9SI

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ensgp eql qlltr paxml ueuo eJe se^poru snor8rer eseql lnq 'pesgec -ep eql 3o s1rrlds aql 3o esodal eql JoJ Eule.rd Jo 'uls Jo lueulnuue rog eoueued Eued 'uollu^Jus s.euo JoJ 1uoru Equtet 'sece1d peJces snolJ?^ l3 peuuqsuo 3JB oI{^\ slulBs Jo seqlep aglJo uoll?JopB s gcns 'solrlcalqo snor1ar q pe1ea'4ou eru suu8pd '1ens1 'spueuJ rau Eu4earn pue Surees-1qErs se qcns 'slcedse elqernseayd suq osle lr lnq 'acu?mpue puu dqspruq 1uctsqd se^Io^ul 'seutrqs ro sutu1unoru 1oq Eqllspr 'ecu?lsrp Euol e EuJgerrurl 'elrBplm1g pue leqgrds qloq eJB spe snorEqar reqlo
qc1qat 'sarn1ua; rop1pzr1uoc ueuo pue asJe^Ip

-ut 1ensn aJ? gqq'sacl1curd cqecse eql ue^a 's}gueq p1ro,rr-qqt rsq1o pue 1Fadsord'q1rlq-p1Jqc see'eumpo; pooE'Euqeaq ermbcu o1

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IIII

ol

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sruops sno6rJer rqncpred3o sEumuaur;o Je}snlc enbmn eq1 pue 1rr -Ea1q eq1 Jo lqE[ eq} ur paulltrBxa_ar puelsuoc eq lsnru suollcBJlsq"

edocsalal ol pue ulep snorEJlor elqBrJB^ puu perre^ Jo spn1rlprrr egl Jo lno soJnpruls psJe^Iun eleaullap o1 suorEqsr Jo ueJolsq eIIl Jo {sol eql sI lI'erns eq og 'laErog ol pJogp IIr u?c ttorlcsuasnusuolEllay p sluepnls qcF{^\ umplp 1uu1rodul uB sI sIqI 1'..ula1ss snorEr1er rep -c1uud u 3o rusn4sru eql 1uo sI eJeql "'1c34squ eql ur urslc$su su Eugr qcns ou s! eJoql,, lerll pelels eJrro warouos .O ltrousuirg

v w9vrl)I'w'f

-rrEqrBrD r! rarq! q Lfr aap q;;!r -roa scan{ q {aror Ell -tT'I.ltrr

TTnt r
j:@ t

Br

-JIr'f.rrlrrP.T{ roq$ry -!F rpoo q

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gcvntlucTld o slldI lIguHJ

NYdVf NI

rcql"i1q la: tp {]EU :;: ;:: :,::

J. M. Kitagawa
rewards. Besides, the pilgrimage provides welcome relief from the routine of the dull everyday life of the people. Furthermore, seen from a broader perspective, the pilgrimage, which cements the solidarity of religious groups' so stimulates trade and commerce, dissemination of ideas, and intercultural exchange. Notwithstanding these "universal features, which are shared by the pilgrimages of various traditions, each one tends to show a unique ethos of its own, which can be understood only within its religious and cultural contexts. Historically in Japan, the development of the pilgrimage was greatly conditioned by the geographical and topographical as much as religious and cultural factors. According to Shinto, the whole world is permeated by the sacred (kami) nature, so that every mountain, river, tree, rock as well as human being is potentially an object of veneration. As far as the practice of pilgrimage is concerned, it had little place in early Shinto, because Shinto was closely related to the life of the clan (nji), which more often than not was settled in a particular geographical locality. To be sure, in many agricultural communities the kami of themountains were believed to come down and become the kami of the rice field during the part of the year and then return to the mountains after the harvest. It is conceivable, therefore, that some people might have climbed the mountains in order to experience the mystique of the abode of the kami. But such practices were spontaneous and were not regularized as pilgrimages by early Shinto. The introduction of Chinese civilization and Buddhism during the sixth century A.D. brought about far-reaching religious and cultural changes in the subsequent periods of Japanese history. Eventually, there developed three major types of pilgrimages out of the fusion of indigenous Shinto and folk religious beliefs and practices with Bud(1) dhist and Chinese - especially Taoist - elements. They are the pilgrimage to the sacred mountain; (2) the pilgrimage to the temples and shrines, based on the faith in the divinities enshrined in those sanctuaries; and (3) the pilgrimage to sacred places based on the faith in certain charismatic holy men who are believed to have hallowed those places by their visits. It is the purpose of this paper to inquire as to how these types of pilgrimages developed in Japan and also to depict the basic similarities and dissimilarities among them.
connection that evu

Buddhism people

abodes of diviniticr, kyo-ja) who was Buddhists, too,

ed "Nature

rigorous ascetic trz

Wisdc

th

traditional meditei

asteries but by bci of the monks andf tns in ordcr to istic diviners,

Buddhism, carlEl dhism was \rclr E practitioners" (tfu

a b*

power to wott tains. The codr the so+alled its formal rlhism,

lt

twelfth cenurbsr the aristocrafs.H

The populuty

ffi affiilir retaidr

of Kumano dli carth a forctact time thal tbc dt

nranifcstatiar*

mounains,

Gli6q ppbrrrr

l aq

dbs divinitis ir tb latu Fla

maF'qt rettfuting &dL ffiy-MCn

dhirst

& i<nto&-

eutjorSEf

Pilgrimage to the Sacred Mountain We have already hinted at the importance of sacred mountains in the religious life of the early Japanese. It is significant to note in this
156

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l. M.

Kitagawa

nities was at first predominantly male. They considered the stiff mountain climbing, conducted by experienced guides, essential for spiritual and physical disciplines, and thus the pilgrimage was often considered an initiatory ceremony for boys who were entering the age of adult life. Eventually miniature models of sacred mountains were established in some parts of the country for the benefit of those who could not make real pilgrimages, and the mountain cult grew in popularity by attracting older people and women as well. It was estimated that in the latter part of the nineteenth century there were 17,000 "senior guides" to sacred mountains, which meant that a considerably greater number of mountain ascetics must have been functiong in various capacities. The three so-called Sect Shinto denominations of ourtime-(l)Jikkky ("practical conduct'' religion), (2) Fus-ky (religion of Fus, which is the classical name of Mt. Fuji)' and (3) ontake_ky (religion are direct heirs of the traditions of the mountn of Mt. ontake) ascetics, while Fuji-k (devotional coraterty of Mt. Fuji), later re_ named as the Maruyama-ky, became a sub-sect of another Sect Shinto denomination called Shinto Taiky (the great teaching of Shinto).z la addition, there are today many formal and iormal mountain pil_ grimage groups, ranging from those which follow strict disciplines to those whose activities border on the semi-recreational.

(BhrturiFgrrl

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eoolhd
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ubwrdo) a
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ably in thc ffu to &'

thcrc ras

Ed

grimagewasmh

Drtargytolb
Land' and thc
th

In the religious history of Japan, the popularization of pilgrimage was not confined to sacred mountains. Many pious clergy, laymen and laywomen, stimulated to be sure by the pilgrimage to the mountains, considered it also meritorious to visit less hazardous holy places in the plain, usually Buddhist temples or Shinto shrines where certain divinities known for their potencies are enshrined. Such pilgrimages are motivated not by the desire to undergo ascetic practices but by people's devotion to a certain Buddha, Bodhisattva or kami, to whom the pilgrims pay homage, offer thanksgiving or ask for special favours. Among the Buddhist divinities, the most sought ter were Kannon (Avalokitevara), the Buddhist counterpart of the "goddess of mercy'' ; Amida (Amitbha), who is believed to have vowed to save all creatures; Jiz (Ksitigarbha), the protector of souls in the realm of hell; Yakushi
2 For
1s8
these denominations of Sect Shinto, see my Religion in Japanese History (New York l9o' ch.5.

Pilgrimages based on faith in certain divinities

(ffi model of Kem point of tbc r*ri

afterdatb_

Buddba's H for the gracdt

rept

b?$'f

alargesedgod*,|

scick'a|ac,er
tbe road tbc

in tbc Yamd-1 olesstbsrco gefecturc d d 4 Knovn as;o

*d 3 Ittookfutr Temple in fuYr

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nsnry :u{JD

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uouusx alf.q 'smol"J 1qr.r

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Eurreo,rr uIIJEIld agtrJo oJ!1tr" oq1 '[IBnpJc 'e8BuIuaIId eq13o 1u1od EuJgels oql sE uesoqc s3 'qlJae uo puBT eJnd s.uouuex Jo lapou eql eq ol pe^e1eq lqceN luno6 q'tl sr sq11pe1qnopun .qleep Je$B pue'I amd eql uI q}JIqaJ Jlagl JoJ sol}mtlrlp 3o craur puu ocer6 egl JoJ

paau 1us8rn 30 esues agl lIoJ eql qereqn '(gotu)..^^,3I s."qppng Jo uoll"JuEep,, 3o potrad eql Eurrrq ere,rr eql l"qr JoJIoq eql ldoooe ol orrreJ qclr aql sB llolrr sE Jood aql 'slooqcs uerrgcrN oql pu" 'purl

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q s{orolocJpl
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eJnd onr1 egl 'puB.I alnd oql ''e'I 'Jn1uec qluaaulql agl u! esoJ" lsID sluetue^olu lslqppng /r\euJo sJopeol oqlJo seqtlrtpe eql o1 1aEru1 enq '8re1c aql puu op-ol{Iotl eql Jo Iodouour aq1 ro8uo1 ou se,rr oEeut {d oqr 'etrrp leq} g '1uesuoc uoruruoc q pexg sem (oqs-uos-?pm n1o31og)..u3d31 uJe1sed\ ut ss1druaa oaJq1-ilIIIJ,' agl ol seEBEI d aq} 3o 1uerue8uurru 1uasord 3ql leqtr rn1uoc qluaeug eql m Iq" _qord selt 11 'g Jo Jaqumu peJces ql uo 1uoruear8e 1erauaE s?^\ aJo(B uollcolos ag1 uI suoIl?IJ?^ eJe\ aJaql'saunl
qEnoq1 uoae'seuen1cu?sJo

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,,EPIZ,, eqlJo aclpeJd eq1 1eq1 ul?lloc 1rte3 sr lI 'oIqeIIJ 1ou sr pua8e1 sq1 q8noqt1y 'uouu?) ol pelecrpop selJ?n1cus al{l petrIsl^ JplB pseud uI puu euoJql aql ptreclqp? ilosuoc sIII Jo qleap oq1 uodn '(ggo-ygo psuEter) uezerorsdurg aql'pueEal snotd e o1Eurproacy '(ererr9e111oply) uou

-uBX ol uorlo^op uo pasuq selrr gcnf,rr '(ot1s-uos-4ttros nqoSlog) *ud _Bf uJalsoil\ uI seu?nlcu?5 esrq1_1rql eql ol sEeurr81r.{,, penecos egr sI IIB 3o pszue8ro 1sou eqJ 'suuEpd ueru peperllu soIlF.IAIP asoq} Jo senlls aql poulJtlsua qJIq^\ sa1duro1 aq1 'oJnlnJ oqr Jo BIIpplE sql '(eer1tefu ru1ortry pue !,.uqppng Euquaq,, egl '(nJn8tespqg)
wo1
u1 a3ou1l3114

j,___: _x1:[E5

lo sadt1

J. M. Kitagawa
each referring to Kannon's mercy and miraculous power manifested at one of the 33 sanctuaries. Incidentally, they beg for food and alms which sustain them throughout the pilgrimage. In the course of time, the pilgrimage to the 33 sanctuaries of Kanleader who ter was calld&l

bocr

non also developed in the eastern and other parts of Japan. Also, many other forms of Buddhist pilgrimages came into existence, such as the pilgrimage to the 25 temples of the Pure Land School, the pilgrimage to the 100 temples of the Nichiren school, and the pilgrimage to the 100 temples in the Higashiyama section of Kyoto. Unlike pil-

grimage to sacred mountains, which is taken as a group guided by an experienced mountain ascetic, pilgrimage based on devotion to certain vinities can be undertaken by inviduals. Nevertheless' a num_

writings becam f parable to tbc Thi dhisq unlike irr (

the desert or oopl by the blessed it became the =rr

Buddhist sooll Pure I-and Schoof bearing his mr"

on the part

Fa-hsien, I{san*

ber of devotional confraternities arose in connection with such pilgrimages, and their members form small groups of pilgrims for the
sake of mutual support and encouragement.

pilgrimageston
were known ample in this

In the Shinto tration, which also developed the practice of pilgrimage during the last few centuries, the most prominent is the pilgrimage to the Grand Shrine of Ise, the sanctuary of the Shinto deity par excellence, Amaterasu--mikami, known as the Sun Goddess. It
has been promoted by the Confraternity of Ise (Ise-k), which selects by drawing lots certain members who then represent others in making the pilgrimage to Ise, usually in the spring or autumn. Their departure and return are celebrated by speci ceremonies and feasts attended by all the members. Since their expenses are paid by the confraternity,

frtl

which is supported by membership dues, the pilgrims to Ise

do not beg for food and alms other Shinto pilgrims for that matter on the road. Otherwise, the aim of the pilgrimage to Ise is similar to that of Buddhist pilgrimages, except that the object of devotion is the

or

thermore, it is ril todayheis sbllw

Little need bc r under layers 1 is rememberedbyp many remote aGal ing various kinds d

of Kiikai or Kb] dhisf 5s[66[ catlGil

reqn

Shinto divinity. Pilgrimage based on faith in charismatic persons Next to pilgrimages to sacred mountains and those to sanctuaries of various divinities, there developed in Japan the pilgrimage based on faith in certain charismatic holy men. It is to be recalled in this connection that even before the introduction of Buddhism the Japanese venerated various types of charismatic persons as emboments of superhuman powers. After the introduction of Buddhism, some of the outstanding Buddhists, such as Prince Regent Shtoku, who in the late sixth and early seventh centuries promoted Buddhism as the de facto state religion, and Gygi, an eighth century popular Buddhist
10

must have yisitEd f the ninth centw5r, I grimage in

those who need bisr

ing 88 sanuarfog i plex phenomenm"Pilgrimage to

the seventeenth As far as we

twelfth or

thirbel

tb'h r

cn'

pn"
5

(Saigoku

sedge-hats,

tbl 4 carry t

'n Studies o E*li.

ForafuIlerm

T9I

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ap
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IEq

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n{o{gs ut selJenlcuus g3

3u1

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qglaal

md
q

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in form and sound. In fact, among the "mn buddhas'' (hon-zon\ enshrined in the 88 temples, those of Kannon are most numerous with 29, followed by Yakushi with 23 and Amida with 9. Ironically, Dainichi (Mahvairocana), the supreme Buddha of the Shingon school, which was established by Krikai, has only 6.6 Upon closer examination, however, it becomes evident that the central motif of the "Pilgrimage in Shikoku" is not devotion to the divinities enshrined in the 88 holy sites, which no doubt has become a feature of it, but rather its main emphasis is on the act of "walking with Saint Kkai''. That is to say, the "Pilgrimage in Shikoku'' is based on faith in the memory of the charismatic holy man, Kkai, of whom the walking stick is the living symbol. Thus, even when a single individual undertakes the pilgrimage, it is called the pilgrimage of two (dgyi ni-nin), meaning Saint Krikai and himself'7 According to the established tradition, the pilgrimage to Shikoku begins at Mt. Kya, the seat of the Shingon monastic centre established by Kukai. The pilgrims are expected to pay homage to Ktikai's mausoleum, where he is believed to be sleeping until such time when he returns to this world with the future Buddha, Maitreya. From Mt. Kya, the pil_ grims go to one of the ports and cross the strait to Shikoku by boat. The 88 holy places are scattered unevenly among the four provinces that constitute Shikoku. Historically, the Awa province, which has 23 holy sites, has been called the "exercise arena for the spiritual awakening'' (Hosshin no dij), the Tosa province with 16 holy sites has been called the "exercise arena for ascetic discipline" (Shugyd no dj), the Iyo province with 26 holy sites has been called the "exer_ cise arena for enlightenment'' (Bodai no dijd), anthe Sanuki province with 23 holy sites has been called the "exercise arena for the state of Nirvana'' (Nehan no dji). The holy sites are numbered from No. 1 to No. 88. Of them, Nos. 19, 27,60, and 66 are considered to be "barriers" (seki-sho), and those who have done misdeeds are said to receive at one of these barriers omens, such as the appearance of a certain bird. Such omens indicate that they have spleased Saint
6 other Buddhas represented in the 88 holy places in Shikoku are: Buddha Sk_ yamuni 5, Jizi (Ksitigarbha) 5' Fud (Acala' the immovable) 4' Kokuz (Akas.

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Even such a brief portrayal of the three types of pilgrimages in Japan makes it clear that there are many similarities as well as significant differences among them. The first type, namely, the pilgrimage to the sacred mountains may be characterized by its corporate activities under the supervision ofan expert guide. Its emphasis on ascetic and physical disciplines implies a soteriological path based on self-power Qiriki), even though there is in it an element of faith. And the notion that the sacred mountains are the models of Paradise gives strong impetus to the pilgrims to seek the religious meaning of life within the realm of phenomenal existence. The second type, namely, the pilgrimage based on faith in certain divinities tends to be more individualistic and also lacks rigorous ascetic emphasis because its soteriological path relies on the saving power of the divinities (tariki). Even though the pilgrims seek immeate experience of some degree of salvation here on earth, they accept the existence of the future realm as the only real arena of salvation. Finally, the third type, namely, the pilgrimage based on faith in charismatic boly men has some of the features of the first and the second. But its own unique character is demonstrated in the notion that the saving power has been already actualized in the life of the charismatic holy man, who thus combines the roles of the deity and of the guide. In other words, the pilgrim relies on the other-power (tariki), but the other-power is not far away in a transcendental realm, eitherin space or in time. The saving power, fully actualized in a person, shares every step of the earthly pilgrimage as the real "fellow pilgrim". It goes without saying that the task of the historian of religions involves many difficulties especially when one deals with a complex phenomenon such as the development of religion in Japan which has homologed diverse features of Buddhist, Taoist, Shinto and folk religious beliefs, s;rmbols, cults and practices. In such a situation, one meaningful approach may be to study a significant form of religious cult which has developed out of the fusion of various elements. On this score, it is our hope that this preliminary study of the three types of pilgrimage might throw some light on the characteristic pieties of Japanese religious tradition.

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