Engine Modelling

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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES
2003-01-0728
Prediction of In-Cylinder Pressure,
Temperature, and Loads Related to
the Crank Slider Mechanism of I. C.
Engines: A Computational Model
Carlos Alberto Romero Piedrahita
Universidad Tecnolgica de Pereira
Hctor Fabio Quintero Riaza
Reprinted From: Modeling of SI Engines
(SP-1745)
2003 SAE World Congress
Detroit, Michigan
March 3-6, 2003
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Copyright 2003 SAE International
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ABSTRACT
This paper describes the initial works related to the study of
Internal Combustion Engines, as an object of mechanical
design, at the Universidad Tecnologica de Pereira. It is
reported a concise, complete methodology for simple model of
internal combustion engine. The emphasis of the paper is
placed on the use of the in-cylinder parameters (pressure and
temperature) and inertial loads in the crank-slider mechanism
to derive the loads that act on all the components of the crank-
slider mechanism as well as the theoretical output torque for a
given geometrical structure and inertial properties. These
loads can then be used to estimate the preliminary dimensions
of engine components in the initial stage of engine
development.
To obtain the pressure and temperature inside the cylinder,
under different operation parameters, such as air fuel ratio and
spark angle advance, a Zero dimensional model is applied.
The heat transfer from the cylinder and friction are not taken
into account. In this paper it is also outlined the completion of
an instrumentation and a test bench system to study the
behavior of spark ignition engines under different operation
regimes.
INTRODUCTION
The major concerns that influence the design of structural
components of an engine are good combustion efficiency,
force transfer trough the linkages, emissions, friction, wear,
and heat transfer.
In general, most of the components of the engine require the
ability to handle high thermal and mechanical stresses.
Dimensions of each part of the engine depend on the operation
loads and reliability requirements. It is necessary to develop
software tools and apply the mechanical design theory to size
main components of the engine under development. Even for
the EEM analysis it is imperative to have a minimum model
with the preliminary shapes and dimensions of the engine. Eor
this we must find all the loads acting on the elements, loads
derived from the in-cylinder pressure owed to the combustion
process, and inertial loads resulting from the speed variation
of the elements. There are inertial forces appeared in
accordance with the alternative movement of masses, P
f
, and
inertial centrifugal forces related to the rotating masses, K
r
.
Consequently, with the action of this forces, other forces
appear: friction forces, indicated forces and torque, reactive
forces on the crankshaft bearings and mountings of the engine.
The calculus and analysis of forces acting on the crank slider
mechanism is a necessary step to perform the strength and
stiffness analysis. These forces are also needed for the balance
analysis, the determination of the rotary uniformity of the
crankshaft, and the dimensioning of the flywheel.
The primary input needed for mechanical design analysis is
the dynamic cylinder pressure data. In the design process of
the engine a predictive model for the combustion process has
to be selected. In the model presented in this work, for its
simplicity, a Zero-dimensional or single zone model has been
chosen, in accordance with the approach found in Zhelezko
|1]. With a Zero-dimensional model the cylinder charge is
assumed to be homogeneous in both temperature and
composition.
After modeling the heat release, in agreement with the Wiebe
function, the Eirst Law of Thermodynamics is used to
calculate pressure and temperature.
In the first part of this paper it is shown the use of the
combustion model to analyze the influence of different

Copyright 2003 SAE International
2003-01-0728
Prediction of In-Cylinder Pressure, Temperature, and Loads
Related to the Crank Slider Mechanism of I. C. Engines:
A Computational Model
Carlos Alberto Romero Piedrahita and Hctor Fabio Quintero Riaza
operating parameters such as spark advance, excess air
coefficient, compression ratio, and combustion angle on the
pressure profile. In the second part, expressions for the total
loads (forces and moments) that subject to stress, wear, and
deformation the main components of the crank-slider
mechanism are presented. Those resulting loads are obtained
from the composite forces due to gas pressure and
reciprocating masses. The force on the piston is decomposed
in two forces: a force normal to the liner, and a force, which
acts along the connecting rod. The last, in turn, is decomposed
in the active tangential force that acts on the crank pin,
creating the torque, and the force along the radius of the crank.
Partial rotational movement of connecting rod and rotation of
the unbalanced masses of the crankshaft originate inertial
centrifugal forces, which load connecting rod journal bearings
as well as main journal bearings. Magnitude and directions of
the loads that act on the components of the crankshaft
mechanism are functions of the crank angle.
In view of the fact that in the design stage the masses of the
elements are not known, to compute inertial loads is necessary
to make an estimate of the material density and dimensions.
Relations for the dimensions of the elements referred to piston
bore, based on data of analogous engines, as well as scaling
laws can be considered to this effect. The model presented in
this work makes use of the first choice.
Models for in-cylinder thermodynamics and dynamics of the
crank-slider mechanism are integrated in this work to
configure a concise methodology for simple simulating of an
I. C. Engine. Based on this methodology, a computer program
code to analyze pressure, temperature, heat release, forces, and
torque traces, was developed. The program is written in
Matlab
TM
software language. Results for an example case are
presented, with an angular resolution of 0,25 degree of crank
angle (2880 data points per engine cycle) and under steady
operation conditions.
The work presented in this paper is part of a research program
at the Universidad Tecnologica de Pereira. Along with this
work, experimental activities are being developed intended to
measure and analyze the in-cylinder parameters and,
afterwards, build and validate a model of combustion for a
spark ignition engine. This article ends with the description of
the instrumentation system acquired for that purpose.
THERMODYNAMICAL MODELING.
In a real engine the working cycle proceeds in four stages:
compression, combustion, expansion, and gas exchange. The
compression stage begins when the intake valve closes and
ends at the ignition. The expansion stage begins at the end of
combustion and continues until the exhaust valve opens. Just
before the exhaust valve opens high pressures from the power
stroke are still present in the cylinder. When the exhaust cycle
technically begins, a pulse of pressure wave travels through
the port. Then pressure should decline rapidly during this
blowdown phase until the piston reaches BDC.
Since the models for the behavior of in-cylinder pressure
during the exhaust stage are too complex, compared with the
models for other processes of the working cycle used in the
present work, and in absence of experimental data, an estimate
of the exhaust in-cylinder pressure has been adopted. The
initial pressure for the exhaust stage is the pressure at the end
of the expansion (BDC), then the pressure falls rapidly during
an assumed angle (70 degrees in the model). After that the in-
cylinder pressure establishes in a constant given value (0,125
MPa) until the end of the exhaust stage (TDC). (The
assumption for the slope was made after observing an example
of the measured cylinder pressure in reference |2], pg. 233).
The intake process was assumed to occur under constant
pressure, with an initial value at the TDC equal to 0,09 MPa.
Opening and closing times for the exhaust and intake valves
are assumed to occur without any advance or retard with
respect to their respective closest dead centers. According to
reference |1], the compression and expansion strokes can be
modeled as polytropic processes with polytropic indexes of
compression, n
1
, and expansion, n
2
, calculated by the recurrent
formulas:
1 10 788 , 1 16 , 20
314 , 8
1
1 1 3
1
+ +
+ =
n
n
H
(1)
]
]
\
|
+ +
+ =
1
2
1
1
1 0046 , 0 7 , 23
314 , 8
1
n
Z
T
n
G
(2)
where GJ
a
/J
:
is the expansion ratio, and T
:
is the temperature
at the end of combustion process.
Using expression (1), pressure and temperature at the end of
compression (p
c
, T
c
) stroke are given as follows:
'
n
u .
0 = ;
' n
u .
'
1 1
= 0 ;
u
.
!
! = (3)
Combustion process is calculated in accordance with the
approach found in Zhelezko |1].
Eigure 1. Indicator diagram, p-.
Combustion process starts with the spark ignition (neglecting
the retarding period of the combustion process). During this
phase the pressure increases as a result of two factors: the
geometrical compression and heat release corresponding to the
mass fraction burned. At the moment of the ignition (see
figure 1) specific volume, J
y
, pressure, p
y
, and temperature, T
y
of the working mass can be calculated assuming that all the
compression process behaves as a polytropic one:
(
+
(
+ = sin cos
2
0
0
2 u
y
'
' '
'
'
'
!
!
'
n
y
u
u y
!
!

]
]
\
|
= ;
' n
y
u
u y
'
!
!
1 1
]
]
\
|
= (4)
where T is the spark advance.
Combustion heat release can be expressed in terms of the fuel
lower heating value, H
i,
and fuel burning rate. Lower heating
value can be found in fuel tables. The burning fuel rate is
calculated as the product of induced fuel mass, m
f
, and mass
fraction burned. Induced fuel mass can be calculated from the
specific fuel consumption and maximum power at a given
speed, while the mass fraction burned is estimated by a Wiebe
function :
(
(
]
]
\
|
=
+1
0
908 , 6 exp 1
m
:
x
M
M M
(5)
In this presentation a 6,908 |1] is the efficiency parameter,
m is the form factor, M
0
represents the start angle of
combustion, M
:
is the total combustion duration.
The total specific heat of the burning fuel, q
:
(in kJ/kg) for
gasoline engines is calculated by the expression:
1 1 + +
=
O r
:
L
Hi
q
D J
[
(6)
Where is the effectiveness combustion coefficient;
r
is the
residual gas fraction, o is the excess air coefficient, L
0
is the
stoicheometric molar amount of air, in kmol. In the case, when
o1, [ is calculated by the expression [ G\. \ is the
efficiency of use of the heat released. // is a heat release
coefficient, which accounts for the completeness of
combustion:
i
O i
H
.)l 0,404(1 10224 H
/

= for o1
(7)
for o ~1, // 1,
where l
0
is the stoicheometric amount of air in kg.
Assuming that the cylinder is a closed volume, so no gas flows
in or out of it, and using the Eirst Law of Thermodynamics,
the ideal gas law, and various relations between specific heats
for ideal gases, the in-cylinder pressure for any point 2 is
given by the equation (8). This expression is detailed in
appendix A. The overall pressure increases due to the
compression by the piston and flame front (combustion):
> @

'
'
' ' '
r
r ' E
M M
M M

1

+
=

(8)
Where the constant E
2
(in MPa) is given by the expression:
f :
a
m q
J
E =
H
002 , 0
2
(9)
AX
1-2
stands for the mass fraction of the charge that has been
burned within the period 1-2 (see figure 1):
(
(

(
(
= A
+ +
1
2
1
1
2 1
908 , 6 exp 908 , 6 exp
m
:
m
:
X
M
M
M
M
(10)
M
1
, M
2
are the crank angles defined as shown in figure 1,
corresponding to positions 1 and 2 of the interval for which
the mass fraction of burned fuel is being computed, relative to
the position y, corresponding to the start of combustion (spark
timing). M
1
, M
2
are the crank angles corresponding to
positions 1 and 2 of the interval 1-2, with respect to the TDC.
p
1
(in MPa) is the pressure corresponding to the first point of
the interval for which the mass fraction of burned fuel is being
computed. It is assumed that piston moves a small amount,
and a portion of the fuel is burned. The piston then, moves
again, and more fuel is burned. At each step in the piston
motion, the pressure rises. As the crank angle increments from
M
1
to M
2
the volume changes from J
1
to J
2
and the pressure
from p
1
to p
2
. The change in pressure due to volume change
can be calculated from a polytropic process with k defined as
factor of specific heat for the interval 1-2 K
1-2
.
1
1
2 1
2 1
2 1
+
=
k
k
K (11)
k
1-2
c
p1-2
/c
v1-2
is the ratio of mean specific heat of the working
mass at constant pressure, c
p1-2
and mean specific heat of the
working mass at constant volume, c
v1-2
, calculated for the
interval 1-2, according to expressions (12) and (13) |1].
Eor D 1:
2 1
2 1
2 1 2 1
0245 , 0
0665 , 0
1 2 , 14
6 , 13 7 , 76 259 , 1
\
|

(
\
|
+ =
x
T
x k
D
D
(12)
for o~1
,
0375 , 0
005 , 0
7 , 76
259 , 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
\
|
+ + = x
T
k
D
(13)
Where x
1-2
is the mean value of the mass fraction burned in the
interval 1- 2
x
1-2
0,5exp |-6,908(M
2
/M
:
)
m1
] exp |-6,908 (M
1
/M
:
)
m1
]}
(14)
T
1-2
is the mean temperature for the interval 1-2:
1 1
1
'
'
+
=
(15)
The current volume at any crank position M is defined using
the cylinder volume function \
(M)
:
(
\
|
i
i
+ ]
\
|
i
+
c
+ = sin 1
1
cos
1
1
2
1
1 ) (
2 2
(16)
where O R/L is the radius to connecting rod length ratio of
the crank-slider mechanism.
The in-cylinder temperature can be found as:
,
) (
) (
2 1
2 2
2
=
P
M \
M \
p
p
T
T
y y
y
(17)
where P
1-2
is the mean value for the coefficient of molecular
variation of the charge in the interval M
1
-M
2
. P
1-2
(P
1
P
2
)/2;

;
1
908 , 6 exp 1 1
1
1
1
max
1
r
m
:
O
J
M
M
P
P
+
(
(
]
]
\
|

+ =
+
(18)
P
omax
is the analytical value for the coefficient of molecular
variation of the fresh charge; P
2
can be determined in the same
manner. J
r
is the residual gas fraction.
Eor the model simulation it is necessary to enter the value for
the duration of combustion, M
:
, which is in turn the start for
the calculation of the expansion phase. After determining the
polytropic index n
2
, pressure and temperature at the end of
expansion process can be found as:
2
n
:
b
p
p
G
= ;
1
2
=
n
:
b
T
T
G
(19)
Instantaneous values for the specific volume, J
ec
(in m
3
/kg),
pressure, p
ec
, and temperature, T
ec
, corresponding to all
positions (with a resolution of 0,25 crank angle degree) from
the point : (corresponding to the end of combustion) until 540
degrees of crankshaft rotation are computed similarly to the
compression process:
1
2
\
|
= ]
\
|
=
\
|
+ ]
\
|
+
+ =
n
-.
u
^ -.
n
-:
u
^ -.
-.

-.
u
-.
!
!
1 1 unJ ,
!
!

, :in '
'
.:
'
'
'
'
!
!
M M
(20)
MODELING OF THE DYNAMICAL LOADS
Eor the centered crank-slider mechanism (with no piston pin
offset), the position of the piston with respect to the TDC, S
p
,
speed, v
p
and acceleration, f
p
are given by the expressions:

> @ > @, cos2 cos
2
R& cos2 cos
2
30
n
R
p
f
, sin2
2
sin & R sin2

2
sin
30
n
R
p
v
, ) cos2 (1
4
cos 1 R cos2
4
cos
4
1 R
p
S
M M M M
M M M M
M M M M
+ = + =
+ = + =
+ = + + =
]
\
|
(
\
|
(
\
|
]
\
|
(21)
Eigure 2. Eorces and torque acting on the components of the
crank slider mechanism.
As a result of the acceleration J
p
, inertial forces appear. Their
magnitude are proportional to the magnitude of acceleration
and reciprocating masses. The reciprocating masses contain
the mass of the piston and gudgeon pin, plus some portion of
the connecting rod mass. Since the connecting rod has a
complex movement in the plane, it can be treated as composed
by two masses: one that performs only reciprocating
movement, and a second one that has only rotary movement.
Eorce balance formulation for crank-slider mechanism can be
performed not disclosing the internal to mechanism forces.
This treatment could be sufficient to predict the main torque
and main force in the crankshaft (and the reactions in the
engine mounts), but it does not allow to obtain the forces
acting on all the components of the mechanism. It is precisely
the main goal of the dynamics analysis in this work to obtain
those forces.
Applying D`Alembert`s Principle |5], the crank-slider
mechanism can be viewed under the principles of dynamic
equilibrium, and forces acting on the components can be
found using the static approach brought in the reference |6].
The force that acts on the piston is given by the expression: P
P
g
P
f
. P
g
is the force due to gas pressure, and P
f
is the
force due to inertia. The resulting force is transmitted to the
crankshaft through wrist pin and connecting rod in a way
shown in figure 2. This figure shows also the forces that act on
each component of the mechanism and structure of the engine.
Table 1 shows the expressions for the forces used to perform
the mechanical design of the structural components of the
engine, accordingly to figure 2.
Table 1. Loads acting on the components of the crankshaft
mechanism.
Eorce which results from
the action of the differential
pressure (in-cylinder
pressure and crankcase-
pressure) on the piston area,
F
p
P
g
P
g
10
6
(p-p
0
)F
p
Alternative inertial forces P
f
P
f
- m
f
RZ
2
(cosM
O.cos2M)
Resulting force on the
piston pin directed along the
cylinder axis
P P PgP
f
Eorce along the connecting
rod
S
b
S
b
P/cos|
Eorce normal to the cylinder
liner
N N P tgE
Eorce along the crank radius K K P cos(ME)/cosE
Tangential to moment arm
force
T T Psin(ME)/cosE
Torque developed by one
cylinder
M
t
M
t
TR
Inertial centrifugal force
due to the rotational
movement of the
connecting rod, directed
along the crank radius,
which loads the connecting
rod crank pin and journal
bearing
K
br
K
br
-(1-N)m
bm
RZ
2
Inertial centrifugal force
due to the rotation of the
crankshaft, directed along
the radius of the crankshaft
K
mr
K
mr
-m
m
RZ
2
Resulting inertial
centrifugal force directed
along the crank radius,
which loads main journal
bearing
K
r
K
r
K
br
K
mr
,
Resulting force on the
connecting rod crank pin
R
ab
R
ab
|T
2
(K
mr

K
br
)
2
]
1/2
Angle that determines the
direction of R
ab
with respect
to the crankshaft position
<
< arctg|T/( K
mr

K
br
)]
Where p is the in-cylinder pressure for a given position of
the crankshaft (given by the expression 8); p
0
is the in-
crankcase pressure; m
m
is the unbalanced, with respect to
the rotation axis, mass of the crankshaft elements referred
to crank radius: m
m
m
mb
2m
c
U/R; m
mb
is the connecting
rod crank pin mass; m
c
is the unbalanced mass of the
cheek; U is the distance between axis of rotation and the
center of gravity of the unbalanced mass of the cheek.
Values for m
mb
, m
c
, and U can be determined based on
statistical data.
In a real engine forces cause elastic deformation of the parts
and this in turn modifies the actual compression ratio of the
engine. In the model presented in this paper it has been
assumed that components of the engine are stiff enough and
deformations are negligible.
The total torque of the engine anytime in the crank domain can
be calculated as the result of the combined efforts of the
separate cylinders.
SIMULATION RESULTS
The engine design task usually has as starting information the
required wide-open-throttle operating characteristic. The
designer can make use of available statistical data of engines
for analogous applications or apply the scaling laws to set the
values for initial design parameters. Such initial parameters
are cylinder diameter, specific power, stroke to bore ratio,
maximum piston speed, specific masses, and referred
dimensions for the structural and mechanical components (this
masses and dimensions can be expressed as a function of the
cylinder diameter). In table 2 the initial values to run a
thermodynamical and mechanical modeling of a given engine
are specified. Simulation results might be used as input loads
to a mechanical design software oriented to obtain a
preliminary construction of the engine.
To compute the pressure trace it is necessary to assume the
values that define the efficiency, position in the crank angle
domain, and shape of combustion heat release curve. In the
design stage one may which the heat release behave in a
certain way for different operating regimes of speed and loads.
In our case we defined the values for the Wiebe function at
full load: form factor m 1,5, start angle of combustion T 20
degrees, total combustion duration M
:
45. Eigure 3 shows
mass fraction burned traces for different values of form factor,
calculated in accordance with formula (5). Nevertheless the
heat release behavior is uncertain since it depends on many
other factors not known at this stage (combustion phenomena,
heat transfer, among others). In our case we chose the values
for the Wiebe function, which best approximated the
maximum pressure to an angle of 10 12 degree ATDC.
Other is the case in an experimental approach, where it is
necessary to examine several values of form factor to get a
good match to the experimental pressure curves.
Eigure 3. Wiebe function for mass fraction burned, calculated
for different form factors.
Table 2. Main features of the engine used for the simulation.
Type
4,6 L V-8 gasoline (H
i
44000 kJ/kg)
Maximum power (N
e
) 180 kW at 4750 rpm
Maximum torque (M
e
) 380 Nm at 4000 rpm
Specific fuel consumption (g
e
) at
maximum power
300 g/kWh
Stroke / Bore (S/D) 91,4/91,4 mm
Displacement (8J
h
) 4,6 l
Compression ratio (H) 9,4:1
Connecting rod length (L) 152,4 mm
Mass of the piston group referred
to piston area (m
f
/F
p
)
80 kg/m
2
Mass of the connecting rod
referred to the piston area (m
b
/F
p
)
110 kg/m
2
Ratio of crank cheek thickness to
cylinder diameter (h/D)
0,2
Ratio of main journal bearing
diameter to cylinder diameter
(d
mm
/D)
0,70
Length to diameter ratio for the
main journal bearing (l
mm
/d
mm
)
0,50
Ratio of connecting rod crank pin
diameter to cylinder diameter
(d
mb
/D)
0,65
Length to diameter ratio for the
connecting rod crank pin (l
mb
/d
mb
)
0,45
In-crank case pressure (p
o
) 0,1 MPa
In figures 4 and 5 pressure and temperature profiles for
different form factors have been simulated. To do this the
values for the combustion process have been selected: residual
gas fraction J
r
0,03, combustion effectiveness [ 0,9, fuel
composition (gO 0,01, gH 0,13, gC 0,86), specific fuel
consumption at maximum power g
e
300 g/kWh, and excess
air coefficient D 0,95. The closest pressure trace to 10
degree CA ATDC is that for m 1,5.
Eigure 4. Pressure traces for different values of form factor (H
10).
Eigure 5. Temperature traces for different values of form
factor.
Initially, in the algorithm for the combustion stage, the mass
fraction burned within the period 1 - 2 (figure 1) is calculated
using expression 10. The temperature, pressure, specific heat
ratio, and factor of specific heats (equations 17, 8, 12 or 13
and 11) are calculated by applying Newton-Raphson method.
Based on this result, the calculation continues with the
determination of the parameters for the next time interval.
This procedure repeats until the end of the heat release phase
is reached. Algorithms to compute the parameters for
compressions, expansion, and gas exchange, with assumptions
related above, are more simple. The time step interval of the
analytic solution is 0,25 crank angle degrees.
The main goal of the work is to simulate the working process
to compute the dynamical loads. Just for illustration purposes
the pressure traces under different values of spark advance,
excess air coefficient, and compression ratio are presented in
figures 6, 7, 8. The simulation has been performed for fixed
values of power, specific fuel consumption, and crankshaft
speed (the results shown correspond to an operating point of
4750 rpm). We should remind that the purpose of this article is
to show the simulation software for the model, rather than to
make analysis of the combustion process. This is why we are
not drawing conclusions from the figures.
Eigure 6. Influence of spark advance on the pressure trace.
Eigure 7. Influence of excess air coefficient on pressure trace.
An example of pJ diagram obtained with the computational
model developed is illustrated in figure 9. The initial pressure
for the exhaust stage is the pressure at the end of the
expansion, then the pressure falls rapidly during an assumed
angle (70 degrees). Afterwards the in-cylinder pressure
establishes in a constant given value (0,125 MPa) until the end
of the exhaust stage. The intake process was assumed to occur
under constant pressure, with an initial value at the TDC equal
to 0,09 MPa.
Eigure 8. Influence of compression ratio on pressure trace.
Eigure 9. p-V diagram for the modeled engine under
conditions specified in table 2 (wide-open-throttle
operating characteristic; 180 kW; 4750 rpm).
Because the cylinder volume change rate is determined by the
engine configuration and engine speed, heat release and
combustion models are the only factors that influence the
accuracy of the presented model.
A force balance for the piston pin gives the values for the
resulting forces (gas pressure plus inertial forces) required to
perform the dynamical analysis of the crank connecting rod
mechanism. Eigure 10 shows inertial forces, P
f
(the picture at
the bottom), forces due to gas pressure, P
g
, and resulting
forces P
f
P
g
.
A force balance can be made to obtain the axial force, S
b
,
along the connecting rod and side force of the piston, N. The
force along the connecting rod decomposes into radial force,
K, towards the crank axis, and tangential to the moment arm
force, T, which is the useful force. In figure 11 side, radial,
and tangential forces are displayed. Values for related masses
and dimensions have been taken from an analogous
commercial engine (of equal type and displacement).
The trace for the forces actuating on the connecting rod crank
pin are displayed in figure 12. In the design of the piston pin,
rod-to-crank pin, and crankshaft it is necessary to consider the
magnitude, direction, and distribution of the forces acting on
this members and their bearing in order to proportion for
strength and wear, and also to optimize the location of
lubrication grooves and supply holes.
Eigure 10. Traces for the forces resulting from gas pressure
and inertial loads during one cycle.
Eigure 11. Profiles of the current loads acting on the
components of the crankshaft mechanism in the
steady state operation condition.
Eigure 12. Diagram of the resulting forces actuating on the
connecting rod crank pin.
Torque, obtained as moment arm times the tangential force, is
shown in figure 13. Eor an engine with a uniform sequence of
firing orders the resulting torque diagram can be obtained by
summing the contributions of the individuals cylinders. The
torque trace for the total cycle is divided by the number of
cylinders and obtained curves are added to obtain the resulting
torque.
Eigure 13. Torque produced by one cylinder.
Resulting torque for the V-8 simulated engine is illustrated in
figure 14. This is an ideal torque from which we must discount
friction losses and other losses, not included in this model, to
obtain the effective torque.
As was mentioned before the resulting loads can be used now
to perform the preliminary design of each part of the piston
group, crank connecting rod mechanism, and engine block.
Eigure 14. Diagram of the total torque for the simulated 8
cylinder engine.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
At our laboratory in the U.T.P, a hydraulic dynamometer has
been designed and manufactured to be attached to a
commercial Mazda 2.0 l four in line engine, which has been
instrumented with sensors available for commercial electronic
fuel injection system engines. Sensors for manifold
atmosphere pressure, air temperature, coolant temperature,
throttle position, and oxygen have been installed. To measure
the mass air flow, a hot wire sensor from Mazda Matsuri has
been chosen. To measure the knock phenomena a piezoresistor
type knock sensor for a Chevrolet Cherokee engine has been
placed. A proprietary type of coil pick-up has been designed to
measure the high voltage signals in the secondary circuit of
the ignition system. To register the indicator diagram a
piezoelectric Kistler pressure sensor and a charge amplifier
have been acquired. K type Thermocouples have been
attached to the exhaust pipe to observe the changes in exhaust
gases. It is planned to install J type Thermocouples along with
washers at the interfaces of the spark plugs and the cylinder
head. Exhaust emissions of CO, unburned HC, CO
2,
NO
x
, and
O
2
are being measured with a portable ECM analyzer. The
fuel consumption will be measured using a volumetric turbine
type flow meter and a linear link amplifier purchased from
Elow Technology, Inc.
To acquire data provided by the sensors a National
Instruments AT MIO 16 E 10 board, installed in a 586 PC, has
been chosen. The AT MIO16E10 board has 16 analog inputs,
and enhances 12 bit resolution A/D conversion, and a
sampling rate of up to 100 kHz. Currently the computer
program to collect data and to build the maps of the engine is
under development, using Lab View as a software platform.
To control the dynamometer, an electronic valve, provided by
Danfoss, as well as a V/I converters, have been installed. Yet
the program also performs the control of the dynamometer,
engine test routines have still not been implemented.
A second test unit, at the Laboratory, includes a four stroke
one cylinder Robin EY17 engine. Eigure 15 shows
unprocessed dimensionless plots for pressure and torque in the
time domain recorded at idle operating condition. Although
we lack the processing data tools (they are under development,
and should be finished by the time an incremental encoder will
be gotten), this information we are using as educational tool.
Behavior of pressure under different load and speed regimes,
cycle to cycle pressure variations can be visualized. In a near
future an incremental encoder will be attached to the system,
so the study of heat release, pressure evolution, and other
analysis will be started.
Eigure 15. Pressure and torque plot of the Robin EY17 engine
at idle operating condition.
The main difficulty that we face in our project is the lack of
complete technical information of the sensors and actuators
that we have decided to install. This is due to the fact that car
makers provide only the required literature to perform service
and repair. Because of this, the work done up to now
comprises the study of the sensors, their characteristics and
responses, as well as the treatment needs, e.g. filtering,
amplifying and sample rates, for every signal.
CONCLUSION
A simple computational model, based on a concise and
complete methodology, intended to obtain the loads that act on
every component of the crank-slider mechanism, under
different operating conditions, was developed during the
course of the present work. The model allows also to
determine the behavior of heat release, pressure and
temperature for different parameters of combustion process.
Emphasis is placed on broadening the view of engine as an
object of mechanical design, rather than as an object of
control. It was used a particular simplified model of
combustion without entering into the details of the
thermodynamics and chemistry of combustion. A coarse
model which only takes into consideration the resulting forces
from the pressure gases and inertia is a good tool to attempt
the preliminary mechanical design of the main components of
the engine.
The completion of instrumentation and test bench system for
I.C.E. at Universidad Tecnologica Laboratory, acquired to
study the behavior of spark ignition engines under different
operation regimes, has been outlined.
REFERENCES
1. ZHELEZKO B. E. Construction and Design
Eundamentals for Automobiles` and Tractors` Engines.
Superior School. Minsk, 1988.
2. HEYWOOD, John B. Internal Combustion Engine
Eundamentals. Mc Graw Hill. New York, 1988.
3. JOVAJ M. S. Automotive Engines. Mir. Moscow, 1988.
4. LUMLEY J, L. Engines. An Introduction. Cambridge
University Press. Cambridge, 1999.
5. MERIAM, J. L.; KRAIGE, L. G. Engineering Mechanics:
Dynamics. John Wiley and Sons. New York, 1997.
6. HAM, C. W.; CRANE, E. J.; ROGERS, W. L. Mechanics
of Machinery. McGraw-Hill. New York, 1958.
7. CHEN C., HSIAO E. Measurement and analysis of
Combustion Process in a Small Internal Combustion
Engine.
8. Matlab 'Users Guide Natick: MathWorks, Inc, 1997.
CONTACT
Carlos Alberto Romero
Universidad tecnologica de Pereira
Pereira, Colombia
cromeroutp.edu.co
Hector Eabio Quintero
Universidad tecnologica de Pereira
Pereira, Colombia
hquinteutp.edu.co
NOMENCLATURE
In order of appearance:
P
j
: inertial forces appeared in accordance with the alternative
movement of masses
K
r
: inertial centrifugal forces related to the rotating masses,.
n
1
: polytropic index of compression
n
2
: polytropic index of expansion
p
c
: pressure at the end of compression process
T
c
: temperature at the end of compression process
V
c
: current volume at the end of compression process
J
y
, p
y
, T
y
: specific volume, pressure, and temperature of the
working mass at the moment of the ignition
u : spark advance angle
c : compression ratio
i : connecting rod length to moment arm ratio
: current crank angle position
| : current angle formed by the connecting rod axis and
cylinder axis
G J
a
/J
:
:expansion ratio; heat release coefficient
J
b
, p
b
, T
b
:specific volume, pressure, and temperature of the
working mass at the end of the expansion process
o :excess air coefficient
: coefficient of effectiveness of combustion
r
: residual gas fraction
l
o
: stoicheometric amount of air
L
o
: stoicheometric molar amount of air
H
i
:lower heating value
q
:
: total specific heat of the burning fuel
\ : the efficiency of use of the heat released
p
1
, p
2
: pressure values for points 1 and 2 of the interval 1-2
K
1-2
factor of specific heat defined for the for the interval 1-2
k
1-2
c
p1-2
/c
v1-2
: ratio of mean specific heats for the interval 1-2
c
p1-2
:mean specific heat at constant pressure for the interval 1-
2
c
v1-2
:mean specific heat at constant volume for the interval 1-2
x :mass fraction of the charge burned at a given crank angle
x
1-2
: mean value of the mass fraction burned in the interval 1-
2
AX
1-2
: mass fraction of the charge which has been burned
within the period 1-2
T
1-2
: mean temperature for the interval 1-2
\
(M) :
cylinder volume function
P
1-2
: mean value of the coefficient of molecular variation of
the charge in the interval M
1
-M
2
P
omax
: analytical value for the coefficient of molecular
variation of the fresh charge
S
p
: position of the piston with respect to TDC
v
p
, f
p
: speed and acceleration of the piston
P
g
: forces due to pressure gases
F
p
: piston area
P
f
: alternative inertial forces
P : resulting force on the piston pin
S
b
: force along the connecting rod
N : force normal to the cylinder liner
K : force along the crank radius
T : tangential to moment arm
M
t
: Torque developed by one cylinder
K
br
: inertial centrifugal force due to the rotational movement
of the connecting rod, directed along the crank radius, which
loads the connecting rod crank pin and journal bearing
K
mr
: inertial centrifugal force due to the rotation of the
crankshaft, directed along the radius of the crankshaft
K
r
: resulting inertial centrifugal force directed along the crank
radius, which loads main journal bearing
R
ab
: resulting force on the connecting rod crank pin
< : angle that determines the direction of R
ab
with respect to
the crankshaft position
p : in-cylinder pressure for a given position of the crankshaft
p
0
: in-crankcase pressure
m
m
: unbalanced mass of the crankshaft elements referred to
crank radius R
R : crank radius
m
mb
: connecting rod crank pin mass
m
c
: unbalanced mass of the cheek
U : distance between axis of rotation and the center of gravity
of the unbalanced mass of the cheek.
N
e
: maximum power of the engine
M
e
: maximum torque of the engine
g
e
: specific fuel consumption
D : bore
S : stroke
m : form factor of the Wiebe function
M
0
: start angle of combustion
M
:
: total combustion duration
gO,gH, gC : mass fraction of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon in
the fuel
TDC : top dead center
BDC : bottom dead center
$33(1',;
In this paper the pressure inside the cylinder is derived from
the expression for the gross heat release rate brought by
Heywood |2] in pg 388:
M
M M M M
d
dp
k
k
T b k T
T
T
T
J
d
dQ
d
dp
J
k d
dJ
p
k
k
d
dQ
w w w
cr
ht ch
\
|
+ +
+ +
=
1 '
1
ln
1
) 1 (
'
1
1
1
(A-1)
Not taking account the effects of heat transfer, crevices, and
leakage, the expression A.1 is reduced to:
M M M d
dp
J
k d
dJ
p
k
k
d
dQ
ch
1
1
1
+
=
( A-2)
Expression A.2 can be used to find the value of pressure p
2
at
the end of the period 1 2 (figure A.1): replacing the pressure
p and volume J by their respective average values, as well as
approximating the derivatives of pressure, volume and heat
release to their slopes evaluated in the period 1 2, or:
p (p
1
p
2
)/2; J (J
1
J
2
)/2;
M M A
=
1 2
p p
d
dp
;
M M A
=
1 2
J J
d
dJ
;
M M A
A
=
ch ch
Q
d
dQ
(A-3)
Eigure A.1. Indicator diagram, p-.
Replacing the terms p, J,
M d
dJ
;
M d
dp
and
M d
dQ
ch
the expression
A-2 can be rewritten as:
M M M A
+
A
=
A
A
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
2 1
1
2 1
p p J J
k
J J p p
k
k Q
ch
(A-4)
This can be rearranged as:
-
2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2
2 J J K p J J K p Q
ch
= A

(A-5)
where
1
1
2 1
+
=
k
k
K , is the factor of specific heats for the
interval 1 2. J
2
, J
1
, J
i
are the current values of the working
volumes given by the general expression:
\
|
+ ]
\
|
+
+ = ' sin 1
1
' cos
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
i i
a
i
J
J M O
O
M
O
H
H
(A-6)
or
'
i
a
i
J
J M \
H
=
where

(
\
|
+ ]
\
|
+
+ = ' sin 1
1
' cos
1
1
2
1
1 '
2 2
i i i
M O
O
M
O
H
M \
(A-7)
Then '
1 1
M \
H
a
J
J = and '
2 2
M \
H
a
J
J =
Einally
> @
> @
-
' '
' ' 2
2 1 2 1 1
1 2 2 1 2
M \ M \
H
M \ M \
H

= A
K
J
p
K
J
p Q
a
a
ch
(A-8)
The heat released in the period 1 2 results from the amount
of fuel burned during this period with the total specific heat,
q
z
:
Q
ch
q
z
m
f
X
1-2
(A-9)
where X
1-2
is the function for the mass fraction of the charge
which has been burned within the period 1 2, according to he
Wiebe function.
Defining E
2
as:
f :
a
m q
J
E =
H
002 , 0
2
(A-10)
it is obtained the expression for the pressure p
2
at the end of
the period 1 2 (division by 1000 has been done to get the
pressure in MPa):
> @
' '
' '
1 2 2 1
2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
2
M \ M \
M \ M \

+ A
=

K
K p X E
P (A-11)
The factor of specific heat, K
1-2
, is a complex function which
continuously changes along the combustion process.

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