long Answer questions 1) List the uses of the following construction materials a. Bricks b. Stones c. Cement d. Concrete 2) What are the qualities of good brick? 3) Explain the properties of cement 4) Explain the constituents of brick 5) Describe briefly the factors affecting workability 6) Briefly explain about the testing of hardened concrete 7) Explain the methods of testing workability of concrete 8) What are the requirements of the stone which is to be used as building material? 9) How cement is manufactured? Explain 10) Explain the tests on stone with neat sketches 11) Write a short on sand 12) Write a short on curing of concrete. 13) Explain in detail about the non destructive testing of concrete
Unit-2
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Building Components Requirement of good foundation-bearing capacity of soil- types of foundation-Roofing materials-Types of roofs-Flooring materials-types of floors- plastering-Painting-types of beams, columns and lintel-Importance of bridges and dams-stress, strain, elasticity, poisons ratio, modulus of rigidity Foundation The ultimate support for any structure is provided by the underlying earth or soil material and, therefore, the stability of the structure depends on it. Since soil is usually much weaker than other common materials of construction, such as steel and concrete, a greater area or volume of soil is necessarily involved in order to satisfactorily carry a given loading. Thus, in order to impart the loads carried by structural members of steel or concrete to soil, a load transfer device is necessary. The structural foundation serves the purpose of such a device. A foundation is supposed to transmit the structural loading to the supporting soil in such a way that the soil is not overstressed and that serious settlements of the structure are not caused. The type of foundation utilized is closely related to the properties of the supporting soil, since the performance of the foundation is based on that of the soil, in addition to its own. Thus, it is important to recognize that it is the soil-foundation system that provides support for the structure; the components of this system should not be viewed separately. The foundation is an element that is built and installed, while the soil is the natural earth material which exists at the site. General types of foundation: The various types of structural foundations may be grouped into two broad categories Shallow foundations Deep foundations.
The classification indicates the depth of the foundation relative to its size and the depth of the soil providing most of the support. According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width and deep when it exceeds the width.
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Further classification of shallow foundations and deep foundations is as follows:
A short description of these with pictorial representation will now be given.
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Spread footings Spread footing foundation is basically a pad used to spread out loads from walls or columns over a sufficiently large area of foundation soil. These are constructed as close to the ground surface as possible consistent with the design requirements, and with factors such as frost penetration depth and possibility of soil erosion. Footings for permanent structures are rarely located directly on the ground surface. A spread footing need not necessarily be at small depths; it may be located deep in the ground if the soil conditions or design criteria require. Spread footing required to support a wall is known as a continuous, wall, or strip footing, while that required to support a column is known as an individual or an isolated footing. An isolated footing may be square, circular, or rectangular in shape in plan, depending upon factors such as the plan shape of the column and constraints of space. If the footing supports more than one column or wall, it will be a strap footing, combined footing or a raft foundation. The common
types of spread footings referred to above are shown in Figure. Two miscellaneous typesthe monolithic footing, used for watertight basement (also for resisting uplift), and the grillage foundation, used for heavy loads are also shown.
Strap footings A strap footing comprises two or more footings connected by a beam called strap. This is also called a cantilever footing or pump-handle foundation. This may be required when the footing of an exterior column cannot extend into an adjoining private property. Common types of strap beam arrangements are shown in Figure.
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Combined footings A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row when the areas required for individual footings are such that they come very near each other. They are also preferred in situations of limited space on one side owing to the existence of the boundary line of private property. The plan shape of the footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal; the footing will then be called rectangular combined footing or trapezoidal combined footing, as the case may be. These are shown in Figure
Raft foundations (Mats) A raft or mat foundation is a large footing, usually supporting walls as well as several columns in two or more rows. This is adopted when individual column footings would tend to be
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too close or tend to overlap; further, this is considered suitable when differential settlements arising out of footings on weak soils are to be minimised. A typical mat or raft is shown in Figure.
Deep footings According to Terzaghi, if the depth of a footing is less than or equal to the width, it may be considered a shallow foundation. Theories of bearing capacity have been considered. However, if the depth is more, the footings are considered as deep footings (Figure); Meyerhof (1951) developed the theory of bearing capacity for such footings.
Pile foundations Pile foundations are intended to transmit structural loads through zones of poor soil to a depth where the soil has the desired capacity to transmit the loads. They are somewhat similar to columns in that loads developed at one level are transmitted to a lower level; but piles obtain lateral support from the soil in which they are embedded so that there is no concern with regard to buckling and, it is in this respect that they differ from columns. Piles are slender foundation units which are usually driven into place. They may also be cast-in-place (Figure). A pile foundation usually consists of a number of piles, which together support a structure. The piles may be driven or placed vertically or with a batter.
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Pier foundations Pier foundations are somewhat similar to pile foundations but are typically larger in area than piles. An opening is drilled to the desired depth and concrete is poured to make a pier foundation (Figure). Much distinction is now being lost between the pile foundation and pier foundation, adjectives such as driven, bored, or drilled, and precast and cast-in-situ, being used to indicate the method of installation and construction. Usually, pier foundations are used for bridges.
Caissons (Wells) A caisson is a structural box or chamber that is sunk into place or built in place by systematic excavation below the bottom. Caissons are classified as open caissons, pneumatic caissons, and box or floating caissons. Open caissons may be box-type of pile-type. The top and bottom are open during installation for open caissons. The bottom may be finally sealed with concrete or may be anchored into rock. Pneumatic caisson is one in which compressed air is used to keep water from entering the working chamber, the top of the caisson is closed. Excavation and concreting is facilitated to be carried out in the dry. The caisson is sunk deeper as the
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excavation proceeds and on reaching the final position, the working chamber is filled with concrete. Box or floating caisson is one in which the bottom is closed. It is cast on land and towed to the site and launched in water, after the concrete has got cured. It is sunk into position by filling the inside with sand, gravel, concrete or water. False bottoms or temporary bases of timber are sometimes used for floating the caisson to the site. The various types of caissons are shown in Figure.
Special types of foundation:
Floating foundation The floating foundation is a special type of foundation construction useful in locations where deep deposits of compressible cohesive soils exist and the use of piles is impractical. The concept of a floating foundation requires that the substructure be assembled as a combination of a raft and caisson to create a rigid box as shown in Figure. This foundation is installed at such a depth that the total weight of the soil excavated for the rigid box equals the total weight of the planned structure. Theoretically speaking, therefore, the soil below the structure is not subjected to any increase in stress; consequently, no settlement is to be expected. However, some settlement does occur usually because the soil at the bottom of the excavation expands after excavation and gets recompressed during and after construction.
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Grillage footing High rise buildings are built with steel columns encased in concrete. Such columns carry very heavy load and hence they need special foundations to spread the load to a larger area of soil. Grillage foundation is one such special foundation. It consists of one tier or more tiers of Isections steel beams. Figure shows a typical two tier grillage foundation. Top tier consists of less number but large size steel section while lower tier consists of larger number but smaller size steel sections. Column load is transferred to the top tier through a base plate. The grillage beams are unpainted and are encased in concrete with minimum cover of 100 mm beyond the edges of steel sections. A minimum clear space of 75 mm should be maintained between the flanges of adjacent grillage beams so that concreting can be made properly. To maintain spacing, pipe separators are used.
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Arch foundation Inverted arch foundations are provided in the places where the SBC of the soil is very poor and the load of the structure is through walls. In such cases inverted arches are constructed between the walls. End walls should be sufficiently thick and strong to withstand the outward horizontal thrust due to arch action. The outer walls may be provided with buttress walls to strengthen them. Figure shows a typical inverted arch footing.
Foundation in black soil Black cotton soil swells during rainy season and cracks in summer due to shrinkage. These shrinkage cracks are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 0.5 m to 2 m deep. Swelling creates upwards pressure on the structure and shrinkage creates downward pull. It results into cracks in foundations wall and roof. Hence foundations in black cotton soil need special care. In case black cotton soil is only to a depth of 1.0 m and 2.0 m it is economical to remove entire black cotton soil from the site and build the foundation on red soil. Apart from this black cotton soil should be removed from the sides of the foundation and filled with sand and gravel. In case the depth of black cotton soil is more, the following type of foundation may be provided Strip or pad foundation Pier foundation with arches and Under reamed pile foundation.
Strip or Pad Foundation: Strip foundations are for walls while pad foundations are for columns. In this foundation the attempt is to keep black cotton soil from foundation by interposing layers of sand and gravel. These foundations should be constructed during dry season. Suitable plinth protection should be made around external walls with its slops away from the wall, so that moisture does not penetrate the foundation during rainy season. Figure shows such foundations.
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Pier Foundation with Arches: A pier is a vertical column of relatively larger crosssection than piles. For walls carrying heavy loads, piers are dug at regular intervals and filled with plain concrete. These piers are taken up to good bearing strata. Then the piers are connected by concrete or masonry arch. Over these arches regular masonry is built. Figure shows a typical pier foundation with arches.
Under Reamed pile Foundations: Under reamed piles are bored and then concreted at the sites. Their length may vary from 3 to 6 m. They are provided with reams and reinforcement. The pile spacing varies from 2 to 4 m. The top of piles are provided with capping beams over which walls are built.
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Requirements of Good Foundation: The type of foundation most appropriate for a given structure depends upon several factors: (i) (ii) (iii) The function of the structure and the loads it must carry, The subsurface conditions, The cost of the foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure.
These are the principal factors, although several other considerations may also enter into the picture. There is usually more than one acceptable solution to every foundation problem in view of the interplay of several factors. Judgment also plays an important part. Foundation design is enriched by scientific and engineering developments; however, a strictly scientific procedure may not be possible for practicing the art of foundation design and construction. The following are the essential steps involved in the final choice of the type of foundation: Information regarding the nature of the superstructure and the probable loading is required, at least in a general way. The approximate subsurface conditions or soil profile is to be ascertained.
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Each of the customary types of foundation is considered briefly to judge whether it is suitable under the existing conditions from the point of view of the criteria for stabilitybearing capacity and settlement. The obviously unsuitable types may be eliminated, thus narrowing down the choice. More detailed studies, including tentative designs, of the more promising types are made in the next phase. Final selection of the type of foundation is made based on the costthe most acceptable compromise between cost and performance. The design engineer may sometimes be guided by the successful foundations in the neighbourhood. Besides the two well known criteria for stability of foundationsbearing capacity and settlementthe depth at which the foundation is to be placed, is another important aspect. For small loading on good soils, spread footings could be selected. For columns, individual footings are chosen unless they come too close to one another, in which case, combined footings are used. For a series of closely spaced columns or walls, continuous footings are the obvious choice. When the footings for rows of columns come too close to one another, a raft foundation will be the obvious choice. In fact, when the area of all the footings appears to be more than 50 per cent of the area of the structure in plan, a raft should be considered. The total load it can take will be substantially greater than footings for the same permissible differential settlement. In case a shallow foundation does not answer the problem on hand, in spite of choosing a reasonable depth for the foundation, some type of deep foundation may be required. A pier foundation is justified in the case of very heavy loading as in bridges. Piles, in effect, are slender piers, which are used to bypass weak strata and transmit loading to hard strata below. As an alternative to raft foundation, the economics of bored piles is considered.
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Bearing capacity of soil The subject of bearing capacity is perhaps the most important of all the aspects of geotechnical engineering. Loads from buildings are transmitted to the foundation by columns, by load bearing walls or by such other load-bearing components of the structures. Sometimes the material on which the foundation rests is ledge, very hard soil or bed-rock, which is known to be much stronger than is necessary to transmit the loads from the structure. Such a ledge, or rock, or other stiff material may not be available at reasonable depth and it becomes invariably necessary to allow the structure to bear directly on soil, which will furnish a satisfactory foundation, if the bearing members are properly designed. It is here that the subject of bearing capacity assumes significance. A scientific treatment of the subject of bearing capacity is necessary to enable one to understand the factors upon which it depends. A number of definitions are relevant in this context: Foundation: The lowest part of a structure which is in contact with soil and transmits loads to it. Foundation soil or bed: The soil or bed to which loads are transmitted from the base of the structure. Footing: The portion of the foundation of the structure, which transmits loads directly to the foundation soil. Bearing capacity: The load-carrying capacity of foundation soil or rock which enables it to bear and transmit loads from a structure. Ultimate bearing capacity: Maximum pressure which a foundation can withstand without the occurrence of shear failure of the foundation. Gross bearing capacity: The bearing capacity inclusive of the pressure exerted by the weight of the soil standing on the foundation, or the surcharge pressure, as it is sometimes called. Net bearing capacity: Gross bearing capacity minus the original overburden pressure or surcharge pressure at the foundation level; obviously, this will be the same as the gross capacity when the depth of foundation is zero, i.e., the structure is founded at ground level Safe bearing capacity: Ultimate bearing capacity divided by the factor of safety. The factor of safety in foundation may range from 2 to 5, depending upon the importance of the structure, and the soil profile at the site. The factor of safety should be applied to the net ultimate bearing capacity and the surcharge pressure due to depth of the foundation should then be added to get
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the safe bearing capacity. It is thus the maximum intensity of loading which can be transmitted to the soil without the risk of shear failure, irrespective of the settlement that may occur. Allowable bearing pressure: The maximum allowable net loading intensity on the soil at which the soil neither fails in shear nor undergoes excessive or intolerable settlement, detrimental to the structure.
Bearing capacity The conventional design of a foundation is based on the concept of bearing capacity or allowable bearing pressure
Methods for improving the bearing of soils In some cases, the bearing capacity of soil is so low that the dimensions of the footings, work out to be very large and uneconomical. Under such situations, it becomes necessary to improve the bearing capacity of the soils, which can be done by the following methods Increasing the depth of foundation Compacting of soil Draining the subsoil water Confining the soil water Grouting of cement Chemical treatment like injecting silicates etc
Criteria for the Determination of Bearing Capacity The criteria for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation are based on the requirements for the stability of the foundation. These are stated as follows: Shear failure of the foundation or bearing capacity failure, as it is sometimes called, shall not occur. (This is associated with plastic flow of the soil material underneath the foundation, and lateral expulsion of the soil from underneath the footing of the foundation); and, The probable settlements, differential as well as total, of the foundation must be limited to safe, tolerable or acceptable magnitudes. In other words, the anticipated settlement under the applied pressure on the foundation should not be detrimental to the stability of
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the structure. These two criteria are known as the shear strength criterion, and settlement criterion, respectively. These are independent criteria and hence require independent investigation. The design value of the safe bearing capacity, obviously, would be the smaller of the two values, obtained from these two criteria. This has already been defined as the allowable bearing pressure.
Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity Bearing capacity is governed by a number of factors. The following are some of the more important ones which affect bearing capacity: Nature of soil and its physical and engineering properties; Nature of the foundation and other details such as the size, shape, depth below the ground surface and rigidity of the structure; Total and differential settlements that the structure can withstand without functional failure; Location of the ground water table relative to the level of the foundation; and Initial stresses, if any.
Methods of determining bearing capacity The following methods are available for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation: Bearing capacity tables in various building codes Analytical methods Plate bearing tests Penetration tests Model tests and prototype tests Laboratory tests
Bearing capacity tables have been evolved by certain agencies and incorporated in building codes. They are mostly based on past experience and some investigations.
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A number of analytical approaches, based on the work of Rankine, Fellenius, Housel, Prandtl, Terzaghi, Meyerhof, Skempton, Hansen and Bella may be used. Some of these would be dealt with in later sections. Plate bearing tests are load tests conducted in the field on a plate. These involve effort and expense. There are also certain limitations to their use. Penetration tests are conducted with devices known as Penetrometers, which measure the resistance of soil to penetration. This is correlated to bearing capacity. Model and prototype tests are very cumbersome and costly and are not usually practicable. Housels approach is based on model tests. Laboratory tests which are simple may be useful in arriving at bearing capacity, especially of pure clays.
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Roofing Roof is the upper most portion of the building which protects the building from rain, wind and sun. Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into three types: Flat roofs Pitched roofs Shells and folded plates.
Flat roofs are used in plains where rainfall is less and climate is moderate. Pitched roofs are preferred wherever rainfall is more. Shells and folded plate roofs are used to cover large column free areas required for auditoriums, factories etc. Brief description of these roofs is presented below: 1. Flat Roofs: These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more than 10) is given to drain out the rain water. All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times top of these roofs are treated with water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing chemicals in concrete, providing coba concrete. With advent of reliable water proofing techniques such roofs are constructed even in areas with heavy rain fall. The advantages of flat roofs are: The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebrating functions. At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding another storey. They can suit to any shape of the building. Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily. They can be made fire proof easily compared to pitched roof. The disadvantages of flat roofs are: They cannot cover large column free areas. Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development of cracks. Once leakage problem starts, it needs costly treatments. The dead weight of flat roofs is more. In places of snow fall flat roofs are to be avoided to reduce snow load. The initial cost of construction is more. Speed of construction of flat roofs is less.
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Types of Flat Roofs: All the types listed for upper floors can be used as flat roofs.
2. Pitched Roofs: In the areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall sloping roof are used. The slope of roof shall be more than 10. They may have slopes as much as 45 to 60 also. The sloped roofs are known as pitched roofs. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned structures like workshops, factory buildings and ware houses. In all these roofs covering sheets like A.C. sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates etc. are supported on suitable structures. The pitched roofs are classified into Single roofs Double or purlin roofs Trussed roofs.
(a) Single Roof: If the span of roof is less than 5 m the following types of single roofs are used. Lean to roofs Coupled roofs Coupled-close roof Collar beam roof
In all these roofs rafters placed at 600 mm to 800 mm spacing are main members taking load of the roof. Battens run over the rafters to support tiles. Figure shows various types of single roofs.
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(b) Double or Purlin Roofs: If span exceeds, the cost of rafters increase and single roof becomes uneconomical. For spans more than 5 m double purlin roofs are preferred. The intermediate support is given to rafters by purlins supported over collar beams. Figure shows a typical double or purlin roof.
(c) Trussed Roof: If span is more, frame works of slender members are used to support sloping roofs. These frames are known as trusses. A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to get wall free longer halls. Purlins are provided over the trusses which in turn support roof sheets. For spans up to 9 m wooden trusses may be used but for larger spans steel trusses are a must. In case of wooden trusses suitable carpentry joints are made to connect various members at a joint. Bolts and straps are also used. In case of steel trusses joints are made using gusset plates and by providing bolts or rivets or welding. Depending upon the span, trusses of different shapes are used. End of trusses are supported on walls or on column. Figure shows different shapes of trusses used. Figure shows a typical wooden truss details and Figure shows the details of a typical steel truss.
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3. Shells and Folded Plate Roofs: Shell roof may be defined as a curved surface, the thickness of which is small compared to the other dimensions. In these roofs lot of load is transferred by membrane compression instead of by bending as in the case of conventional slab and beam constructions. Caves are having natural shell roofs. An examination of places of worships built in India, Europe and Islamic nations show that shell structures were in usage for the last 800 to 1000 years. However the shells of middle ages were massive masonry structures but nowadays thin R.C.C. shell roofs are built to cover large column free areas. Figure shows commonly used shell roofs.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell Roofs
Advantages of shell roofs are: Good from aesthetic point of view Material consumption is quite less Form work can be removed early Large column free areas can be covered. Disadvantages are: Top surface is curved and hence advantage of terrace is lost.
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Form work is costly. Folded plate roofs may be looked as slab with a number of folds. These roofs are also known as hipped plates, prismatic shells and faltwerke. In these structures also bending is reduced and lot of load gets transferred as membrane compression. However folded plates are not as efficient as shells. Figure shows typical folded plate roofs.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs Advantages are: Form work required is relatively simpler. Movable form work can be employed. Design involves simpler calculations.
Disadvantages are: Folded plate consumes more material than shells. Form work can be removed after 7 days while in case of shells it can be little earlier.
Roof Coverings for Pitched Roofs
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Various types of covering materials are available for pitched roofs and their selection depends upon the climatic conditions, fabrication facility, and availability of materials and affordability of the owner. Commonly used pitched roof covering materials are: Thatch Shingle Tiles Slates Asbestos cement (A.C.) sheets Galvanized iron (G.I.) sheets
Thatch Covering: These coverings are provided for small spans, mainly for residential buildings in villages. Thatch is a roof covering of straw, reeds or similar materials. The thatch is well-soaked in water or fire resisting solution and packed bundles are laid with their butt ends pointing towards eves. Thickness varies from 150 mm to 300 mm. They are tied with ropes or twines to supporting structures. The supporting structure consists of round bamboo rafters spaced at 200 mm to 300 mm over which split bamboos laid at right angles at close spacing. It is claimed that reed thatch can last 50 to 60 years while straw thatch may last for 2025 years. The advantage of thatch roof is they are cheap and do not need skilled workers to build them. The disadvantages are they are very poor fire resistant and harbor rats and other insects. Shingles: Wood shingles are nothing but the split or sawn thin pieces of wood. Their size varies from 300 mm to 400 mm and length from 60 mm to 250 mm. Their thickness varies from 10 mm at one end to 3 mm at the other end. They are nailed to supporting structures. They are commonly used in hilly areas for low cost housing. They have very poor fire and termite resistance. Tiles: Various clay tiles are manufactured in different localities. They serve as good covering materials. Tiles are supported over battens which are in turn supported by rafters/trusses etc. Allahabad tiles, Mangalore tiles are excellent inter-locking tiles. They give good appearance also. Slates: A slate is a sedimentary rock. Its colour is gray. It can be easily split into thin sheets. Slates of size 450 mm to 600 mm wide, 300 mm long and 4 to 8 mm thick are
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used as covering materials of pitched roofs in the areas where slate quarries are nearby. A good slate is hard, tough, and durable. They are having rough texture and they give ringing bell like sound when struck. They do not absorb water. A.C. Sheets: Asbestos cement is a material which consists of 15 per cent of asbestos fibres evenly distributed and pressed with cement. They are manufactured in sufficiently large size. The width of a A.C. sheet varies from 1.0 to 1.2 m and length from 1.75 to 3.0 m. To get sufficient strength with thin sections they are manufactured with corrugation or with Trafford [Figure]. They are fixed to the steel purlins using J-bolts. The roofing is quite economical, waterproof. However not very good thermal resistant. They are commonly used as covering materials in ware houses, godowns or for larger halls. In auditorium etc., if these sheets are used, false ceilings are provided to get good thermal resistance.
G.I. Sheets: Galvanized iron corrugated sheets are manufactured in the sizes 1.0 to 1.2 m wide and 1.65 m length. Galvanization of iron makes them rust proof. They are fixed to steel purlins using J-bolts and washers. They are durable, fire proof, light in weight and need no maintenance. They are commonly used as covering materials for ware houses, godown, sheds etc. Table gives comparison between GI and AC sheets for roof covering.
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Flooring Purpose of flooring is to get a good hard, level and beautiful surface for living. The floors directly resting on the ground are known as ground floors while the floors of each storey are known as upper floors. Factors affecting choice of flooring material Following factors are to be carefully considered before selecting the material for flooring of a particular building Appearance-Produce the color effect in conformity with use of building Cleaning-Effective resistance against absorption of oil, grease, etc Comfort-Good thermal insulation Cost- Reasonable as compared to the utility of building Damp resistance- Resistance against dampness to provide healthy environment prevails in the building Durability- Imparts resistance to wear, tear, chemical action, temperature changes etc. Fire resistance Sufficient resistance so that fire barriers are obtained between different levels of a building. Hardness- To marks or signs caused by the shifting or rubbing of furniture, equipment etc.
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Maintenance Minimum maintenance, it should be possible to carry out them speedily, easily, and with minimum cost Noise It leads to discomfort and hence, at places where silence is required. Slipperiness-Smooth but not slippery.
Ground Floor Apart from giving good finished surface, these floors should have good damp resistance. The ground surface is rammed well and a layer of red earth or sand is placed which is compacted. A layer of broken bricks, stones etc. is provided up to 150 mm below floor finish level and rammed. While ramming the surface is kept moist to get good compaction. Then 1 : 4 : 8 concrete of 100 to 150 mm thickness is provided as base course. Over this bed floor finish is laid. The types of flooring used are: Mud and moorum Brick Flag stone Cement concrete Terrazo Mosaic Marble Tiles Timber Rubber P.V.C.
Mud and Moorum Flooring: These floorings are used in low cost housing, especially in villages. Over the hard layer of earth filling mud or moorum layer is provided. The floor needs a thin wash of cow dung at least once a weak.
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Brick Flooring: This is also a cheap floor construction. It is commonly used in godowns and factories. Bricks are laid flat or on edges. Bricks of good quality should be used for the construction. Brick layer is provided on sand bed or on lean concrete (1: 8: 16) bed. In both cases joints are rendered flush and finished with cement mortar.
Flag Stone Flooring: Laminated sand stones or slates of 20 mm to 40 mm thick in the form of slabs of 300 mm 300 mm or 450 mm 450 mm or in the form of rectangles of size 450 mm 600 mm are used as floor finishes. The stone slabs are laid on 20 to 25 mm thick mortar spread over concrete bed. The joints are to be finished with rich mortar.
Cement Concrete Floors: It is modestly cheap and durable floor and hence commonly used in residential, commercial and industrial buildings. It consists of two courses-base course and wearing coat. Base course is laid over well compacted soil. Its thickness is usually 75 mm to 100 mm. It consists of lean cement concrete mix (1 : 4 : 8) or lime concrete containing 40% of 1 : 2 lime mortar and 60% of coarse aggregate of 40 mm size. After base course is hardened wearing coat of 40 mm is laid. It consists of panels of 1 m
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1 m, 2 m 2 m or 1 m 2 m. Alternate panels are laid with 1 : 2 : 4 concrete using wooden, glass or asbestos strip separators of 1.5 mm to 2.0 mm thickness. To get good bond between base coarse and wearing coat cement slurry wash is given before laying wearing coat panels. After 34 days of lying of one set of panel, another alternate panel are laid. Top of these panels are finished by tamping the surface with wooden floats and tapping with trowels, till cement slurry appears on top. It needs curing for 7 to 14 days. To get good appearance many times red-oxide finishing coat is provided.
Terrazo Flooring: Terrazo finishing coat is applied over concrete flooring to get pleasing appearance. Terrazo finish consists of 75 to 80% of surface marble chips embedded in cement mortar. Marble chips are mixed in cement in the proportion 1: 1.25 to 1: 2 and about 6 mm terrazzo topping is laid. The top is tamped and rolled. Additional marble chips are spread during tamping to get proper distribution of marble chips on the surface. After drying it for 12 to 20 hours, it is cured for 23 days. Then grinding is made in the following three steps: o Ist grindingUsing coarse grade (No. 60) carborundum stones. o IInd grindingUsing medium grade (No. 120) carborundum stones. o IIIrd grindingUsing fine grade (No. 320) carborundum stones. Plenty of water is used during grinding. After each grinding cement grout of creamlike consistency is applied and cured for 67 days. After final grinding and curing the floor is washed with plenty of water and then with dilute oxalic acid solution. Then floor is finished with polishing using machines and wax polish.
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Mosaic Flooring: It consists of a finishing coat of small pieces of broken tiles of China glazed or of marble arranged in different patterns set in lime-surkhi or cement mortar. The base course is concrete flooring and on it 30 to 40 mm mortar layer is provided. On this mortar layer broken pieces of China glazed or marble are set to get different attractive patterns. After 20 to 24 hours of drying the top is rubbed with carborundum stone to get smooth and polished surface.
Marble Flooring: Marble slabs are cut to get marble tiles of 20 to 25 mm thickness. They are laid on floors similar to other tiles. With power driven machine surface is polished to get even and shining surface. This type of flooring is widely used in hospitals and temples.
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Tiled Flooring: This is an alternative to terrazo flooring, used commonly used in residential, office and commercial buildings. Tiles of clay, cement or terrazo of standard sizes are manufactured in factories under controlled conditions. On the concrete base, 25 mm to 30 mm thick mortar is laid and these tiles are placed and pressed with trowel or wooden mallet. Before placing tiles care is taken to see that, neat cement slurry is applied to bottom side and sides of tiles to get good bond. Next day joints are cleaned of loose mortar and raked up to 5 mm depth. Then that is filled with coloured cement slurry to get uniform colour on the top surface. After curing for 7 days grinding and polishing is made as in the case of terrazo flooring.
Timber Flooring: Timber flooring are used in dancing halls and in auditoriums. Timber plates may be directly placed on concrete bed or may be provided over timber frame work. In latter case it is necessary to provide proper ventilation below the floor. This flooring is costly.
Rubber Flooring: Tiles or sheets of rubber with fillers such as cotton fibres, asbestos fibre or granulated cork are manufactured in variety of patterns and colours. These sheets or tiles may be fixed to concrete or timber floors. These floors are attractive and noise proof. However they are costly.
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P.V.C. Flooring: Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (PVC) is a plastic which is available in different color and shade. Nowadays tiles of this material are used widely. Adhesives are applied on concrete base as well as on bottom of PVC tiles. Then the tile is pressed gently with 5 kg wooden roller till the oozing of adhesive is seen. The oozed out adhesive is wiped and the floor is washed with warm soap water. The floor finish is smooth, attractive and can be easily cleaned. However it is slippery and costly.
Upper Floors In olden days upper floors were made of timber floors or steel joist and stone slabs. For larger spans jack arch floorings were used. Jack arch floor consisted of I-section steel beams supported on walls and gap between I-sections beams filled with concrete arch. Figure shows a typical jack arch flooring.
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Nowadays R.C.C. floors are commonly used. It may consist of only slab, if span is less or it may be beam and slab flooring. In halls of hotels and assembly, many provide flat slabs i.e. slabs directly supported over columns. The columns are provided with widened portion called column head. They give elegant look to halls, particularly when the head room is high. R.C.C. floors need proper thickness and reinforcements. They are arrived at by structural design engineers. Figure shows typical R.C.C. slabs.
In R.C.C. concrete is used to resist compression and steel to resist tension. Hence the concrete in tension zone do not contribute in resisting the load. It just keeps the steel at required position. In reinforced brick slab an attempt is made to replace concrete in tension zone by bricks. It is better thermal efficient than solid concrete floors. Figure shows a typical reinforced brick slab.
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In ribbed or hollow tiled flooring, the concrete in tension portion is replaced by hollow tiles. Figure shows a typical floor of this type.
In precast concrete floor panels may be used which helps in avoiding form works, storing of sand, coarse aggregates etc. at the site and also curing. Factories manufacture these units which are to be placed over supports in the structure. Figure shows the cross-section of a typical precast floor unit. These units are available in 0.25 m widths and in various spans. Interlocking grooves are provided on the sides to get tight connection with adjoining units.
Roofing and flooring tiles

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These are also clay products like brick but are thin. Depending upon their use, building tiles may be further classified as Roofing Tiles: Roofing tiles are used to cover sloping roofs. They are supported on wooden reapers. Sometimes light gauge steel or steed rods are also used as reapers. After supporting on reapers these tiles should be strong enough to take load of a man safely. The tiles should he leak proof. Normally these tiles are having curved surface having ribbed sections, so that with thin section they are sufficiently strong to resist the load. However many times flat tiles are used under curved/ribbed tiles. These tiles are not subjected to load directly. They serve in reducing adverse thermal effects. Mangalore, Allahabad tiles, and corrugated tiles are popularly used roofing tiles [Ref. Figure] Allahabad tiles are generally laid side by side and the joints are covered with half round tiles. Mangalore tiles are red in colour and they are of interlocking type. These tiles are manufactured in Mangalore, Calicut, Cochin and Gujarat. Corrugated tiles satisfy the requirements of appearance and leak proof but they can be easily blown away by wind. Roofing tiles Flooring tiles and wall tiles.
The desirable properties of the roofing tiles are: They should not absorb moisture more than 20 per cent by weight. They should give pleasing look. They should be capable of taking load of a man safely, after they are supported on reapers. They should be durable. They should be uniform in shape and size. Warpage should not exceed 2% along the edges and 1.5% along the diagonal.
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Flooring Tiles and Wall Tiles: These tiles are manufactured by burning pressed green tiles twice. First they are burnt at 700C. Then they are dipped in the glaze solution and again burnt at 1250C to fuse them with glaze. The thickness of these tiles varies from 15 to 20 mm. These tiles are flat and they have pleasing appearance. There are two types of flooring tiles: (a) Glazed Tiles: These tiles are used as finish surfaces for floors and walls in kitchen and bathrooms. These tiles are glazed and are provided with attractive colours and designs. (b) Mosaic Tiles: These are precast concrete tiles with marble chips on the top surface. After fixing these tiles polishing is done. The desirable properties of flooring and roofing tiles are: Tolerance for length = 5 mm. Tolerance for thickness = 2 mm. Should be uniform in shape and colour. They should be sound, hard and durable. They should have very low percentage of water absorption. They should give a clear ringing sound when struck with each other. They should show good resistance to abrasion.
Plastering
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Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is termed as plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or limecement mortar. Lime mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1: 3 or 1: 4. If hydraulic lime is used mix proportion (lime: sand) is 1: 2. Cement mortar of 1: 4 or 1: 6 mix is very commonly used for plastering, richer mix being used for outer walls. To combine the cost effectiveness of lime mortar and good quality of cement mortar many use lime-cement mortar of proportion (cement: lime: sand) of 1: 1: 6 or 1: 1: 8 or 1: 2: 8.
Objectives of plastering The objectives of plastering are: To conceal defective workmanship To give smooth surface to avoid catching of dust. To give good look. To protect the wall from rain water and other atmospheric agencies. To protect surfaces against vermit.
Requirement of good plaster are: It should adhere to the background easily. It should be hard and durable. It should prevent penetration by moisture It should be cheap. Lime mortar is usually applied in 3 coats while cement mortar is applied in two or three coats for the stone and brick masonry. For concrete surfaces cement mortar may be applied in two or three coats. For concrete building blocks many times only one coat of cement mortar is applied. The first coat provides means of getting level surface. The final coat provides smooth surface. If three coats are used second coat is known as floating coat. The average thickness of first coat is 10 to 15 mm. Middle coat thickness is 68 mm. The final coat is just 2 to 3 mm thick. If single coat is used its thickness is kept between 6 to 12 mm. Such coats are used on concrete surfaces not exposed to rain. Tools for plastering
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1) Gauging trowel 2) Floats 3) Plumb bob 4) Floating rule
Plasters A plaster is a thin coat of mortar of different compositions, which covers the faces and hides the joints of walls, ceilings, etc. on which it is applied. Certain additives are sometimes added to improve its adhesiveness, durability and luster.
Types of plaster 1) Lime plaster 2) Cement plaster 3) Mud plaster 4) Water proof plaster
Methods of plastering The plaster may be applied in one, two or three coats, but the thickness of a single coat should not exceed 12mm. In case of inferior or cheaper type of construction the plaster may be applied in one coat. For ordinary type of construction, the plaster is usually applied in two coats whereas for superior type of works, it is applied in three coats
The final setting coat should not be applied until the previous under-coat is almost dry. Before applying the next coat of plaster the previous plastered surface should be scratched or roughened to form a key with overcoming layer.
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In plastering, the plaster mix is either applied by throwing it with great force against the walls or by pressing it on the surface. The former method is considered better as in the latter case; the plaster has less adhesion and is more porous. The methods of applying the following common types of plasters are 1) Lime plastering 2) Cement plastering 3) Mud plastering 4) Stucco-plastering Lime plastering Lime plastering is the process of covering the surface by lime plaster or mortar in various proportions depending upon the nature of work and the number of coats to be applied. These proportions of lime and sand generally adopted for either external wok or internal work. Sometimes, and adequate quantity of cement is added with the lime plaster to increase its strength particularly for external work. The process of lime plastering is Preparation o surface for plastering Ground water for plaster Application of plaster coats Cement plastering Cement plastering is an ideal coating for external renderings. It is specially suited for damp conditions such as bath rooms, reservoirs, water tanks, floors; copings etc .where nonabsorbent surfaces are desired. Cement plaster is usually applied in single coat. But in certain cases when thickness of plaster in more than 15mm or its is desired to have finer finish, plaster is applied in two coats. Mud plastering This is the cheapest type of plastering generally employed in the construction of village houses, temporary sheds and structures of temporary importance. Besides being cheap, it provides insulation against heat and keeps the house cool for comfortable living.
Stucco plastering Stucco is the name given to an excellent decorative plaster used on both interior and exterior walls. The stucco-plastered surface has an attractive appearance which very much
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resembles with marble finish stucco is generally laid in three coats in total thickness of about 25mm. First coat-scratch or rough coat-to bond with walls and provide strength Second coat-finer or brown coat-provides desired shape to the surface Third coat-final or finishing coat-affords the required texture, smoothness and decorative appearance Defects in plastering Defects most frequently noticed in plaster fall into one of the following categories: Non-structural cracks Crazing is a network of fine cracks, usually in a hexagonal pattern, which measures between 5 and 75 mm across each hexagon. Craze cracks are usually very fine and shallow and do not extend through the whole depth of the plaster. They are usually the result of over trowel ling a rich mix (one with high cement content) or using sand containing an excessive amount of dust (more than 15% by mass passing a 0,075 mm sieve). Crazing often occurs within a few hours of the plaster being applied to the wall and cracks may hardly be visible until dust or moisture makes them noticeable. Craze cracks are of little importance, do not open and close with time, and can be covered using reasonable quality paint. If necessary, glass fibre tissue can be applied during the painting operation. Non-structural cracks Structural cracks Debonding Lack of hardness Grinning Expansion Popping
Map cracking is similar to crazing except that it is usually deeper (sometimes going through the plaster) and the hexagons of the pattern may measure up to 200 mm across. These cracks normally occur when a plaster mix with high cement content is used or the plaster is allowed to dry too quickly.
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Causes of excessive early moisture loss are: o Evaporation, if the wall is not protected from sun and wind. o Suction into the walls, if the masonry units are absorbent and they have not been dampened. o Use of sand that is badly graded and lacks fine material (less than 5% by mass passing the 0,075 mm sieve). o Not using building lime or a masonry cement when the sand lacks fine material. When the cracks are noticed while the plaster is still plastic, they are often floated closed, only to reappear some time later. These cracks can be filled with proprietary filler and be painted over. Glass fibre tissue can also be applied during painting. Cracking which results when an excessive amount of water is lost from the plaster in the first hours after application is known as plastic shrinkage cracking. Map cracking can be due to plastic shrinkage as can the horizontal cracks which form at corners and between windows Drying shrinkage cracks are the result of moisture loss after the plaster has hardened. Plaster will always shrink and crack so it is desirable that is should develop a large number of fine, unnoticeable cracks at close spacings. Plasters with very high cement contents and those which are made with poor quality sands having a high water requirement will tend to develop a few, widely-spaced cracks. Plaster applied in layers that are too thick will also tend to crack in this way. These cracks are normally stable and can be filled with a proprietary filler and be painted over Structural cracks Some cracks visible in the plaster may result from cracking of the wall. This can be caused by differential movement of the foundations, moisture expansion or drying shrinkage of masonry units, or thermal movement of the roof. This type of crack often forms in straight vertical or horizontal lines, or in stepped diagonal lines, and may be quite unsightly. The crack width will often vary with the seasons. Because these cracks originate in the wall and not in the plaster, repairing the plaster is ineffective. A specialist should be called in to establish the cause of the cracking and to recommend remedial measures
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Such measures may include structural alterations which change cracks into movement joints. Visible joints can be hidden by cover strips fixed on one side of the joint or sealed with elastomeric sealants.
Debonding Debonding of plaster is often noticed as a hollow sound when the surface is tapped. Plaster is inclined to curl and debond from the wall because the outside skin of the plaster that is exposed to the air will shrink at a different rate from the plaster in contact with the wall. This is especially true of excessively thick plaster layers. Small areas of debonding (about the size of a plate) are not significant, but larger areas should be removed and replaced. Because debonding is generally the result of inadequate preparation of the substrate, it is important to make sure that the bond between plaster and wall is as good as possible. This can be done by: o Cleaning dusty or oily wall surfaces thoroughly. o Allowing the walls to reach the correct moisture content. o Using a cement slurry or spatter dash coat before plastering. o Using bonding liquids and following the procedure recommended by the manufacturer. Lack of hardness There are no specifications covering the hardness or strength of plaster, and there is no reliable way of measuring it. Evaluation is often carried out by scratching the surface with a hard sharp object such as a screwdriver or a key, and is consequently quite subjective. It is often better to have a slightly weaker plaster that is less likely to show significant cracking or debonding than one which is too strong. However, very weak plasters will be unable to resist impacts; will have reduced resistance to water penetration and picture nails will tend to fall out. They also tend to encourage moss growth on sheltered faces particularly if poor quality paint is used.
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There are five common causes of soft plaster: o Insufficient cement o The use of sand containing excessive quantities of dust (more than 15% by mass passing the 0,075 mm sieve) o The use of a mix with poor water retention properties o The addition of extra water some time after first mixing (a practice known as retempering) o Rapid drying due to plastering in full sun or wind The only one of these causes which can be confirmed by testing hardened plaster in the laboratory is that of insufficient cement, and only if representative samples of the sand and cement used in the plaster are available to the laboratory doing the testing. Unpainted plaster can be treated with proprietary products. These materials may increase hardness to some degree. Painted plaster can only be removed and replaced. The inconvenience of this option has to be weighed up against living with the weak, unsatisfactory plaster. A coat of high-quality exterior paint will normally reduce the risk of water penetration to acceptable levels if the plaster is strong enough to hold such paint. Areas which are particularly susceptible to impact, such as corners, can be replastered with relatively little disruption. Grinning Grinning is the term given to the appearance of a plastered wall when the positions of the mortar joints are clearly visible through the plaster. It is caused by the difference in suction between the masonry units and the mortar. Raking out mortar joints also causes grinning and the practice should thus be limited to soft clay brickwork. While grinning may be unsightly, it is unlikely to lead to further cracking. The choice is to live with it, or to remove and replace the plaster. Application of an undercoat or a spatter dash coat before plastering will help to avoid grinning. Expansion This includes swelling, softening, layer cracking and spalling of the plaster. It is usually caused by the inclusion of proprietary gypsum-based products in the mix. Under moist conditions, the sulphate from the gypsum reacts with the portland cement paste and forms compounds of increased volume which disrupt the plaster. The only remedy for expansioninduced disruption due to gypsum in the mix is to remove and replace the plaster.
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Popping Pop outs are conical fragments that break out of the surface of the plaster leaving holes which vary in size. They are caused by the presence of contaminant particles in the mix which, reacting with the moisture in the mix, expand and cause cavities in the plaster. Contaminants are usually seeds, other organic material, or particles of dead burnt lime. Once the cause of the pop out has been removed, the hole can be filled with proprietary filler and painted over.
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Pointing Instead of plastering entire surface of the masonry, special mortar finishing work is done to the exposed joints. This is called pointing. It consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 mm to 20 mm and filling it with richer mortar mixes. In case of lime mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 2 and in case of cement mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 3. Pointing is ideally suited for stone masonry because stones are having attractive colors and good resistance to penetration by water. Pointing gives perfection to weaker part of masonry (i.e. to joints) and it adds to aesthetic view of the masonry.
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Painting Paint is a liquid surface coating. On drying it forms a thin film (60150 _) on the painted surface. Paints are classified as oil paints, water paints, cement paints, bituminous paints and special paints such as fire proof paints, luminous paints, chlorinated rubber paints (for protecting objects against acid fumes), etc. The functions of the paints are: to protect the coated surface against possible stresses mechanical or chemical; deteriorationphysical or environmental; decorate the structure by giving smooth and colorful finish; check penetration of water through R.C.C; check the formation of bacteria and fungus, which are unhygienic and give ugly look to the walls; check the corrosion of the metal structures; check the decay of wood work and to varnish the surface to display it to better advantage.
1) Painting plastered surface Painting a new surface Surface preparation: Paint cannot take care of construction defects. Before applying the paint it is ensured that the surface is free from dust, dirt, loose matter, grease etc. and is rubbed with an emery paper, to provide a mechanical key between surface and paint for satisfactory adhesion. Sequence of painting: The primer (first coat) is applied with brush or spray on the prepared surface. It should be thinned with water or thinner in the recommended manner and proportion before application. After drying it is rubbed with emery paper. Dents and cracks, if any, are filled with putty using a knife applicator. Putty should not be applied thick. If the required thickness is large, it should be applied in two coats. After the putty has dried, the whole surface is rubbed down well in order to smoothen the putty and provide a mechanical key to the finished coats. Two or three finish coats are applied. Each coat is allowed to dry before the application of next coat. Painting old surface The procedure depends on the state of the existing coating. If any of the defects discussed below is very much pronounced it is completely removed and the surface is painted as a new surface.
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Chalking: Clean the surface; rub with an emery paper so that the chalk is removed. Apply one or two finish coats. Efflorescence, blistering, cracking and flaking: Scrap off the old paint from affected areas. Touch up with primer and apply one or two finish coats on affected areas. Rub the entire surface and apply the finish coats. Glossary surface: Remove all gloss by rubbing with emery paper and then apply the finish coats. Fungus growth: Remove the fungus. Apply fungicidal solution liberally and observe for further growth. If no further growth of fungus is observed apply the desired paint.
2) Painting wood surfaces Painting of wood work should be done with great care. Normally 34 coats are sufficient for wood work. New wood surface Surface preparation: The wood should be well seasoned, dried, cleaned and the surface made smooth with an emery paper. Nails, if any, should be driven down the surface by at least 3 mm. Knotting: Knots in the wood create lot of problems. These excrete resin which causes defects such as cracking, peeling and brown discoloration. Knotting is done so that resin cannot exude from the knots. Any of the following methods may be used suitably. Ordinary knotting: This is also known as size knotting. The knot is treated with a coat of hot red lead ground with a strong glue size in water. Then a coat of red lead ground in boiled linseed oil is applied. Lime knotting: The knot is covered with hot lime for 24 hours after which it is scrapped off. Thereafter, the process described in ordinary knotting is followed. Patent knotting: Two coats of varnish or shellac are applied. Primary coat: The main function of priming coat or primer is to form the base for subsequent ones. After knotting priming coat is applied over the entire surface to fill all the pores. A second priming coat is applied after first has dried. In general the ingredients are same as those of the subsequent coats but with a difference in proportion. A typical composition of primer may be
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Stopping: After the priming coat putty is applied to fill the pores of the surface. Then it is rubbed smooth. Coloring pigment is also added to it to match the shade of the finished coat. On drying, the selected paint is applied with brushes to bring smoothness and uniformity in color. After painting the surface in one direction, the brush is worked in the perpendicular direction to eliminate brush marks. This is known as crossing. All the successive coats are applied after drying and slight rubbing of previous coats for proper bond. Old wood work The old paint is removed with a sharp glass piece, sand paper, paint remover or with a blow lamp. Any smoky or greasy substance should be washed with lime and subsequently rubbed with pumice stone. The surface is then washed with soap and water and dried completely. Then two coats of paints are applied in a way similar to that described in painting new surfaces. Paints for wood work Mixed pigment paint provides better protection; white lead combined with zinc oxide and a moderate amount of filler such as barytes or silica gives good results. Tinted paints have proved to be satisfactory for maintaining color and durability. Generally enamel paints are be highlighted the only choice is the varnish forming a transparent or translucent film. 3) Painting metal surface New iron work The surface should be free from scales, rust and grease. Scales and rust are cleaned by hard wire brush. Grease is removed by using petroleum or by hot alkaline solution of Na2CO3 or NaOH, benzene, and lime water. A priming coat of red lead with barytes and raw linseed oil is then applied over the prepared surface. After drying of the priming coat, one or more undercoats with desired paint are applied. The second coat is given only after the first coat has dried. The finishing coat is applied carefully to produce a smooth fine surface. Old iron work The surface is prepared by scraping properly all the scales and rust with emery paper. The greasy substances are removed with lime water. The old paint may be burned with a blow lamp or by suitable solvents. After this the surface is brushed with hot linseed oil and painted as for new iron work.
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4) Paints for structural steel work The major problem to overcome in painting iron and steel is corrosion due to electrolysis caused by the presence of air and moisture. Red lead is considered to be the best priming coat; it produces a tough elastic film, impervious to air and moisture. Pure linseed oil priming coat is detrimental in that it stimulates corrosion. The linseed oil film is rendered more impervious by the use of spar varnish. Graphite paint used for black color, is very durable and is not affected by sulphur films, ammonia or chlorine gases. Silica-graphite paints are best; they do not crack and blister in course of time. Aluminum paint is also gaining popularity because of its shining and contrast properties and heat and chemical resistance. Bituminous paints may be very well adapted to paint inside of pipes, iron under waters, piles, ships and boats; they are unsatisfactory when exposed to sunlight. Lead or zinc paint should never be applied directly over the iron surface as it encourages galvanic action destroying the paint. Defects A painted building with full colour effects gives complete satisfaction. But the appearance of defects becomes a ready source of complaint. Unfortunately painting defects are by no means uncommon. They may arise from a variety of causes but the principal reasons behind them are incorrect choice of paint in relation to backing materials, application of paint to a damp surface or one to which moisture may have access and; poor workmanship. 1) Effects of back ground The factors affecting durability are dampness, cleanliness, movements, chemical reactions, etc. Dampness The traditional constructions in brick, cement, etc. involve the use of wet procedures. If paint is applied on an insufficiently dry background the moisture is trapped and in the process of subsequent drying the adhesion of the paint breaks down. Emulsion paints are somewhat better in this respect. Cleanliness Paint will not adhere to the surface if it is not cleaned of dirt or dust. Movements The painting processes can be delayed for proper results for movements caused by shrinkage and special paints should be used for thermal movements. Chemical reactions between backing material and paint film may push the paint off the backing material and lead to softening or discolourise the paint. This effect generally occurs only if moisture is present and is noticeable in oil paints over materials containing cement or lime. The
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breakdown of bond is because of the crystallization of salts below the paint film and the discoloration is usually due to action of free lime on the pigments. 2) Effects of weather The paint film is subjected to chemical attack of atmosphere, sunlight and heat, all deteriorating it. Special chemical resistant paints should be applied in industrial areas. Alkali resistant paints weather well in coastal areas. Blue and green colors tend to fade when exposed to bright light. In addition the fierce heat of sun may breakdown the paint film because of the disintegration of the material itself and also because of the thermal movement. The most common defects noticed after painting is as follow:
Blistering and peeling are swelling of the paint film and can be defined as localized loss of adhesion between one or more coatings or between primer and parent surface. When swelling is because of oil or grease on the surface it is known as blistering and in case of moisture it is called peeling. It occurs in nonporous coatings such as oil based paints and enamels. A special heat-resisting type of paint should be used for hot surfaces such as radiators. Causes It is brought about by moist air, oily or greasy surface, or imprisoned gases between the painted surface and the paint film, which expand under the influence of heat. Cure Emulsion paints provide a porous coating and allow the moisture to pass through. Checking is a mild form of cracking. If hair cracks produced enclose small area it is known as crazing. In case the enclosed area is large the defects is called crocodiling. Causes It is caused when the paint film lacks in tensile strength and occurs when paint is applied during very cold weather or because of insufficient drying of undercoat. Cure When cracks are very small and do not enlarge with time, the top coating is flattened with emery paper and a fresh coat of paint is applied. Cracks The cracks extend throughout the entire paint system extending right down to the original surface. Causes 1. Cracks in the plaster or masonry do not let the paint to remain intact. 2. Paint applied on glossy surface. 3. Premature application of top coat before the previous coat has completely dried. 4. Painting improperly seasoned wood.
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Cure The causes of cracking should be attended to. Flaking is detachment of paint film from the surface. Cause The moisture penetrates through the cracks on the coatings and the bond between surface and paint film is lost. Cure 1. Use of plastic emulsion paints. 2. Surface should be rubbed with emery paper before applying a fresh coat. 3. All dirt or dust on surface should be removed prior to painting. Chalking Paint film becomes powder due to insufficient oil in primer. Alligatoring One layer of paint films sliding over the other one, when a hard paint is applied over a soft one or vice versa. Wrinkling or crawling appears when the paint film is quite thick or the oil in the paint is more than required. The lower portion of the paint does not dry due to greater thickness of the paint film which shrinks due to drying in course of time. Running and sagging Paints applied over smooth and glossy surface do not stick and flow back or towards the unpainted area. This is known as running and sagging. The surface tobe painted should, therefore, be rubbed with an emery paper before painting. Mildew: Mildew thrives in warm, moist and dark places. Zinc oxide and phenol mercury oleate are very useful to check its growth. Bloom is identified as dull patches on the finished, polished or painted surface due to defect in the quality of paint or poor ventilation. Flashing is characterized by the appearance of certain glossy patches on the painted surface. The reasons attributed to this defect are weathering actions, use of cheap paint, and poor workmanship. Grinning is due to the imperfect opacity of the paint film even after the final coat. The background and its defects can be clearly visible in such a case.
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Beams It is structural member which is subjected to vertical dead and live loads at right angles to its axis. Basic theory of bending: internal resisting moment at any point in a beam must equal the bending moments produced by the external loads on the beam
If the beam is in equilibrium then all moment forces must cancel out Positive: clockwise rotation Negative: counterclockwise rotation
Moment increases as the distance from the reaction increases or as the distance from the neutral axis increases, therefore in a simply supported beam: Maximum moment occurs at the center span Beam is subject to highest bending stress at extreme top and bottom fibers
In order for a beam to support loads, material, size and shape of beam must be selected to sustain the resisting moments at the point on the beam where the moment is greatest Section modulus: ratio of the beams moment of inertia to the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost part of the section (extreme fibers) S = I/c Shear: tendency of two adjacent portions of the beam to slide past each other in a vertical direction
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Types of beams Basic beam types: all have ends that are free to rotate as the load is applied Typical load types Concentrated load (P) Uniformly distributed load (W) a) Resultant of uniformly distributed loads is at the center of the load b) Useful when summing moments of partial uniform loads Statically determinate: reaction can be found using the equations of equilibrium OR summation of horizontal, vertical and moment forces equals zero Simply supported beams Overhang beams Cantilever beams Simply supported Overhanging Continuous beam held up by more than two supports
Other beam types: one or both sides restrained against rotation Cantilever beam Fixed-end beam
Statically indeterminate: more complex calculations required Continuous beams Fixed-end beams
Basic requirements for structural design of a beam Determine stresses due to bending moment and vertical shear caused by particular loading conditions However, before these are determined reactions of supports must be calculated Principles of equilibrium Sum of all vertical forces acting on body must equal zero Sum of all horizontal forces acting on body must equal zero Sum of all moments acting on body OR the moment of all forces about a point on the body must equal zero Simply supported beams
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These are resting freely on walls or columns on their both ends
Cantilever beams These beams fixed at their one end at the columns or walls and other end is free are free at the columns or walls.
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Propped cantilever beams
Fixed end beams A beam whose both ends are fixed is known as a fixed beam. Fixed beam is also called as built-in or encaster beam. In case of fixed beam both its ends are rigidly fixed and the slope and deflection at the fixed ends are zero. Advantages of fixed beams o For the same loading, the maximum deflection of a fixed beam is less than that of a simply supported beam. o For the same loading, the fixed beam is subjected to lesser maximum bending moment.
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o The slope at both ends of a fixed beam is zero. o The beam is more stable and stronger. Disadvantages of a fixed beam o Large stresses are set up by temperature changes. o Special care has to be taken in aligning supports accurately at the same lavel. o Large stresses are set if a little sinking of one support takes place. o Frequent fluctuations in loading render the degree of fixity at the ends very uncertain.
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Continuous beam A Continuous beam is one, which is supported on more than two supports. For usual loading on the beam hogging (- ve) moments causing convexity upwards at the supports and sagging (+ ve) moments causing concavity upwards occur at mid span.
Advantages of Continuous beam over simply supported beam The maximum bending moment in case of continuous beam is much less than in case of simply supported beam of same span carrying same loads. In case of continuous beam, the average bending moment is lesser and hence lighter materials of construction can be used to resist the bending moment
Over hanging beam When one or both the ends of the beam are extended beyond their support, they are known as over-hanging beams.
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Columns A column is a long vertical slender bar or vertical member, subjected to an axial compressive load and fixed rigidly at both ends. A strut is a slender bar or a member in any position other than vertical, subjected to a compressive load and fixed rigidly or hinged or pin jointed at one or both the ends. Resist axial compressive forces Other considerations: Tendency of a long slender column to buckle even though the columns material and size can withstand the load Column will fail in buckling under a much smaller load Fa = P/A Combined loading: due to the normal compressive force plus lateral load (wind) Combined loading can also be induced by an eccentric compressive load applied off the centroidal axis of the column In case column acts like a beam standing on end with one face in compression & other in tension Compressive forces due to the eccentric load add to the normal compressive stress on one side and subtract from the normal compressive stresses on the other Flexural stress caused by eccentricity is given by F = Mc/I Types of column failure Crushing failure The column will reach a stage, when it will be subjected to the ultimate crushing stress, beyond this the column will fail by crushing. The load corresponding to the crushing stress is called crushing load. This type of failure occurs in short column. Buckling failure This kind of failure is due to lateral deflection of the column. The load at which the column just buckles is called buckling load or crippling load or critical load. This type of failure occurs in long column.
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Radius of Gyration Ability of a column to withstand a load is dependent on Length Cross sectional shape Area Moment of inertia R = I/A Slenderness ratio (buckling factor) and its relevance in column It is the ratio of effective length of column to the least radius of gyration of the cross sectional ends of the column. Slenderness ratio = l eff / r l eff = effective length of column r = least radius of gyration Slenderness ratio is used to differentiate the type of column. Strength of the column depends upon the slenderness ratio, it is increased the compressive strength of the column decrease as the tendency to buckle is increased. Factors affect the strength column Slenderness ratio: Strength of the column depends upon the slenderness ratio, it is increased the compressive strength of the column decrease as the tendency to buckle is increased. End conditions: Strength of the column depends upon the end conditions also. Types of columns
Combined properties of area and moment of inertia is called radius of gyration
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Lintels: Lintel is a horizontal flexural member which spans over the openings in the walls for doors, windows, ventilators, cupboards etc. The load of masonry above the opening is transferred to the wall by flexural action of the lintel so that frames of doors, windows etc are not unduly loaded. The end bearings for the lintel should be at least 200 mm. The width of lintels is same as that of wall. Lintels of various materials are used. They are: Wood Stone Brick R.C.C. and Steel.
Wood Lintel: It may be a single piece or may be assembled by joining 2 to 3 pieces. Sometimes the wooden lintels are strengthened by steel plates at top and bottom. Such lintels are called as flitched beams. Stone Lintels: Wherever stones are available stone beams are used as lintels. As stone is weak in tension they can be used only for small spans. Their depth is kept about1/10th span. Stones are cut to the width of wall and dressed before using as lintels. Brick Lintels: Well burnt, good quality lintels are laid on ends or edges to form lintels as shown in Figure. It needs temporary form work at the time of construction. The lintel is to be cured for 714 days before form work is removed. Such lintels are useful to span small openings.
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R.C.C. Lintels: It is possible to provide R.C.C. lintels of any span required in the building. They can be isolated or continuous over the openings. They are provided with suitable reinforcementmain reinforcements beings on lower side in the opening. Nowadays these lintels are used very commonly in buildings. Steel Lintels: Steel angles or rolled steel I-sections are used as lintels. Tube separators may be provided to maintain the spacing between the sections. If the sections are opened to atmospheric action, regular painting is necessary. Many times they are encased in concrete to avoid maintenance problem. These lintels can be used for large openings
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Bridges and Dams Water is the vital resource to support all forms life on earth. Unfortunately, it is not evenly distributed over the world by season or location. Some parts of the world are prone to drought making water a scarce and precious commodity, while in other parts of the world it appears in raging torrents causing floods and loss of life and property. Throughout the history of the world, dams and reservoirs have been used successfully in collecting, storing and managing water needed to sustain civilization. The primary benefit of dams and reservoirs in the world is water supply. Other key purposes and benefits include: Irrigation for agriculture (food supply) Flood control Hydropower Inland navigation Recreation Most dams are built for several purposes. This produces a broad range of domestic and economic benefits from a single investment. An additional local benefit is the employment opportunities during the multiple year construction of a reservoir project. Effective management of the worlds water is essential to sustaining the existing and future population of the world. As the worlds population continues to grow so does the need for more dams, especially in developing nations and the vast arid regions of the world. Basin-wide planning for water management is the key element to providing optimum water supply and other benefits. While dams provide significant benefits to our society, their impacts on the surroundings include: Resettlement and relocation Socioeconomic impacts Environmental concerns Sedimentation issues Safety aspects However, these concerns and impacts can be reduced or eliminated by careful planning, and the incorporation of a variety of mitigation measures.
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Importance of dams
Water Supply for domestic and industrial use One of the fundamental requirements for socio-economic development in the world is the availability of adequate quantities of water with the appropriate quality. In the past, the main sources of domestic and industrial water have been aquifers. Today, many of these are now overused and their rate of recharge is far less than what is extracted. Their supply must be augmented with additional water from reservoirs. Large urban areas depend heavily on water stored in reservoirs during high flows and used during periods of low rainfall. This is especially critical in arid regions of the world. This need for stored water will continue, since many aquifers are over-used. The worldwide per capita water demand for water is expected to be about 750 liters per day in the year 2000, when the world population will be just over 6 billion. Properly planned, designed and constructed and maintained dams contribute significantly toward fulfilling our water supply requirements. The primary source of fresh water supply is from precipitation. Throughout the world, the hydrologic cycle varies and is not predictable. Of the total precipitation, only 1/3 remains for runoff to our rivers, the rest is lost to infiltration and evaporation. Only about 36% of this runoff is available the rest is lost to infiltration and evaporation. Only about 36% of this runoff is available for use. To accommodate the variations in the hydrologic cycle, dams and reservoirs are needed to store water and then provide consistent yearly supply. Water stored in reservoirs is also used for industrial needs. This ranges from the direct use in chemical and refining processes to cooling for conventional and nuclear power production. Managed flows from reservoirs can be used to dilute discharged substances by augmenting low river flow to maintain water quality at safe limits. Meeting the agricultural demand for food supply One of the biggest uses of water on a worldwide scale is agricultural irrigation. This will account for about 1147 liters per day per capita by the year 2000. Since the early 1990s, less than 1/5 of the land suitable for agriculture in the world has been irrigated, and it has contributed about 1/3 of world food production. It is estimated that 80% of additional food production by the year 2025 will come from irrigated land. Most of the areas in need of irrigation are in arid zones, which represent a major portion of the developing countries. Even with the widespread measures
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to conserve water by improvements in irrigation technology, construction of more reservoir projects will be required. Flood control Dams and reservoirs can be effectively used to regulate river levels and flooding downstream of the dam by temporarily storing the flood volume and releasing it later. The most effective method of flood control is accomplished by a number of multipurpose dams strategically located in a river basin. The dams are operated by a specific water control plan for routing floods through the basin without damage. This not only eliminates flooding, but provides other benefits such as water supply, irrigation, hydropower and water quality. The number of dams and their water control management plans are established by comprehensive planning for economic development and with public involvement. Flood control is a significant purpose for many of the existing dams and continues as a main purpose for some of the major dams of the world currently under construction Hydropower The availability of energy is essential for the socio-economic development of a nation. It is advantageous to use energy that is clean, efficient, dependable and renewable. Hydropower meets all of these requirements. In countries, where a vast amount of development still lies ahead, good conditions often exist for renewable energy sources. The technically most advanced and economical source of renewable energy is hydropower. Less than 20% of the worlds estimated feasible hydropower potential has been developed. The greatest amount of potential remains to be developed in Asia, South America and Africa. Hydropower projects produce energy with a high rate of efficiency and without burdening future generations with pollution or waste. Hydropower projects can be developed with very small capacities for local consumption or with very large projects as part of a regional or national system. As part of a multipurpose project, hydropower can also help to finance other functions of a reservoir or river, such as irrigation water for food supply, drinking water, flood protection, improved navigation or recreation. Inland navigation Natural river conditions, such as current, changes in river level, ice, and changing river channels all create major problems and obstacles for inland navigation. The advantages of inland
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navigation over highway and rail are the large load carrying capacity of each barge, the ability to handle cargo with large-dimensions and fuel savings. Enhanced inland navigation is a result of comprehensive basin planning and development utilizing dams, locks and reservoirs that are regulated to provide a vital role in realizing regional and national economic benefits. In addition to the economic benefits, a river that has been developed with dams and reservoirs for navigation may also provide additional benefits of flood control, reduced erosion, stable groundwater over the length of the system and recreation. Recreation The attractiveness of reservoirs for tourism is often a significant benefit, in addition to the other purposes of a dam. This is very significant in areas where natural surface water is scarce or non-existent. Recreational benefits associated with lakes, such as boating, swimming, fishing, bird watching and nature walks, are taken into account early at the planning stage, along with other objectives achieve a balanced project. The operation of the dam and reservoir can enhance tourism Concerns, Impacts and Mitigation As is the case with any complex infrastructure project, dams have some impacts on their surroundings in the river basin. However, adverse effects can be reduced or eliminated by careful planning, public involvement and by incorporating a variety of mitigation measures. Some of the main concerns are as follows: Safety aspects To ensure the continued and dependable delivery of benefits from a dam, the owner must have a comprehensive plan for operation, maintenance and rehabilitation. As dams become older, safe performance becomes a concern. This requires more attention in the form of inspections, evaluations, modifications and upgrades of the older dams so they meet current technology, statutes and regulations. Dam safety activities include monitoring structural performance, developing emergency action plans, training of dam operators, exercises involving the local officials and population and implementing risk reduction actions. As residential and commercial development expands in a river basin, the hydrologic characteristics of the basin also change. This requires a periodic and thorough review of the rainfall and runoff characteristics as well as the identification of other changes in the hydrology of the basin.
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Socio-economic impacts Since dams are often seen as essential for national economic development, their macroeconomic benefits tend to be highlighted, while their local economic and social impacts have sometimes not been adequately evaluated. One of the most important objectives of a dam is to ensure that an appropriate share of the benefits go to the population directly affected. Resettlement programs must involve the identification of the affected population as well as the affected activities such as agriculture, irrigation, forestry, commercial and industrial. In developing countries educational programs and new activities such as crafts or other cottage industries can be developed. In tropical zones, sanitation must be addressed. Reservoirs can create an environment, which is favorable for the transmission of water-related diseases. The primary preventive measures are sanitation and health-care programs for the population around the reservoir, in conjunction with appropriate operating rules such as fluctuating lakes water level to discourage growth of disease carrying insects. Environmental concerns Managing water resources in a river basin has an impact on its natural water cycle. The scale of the impact depends on the actual size and natural condition of the area to be developed and the extent of development. Concerns about environmental issues and implementation of mitigation measures, are essential elements in the planning of a project. This includes: clearing of vegetation in the area to be flooded, multi-level outlet structures to optimize downstream water temperature and quality, provisions for the migration of fish and other aquatic organisms, and operational rules for regulating downstream flows at critical times to protect habitat for reproduction or migratory routes. Appropriate site selection, together with the implementation of these techniques, will result in both new and rehabilitated projects that minimize unacceptable environmental impacts. Taking measures to enhance the biodiversity of a reservoir is a viable mitigating measure in moderate climates, but may be counterproductive in tropical zones where such diversity would also foster harmful disease. Today, the planning and operation of dams do not only focus on technical aspects. Full consideration is given to whether or not the project is socially, environmentally and economically justified, and whether the normal functions of the river will
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continue to be preserved. Only projects with acceptable impacts should be considered for constructed.
Sedimentation problems Fast-flowing streams have the capacity to erode and transport soil, sand, gravel and stones as bed load and suspended material. When this fast flowing stream enters a calm reservoir, this solid material is deposited. This process is known as sedimentation. There are two positive impacts of sedimentation: The deposits in the entry zone of the reservoir (inner delta) provide highly diversified habitats for wildlife. Following the removal or settling of suspended solids in the reservoir, the water released from the dam is less turbid and the water quality is improved. A positive impact of sedimentation is the improved water quality downstream of the dam that makes water treatment easier and less costly. Additional downstream benefits are enhanced recreation, improved local living conditions and facilitating riparian and aquatic wildlife. The negative aspects of reservoir sedimentation are progressive loss of storage capacity, and increased erosion in downstream river channels. Various sediment-handling measures are available to mitigate the negative impacts of reservoir sedimentation. These are erosion control by fostering and safeguarding the natural vegetation cover, bypassing, sluicing, flushing and dredging. The positive aspects of sedimentation can be accentuated and the negative impacts lessened by appropriate planning and operational regimes for reservoirs that are susceptible to sedimentation.
Importance of bridges Bridges are vital for the development of a country since these enable transporting materials from one area to the other which may be separated by streams and rivers, thereby maintaining uniform flow of essential goods for development. In times of war, materials are swiftly transported for the defense needs of the country by railroad bridges. Bridges link the whole country with road and railway communication maintaining a uniform flow of people, goods and other essential commodities. The necessity of bridges may therefore be summarized as follows
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Bridges enable the free flow of traffic during monsoons and other periods of inclement weather. Bridges provide additional communication facilities The development of the backward districts which may be rich agriculturally critically depends on the existence of bridges. Bridges provide more socio-economic benefits to the people Bridges also enable movement of troops and military vehicles during hostilities
Stress Stress is the internal resistance offered by a unit area of the material from which a member is made to an externally applied load. Direct or normal stress is calculated using the following equation:
Strain Strain is the total deformation divided by the original length of the bar. Normal or longitudinal strain is calculated using the following equation:
Tensile stresses and strain are considered positive increase in length. Compressive stresses and strain are considered negative producing a decrease in length.
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Materials may be classified into Elastic material which undergoes a deformation when subjected to an external loading such that, the deformation disappears on the removed of the loading, (Rubber). A plastic material undergoes a continuous deformation during the period of loading and the deformation is permanent and the material does not regain its original dimensions on the removal of the loading, (Aluminum). A rigid material does not undergo any deformation when subjected to an external loading, (Glass and Cast iron).
Loads Dead loads: static in nature such as the self weight of the roof. Live loads: fluctuating in nature, does not remain constant such as a weight of a vehicle moving on a bridge. Tensile loads. Compressive loads. Shearing loads.
The actual values of modulus of elasticity E and maximum stress ultimate are determined by carrying out a standard tensile best on a specimen of the material. The bar is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load until failure occurs. Measurements of the change in length of a selected gauge length of the bar are recorded throughout the loading operation by means of extensometers. And a graph of load against extension or stress against strain is produced as shown.
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Form OA Hookes low is obeyed, i.e. the material behaves elastically and stress is proportional to strain, giving the straight line graph indicated. For elastic materials, stress is proportional to strain:
The unit of E is N/m2 (GN/m2). o After A the linear nature of the graph disappears and this point is termed the limit of proportionality. o B elastic limit, i.e. the deformation are completely recovered when the load is removed (i.e. strain returns to zero), but Hooks law does not apply. o Yield point is the stress at which a noticeable elongation of the sample occurs with no apparent increase in lead. o After B plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally recoverable, and relatively rapid increases in stain occur without correspondingly high increases in load or stress. o C is termed the upper yield point and D is the lower yield point. The deformation at the yield point is only local in nature. It starts at one point and that region gets work-hardened, so the flow starts again at a region adjacent to the former region. Hardening occurs here too, and the process continues. Thus, the flow is spread throughout the specimen. Each successive work hardening tends to increase the stress. But the effect is only momentary, and again the stress value falls, due to the flow in the neighboring region. As a result, the entire specimen gets workhardened and the stress begins to rise, deformation becomes uniform. o Beyond the yield point some increase in load is required to take the strain to point E, between D and E the material is said to be in the elastic-plastic state. o Beyond E the cross-sectional area of the bar begins to reduce rapidly over a relatively small length of the bar and the bar is said to neck. This necking takes place whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar finally occurs at point F.
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o Stress at failure, termed the maximum or ultimate tensile stress is given by the load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the bar. (Tensile Strength)
Poisson's ratio Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in the direction of stretching force. Tensile deformation is considered positive and compressive deformation is considered negative. The definition of Poisson's ratio contains a minus sign so that normal materials have a positive ratio.
Shear stress Material is subjected to a set of equal opposite forces. There is a tendency for one layer of the material to slide over another to produce the form of failure; if this failure is restricted then shear stress () is set up.
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The shear stress is tangential to the area and has units similar to normal stress, Pa or N/m2. Shear strain () is measured in radians (non dimensional) has no units.
Within the elastic range shear strain is proportional to shear stress.
Short Answer questions 1) What is meant by foundation?

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2) Mention the requirements of good foundation. 3) Explain the foundation for black cotton soil 4) What are the types of foundation? 5) Explain arch foundation with neat sketch 6) Explain shallow foundation 7) Draw the floating foundation 8) What do you mean by bearing capacity of soil? 9) What are the methods for determining the bearing capacity of soil? 10) What are the types of floors? 11) Mention the types of flooring. 12) Where is tone flooring is provided? 13) What are the advantages of cement concrete flooring? 14) What are the types of materials used for flooring? 15) Write the factors which affect the choice of flooring material. 16) What are the major problems of ground floor and upper floor? 17) How is mud flooring constructed? 18) Is the flooring material should be sufficiently hard. Explain 19) The problems of strength and ability are relatively of less importance for ground & basement floor. Why? 20) What are the requirements of good roof? 21) Write the classification of roofs 22) Define pitched roof and explain its various types 23) What are the advantages of steel trusses over timber trusses? 24) For spans greater than 12 m, it becomes economical to use the steel trusses. Explain 25) What are the requirements of good plaster 26) What are the defects in plastering? 27) What are the objects of painting a surface? 28) What are the defects in painting? 29) Define a) Stress b) Strain c) Modulus of rigidity d) Poissons ratio 30) What are the importance of bridges and dams? 31) Mention the types of following. a) beams b) column c) lintels
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Long-answer questions 1) List the objectives of a foundation 2) Explain under what conditions can an isolated footing can be adopted 3) What is deep foundation? Explain in detail 4) Explain the requirements of good foundation 5) Explain about the foundation in black cotton soil 6) Write a short note on bearing capacity of soil 7) What are roofs? Explain briefly about reinforced cement concrete roof 8) Explain the various roof coverings normally adopted 9) What are the advantages and disadvantages of flat roofs? 10) What is a floor? What are the materials normally used for the construction of a floor? 11) Explain the construction of the following type of floors a. Cement concrete flooring b. Mosaic flooring c. Terrazzo flooring d. Tiled flooring 12) What are the objectives of plastering 13) Explain the method for the preparation of different types of mortar for plastering. 14) What are the defects in plastering? How it can be rectified? 15) Explain the differences between pointing and plastering. 16) Explain about a. Painting plastered surface b. Painting wooden surface c. Painting metal surface d. Painting steel work 17) Explain the types of following with neat sketch a. Beams b. Columns c. Lintels 18) Write a short note on importance of bridges and dams 19) Explain briefly about
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a. Stress b. Strain c. Modulus of elasticity d. Poissons ratio e. Modulus of rigidity
REFERENCES 1. 2. Engineering Materials By R.K.Rajput Basic Civil Engineering By J.S.Birdie and G.S.Birdie
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3. 4. 5.
Building Materials By S.K.Duggal Basic Civil Engineering By S.S.Bhavikatti Basic Civil Engineering and Mechanical Engineering By G.Shanmugam and M.S.Palanichamy Building construction By S.P.Arora and S.P.Bindra Building construction By Rangwala Strength of materials By R.S.Khurmi
6. 7. 8.
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