FACTS Study Notes by Aaru

FACTS
Study material

Aaru
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Dedicated to GCE Tirunelveli
EEE SHOCKERS 2008 - 2012
Arumugam Rajendran
Government College of Engineering, Tirunelveli
Overview of Flexible AC Transmission System:
The FACTS is a concept based on power-electronic controllers, which enhance the value of transmission
networks by increasing the use of their capacity. As these controllers operate very fast, they enlarge the
safe operating limits of a transmission system without risking stability.

Simply, FACTS is nothing but the alternating current transmission systems incorporating power
electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability.

Concepts of FACTS:

Active Power Flow Equation:

Reactive Power Flow Equation:

Control Variables are:

1. Phase Differences:

2. Voltage : V
1
& V
2

3. Line Reactance: x

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Arumugam Rajendran
Objectives of FACTS Controller in Transmission lines:

1. Solve Power Transfer Limit & Stability Problems
1.1 Thermal Limit
1.2 Voltage Limit
1.3 Stability Limit
1.3.1Transient Stability Limit
1.3.2 Small Signal Stability Limit
1.3.3 Voltage Stability Limit
2. Increase (control) power transfer capability of a line
3. Mitigate sub synchronous resonance (SSR)
4. Power quality improvement
5. Load compensation
6. Limit short circuit current
7. Increase the loadability of the system

Applications:
Power transmission
Power quality
Railway grid connection
Wind power grid connection
Cable systems

With FACTS, the following benefits can be attained in AC systems:

Improved power transmission capability
Improved system stability and availability
Improved power quality
Minimized environmental impact
Minimized transmission losses

Arumugam Rajendran
Principles and Applications of Semiconductor Switches in FACTS:

In high-power applications, semiconductor devices are used primarily as switches. To accommodate
switching in an ac system, two unidirectional conducting devices are connected in an antiparallel
configuration, as shown in Fig.1.

Such a switch may be employed per phase to connect or disconnect a shunt-circuit element, such as a
capacitor or reactor, or to short-circuit a series connected circuit element, such as a capacitor.

A reverse-biased thyristor automatically turns off at current zero, for which reason an antiparallel
thyristor connection is used to control the current through a reactor by delaying its turn on instant, as
shown in Fig. 1.

Fig 1 A thyristor switch for ac applications: (a) a switch and (b) a controlled reactor current.

It is easy to see that the current through a connected reactor may be controlled from full value to zero by
adjusting the delay angle, a, of the gates firing signal from 90
0
to 180
0
. Thus a thyristor switch offers
current control in a reactor, rendering it a controlled reactor.
However, because a capacitor current leads the applied voltage by approximately 90
0
, the capacitor
switching always causes transient in-rush currents that must be minimized by switching charged
capacitors at instants when the voltage across the switch is near zero. Therefore, a thyristor switch is used
only to turn on or turn off a capacitor, thereby implementing a switched capacitor.

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Parallel combination of switched capacitors and controlled reactors provides a smooth current-control
range from capacitive to inductive values by switching the capacitor and controlling the current in the
reactor.

Thyristor switches may be used for shorting capacitors; hence they find application in step changes of
series compensation of transmission lines. A blocked thyristor switch connected across a series capacitor
introduces the capacitor in line, whereas a fully conducting thyristor switch removes it. In reality, this step
control can be smoothed by connecting an appropriately dimensioned reactor in series with the thyristor
switch to yield a vernier control

Reactive Power Control in Electrical Power Transmission Lines:

Upon energization, the ac networks and the devices connected to them create associated time-varying
electrical fields related to the applied voltage, as well as magnetic fields dependent on the current flow.
As they build up, these fields store energy that is released when they collapse. Apart from the energy
dissipation in resistive components, all energy-coupling devices, including transformers and energy-
conversion devices (e.g., motors and generators), operate based on their capacity to store and release
energy.

For the ac circuit shown in , instantaneous power from the voltage source to the load Z, in terms of the
instantaneous voltage v and current i, is given as

In the steady state, where

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[ ]

where V and I are the respective root mean square (rms) values of v and i.

Equation (2) comprises two double-frequency (2) components. The first term has an average value as
well as a peak magnitude of VI cos. This average value is the active power, P, flowing from the source
to the load. The second term has a zero average value, but its peak value is VI sin.

Arumugam Rajendran
Written in Phasor domain, the complex power in the network in Fig. is given by

S = VI
*
= P + jQ = VI cos +j VI sin (3)

where P is called the active power, which is measured in watts (W), and Q is called the reactive power,
which is measured in voltampere reactive (var).

Comparing Eqs. (2) and (3), the peak value of the second component of instantaneous power in Eq. (2) is
identified as the reactive power.
The reactive power is essential for creating the needed coupling fields for energy devices. It constitutes
voltage and current loading of circuits but does not result in average (active) power consumption and is,
in fact, an important component in all ac power networks. In high-power networks, active and
reactive powers are measured in megawatts (MW) and MVAR, respectively.

Electromagnetic devices store energy in their magnetic fields. These devices draw lagging currents,
thereby resulting in positive values of Q; therefore, they are frequently referred to as the absorbers of
reactive power. Electrostatic devices, on the other hand, store electric energy in fields. These devices
draw leading currents and result in a negative value of Q; thus they are seen to be suppliers of reactive
power. The convention for assigning signs to reactive power is different for sources and loads, for which
reason readers are urged to use a consistent notation of voltage and current, to rely on the resulting sign of
Q, and to not be confused by absorbers or suppliers of reactive power.

Active and Passive Var Control:

When fixed inductors and/ or capacitors are employed to absorb or generate reactive power, they
constitute passive control.
An active var control, on the other hand, is produced when its reactive power is changed irrespective of
the terminal voltage to which the var controller is connected.
External devices or subsystems that control reactive power on transmission lines are known as
compensators.

Arumugam Rajendran
FACTS Theory:
In the case of a no-loss line, voltage magnitude at the receiving end is the same as voltage magnitude at
the sending end: V
s
= V
r
= V. Transmission results in a phase lag that depends on line reactance X.

Fig. Transmission on a no-loss line.

As it is a no-loss line, active power P is the same at any point of the line:

Reactive power at sending end is the opposite of reactive power at receiving end:

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As is very small, active power mainly depends on whereas reactive power mainly depends on voltage
magnitude.
FACTS controllers could be connected:
in series with the power system (series compensation)
in shunt with the power system (shunt compensation)
both in series and in shunt with the power system
Series compensation
Series capacitors are used to partially offset the effects of the series inductances of lines. Series
compensation results in the improvement of the maximum power-transmission capacity of the line. The
net effect is a lower load angle for a given power-transmission level and, therefore, a higher-stability
margin. The reactive-power absorption of a line depends on the transmission current, so when series
capacitors are employed, automatically the resulting reactive-power compensation is adjusted
proportionately. Also, because the series compensation effectively reduces the overall line reactance, it is
expected that the net line-voltage drop would become less susceptible to the loading conditions.

In an interconnected network of power lines that provides several parallel paths, for power flow between
two locations, it is the series compensation of a selected line that makes it the principal power carrier.
Series compensation is defined by the degree of compensation; for example, a 1-pu compensation means
that the effective series reactance of a line will be zero. A practical upper limit of series compensation, on
the other hand, may be as high as 0.75 pu.

One impact of the passive compensation of lines is that whereas the shunt-inductive compensation makes
the line electrically resonant at a super synchronous frequency, the series compensation makes the line
resonant at a sub synchronous frequency. The sub synchronous resonance (SSR) can lead to problematic
situations for steam turbinedriven generators connected to a series-compensated transmission line. These
generators employ multiple turbines connected on a common shaft with the generator. This arrangement
constitutes an elastically coupled multi mass mechanical system that exhibits several modes of low-
frequency torsional resonances, none of which should be excited as a result of the sub synchronous-
resonant electrical transmission system. The application of series compensation requires several other
careful considerations. The application of series capacitors in a long line constitutes placing lumped
impedance at a point. Therefore, the following factors need careful evaluation:

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1. The voltage magnitude across the capacitor banks (insulation);
2. The fault currents at the terminals of a capacitor bank;
3. The placement of shunt reactors in relation to the series capacitors (resonant over voltages); and
4. The number of capacitor banks and their location on a long line (voltage profile).
In series compensation, the FACTS is connected in series with the power system. It works as a
controllable voltage source. Series inductance exists in all AC transmission lines. On long lines, when a
large current flows, this causes a large voltage drop. To compensate, series capacitors are connected,
decreasing the effect of the inductance.

Fig. Series Compensation
FACTS for series compensation modify line impedance: X is decreased so as to increase the transmittable
active power. However, more reactive power must be provided.

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Examples of series compensation
Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)
Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC): a series capacitor bank is shunted by a thyristor-
controlled reactor
Thyristor-controlled series reactor (TCSR): a series reactor bank is shunted by a thyristor-
controlled reactor
Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC): a series capacitor bank is shunted by a thyristor-
switched reactor
Thyristor-switched series reactor (TSSR): a series reactor bank is shunted by a thyristor-switched
reactor

Examples of FACTS for series compensation (schematic)
Shunt compensation
Passive reactive-power compensators include series capacitors and shunt-connected inductors and
capacitors. Shunt devices may be connected permanently or through a switch. Shunt reactors compensate
for the line capacitance, and because they control over voltages at no loads and light loads, they are often
connected permanently to the line, not to the bus. Many power utilities connect shunt reactors via
breakers, thereby acquiring the flexibility to turn them off under heavier load conditions. Shunt reactors
are generally gapped-core reactors and, sometimes, air-cored. Shunt capacitors are used to increase the
power-transfer capacity and to compensate for the reactive-voltage drop in the line. The application of
shunt capacitors requires careful system design.
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The circuit breakers connecting shunt capacitors should withstand high-charging in-rush currents and
also, upon disconnection, should withstand more than 2-pu voltages, because the capacitors are then left
charged for a significant period until they are discharged through a large time-constant discharge circuit.
Also, the addition of shunt capacitors creates higher-frequencyresonant circuits and can therefore lead to
harmonic over voltages on some system buses.
In shunt compensation, power system is connected in shunt (parallel) with the FACTS. It works as a
controllable current source. Shunt compensation is of two types:
Shunt capacitive compensation
This method is used to improve the power factor. Whenever an inductive load is connected to the
transmission line, power factor lags because of lagging load current. To compensate, a shunt
capacitor is connected which draws current leading the source voltage. The net result is
improvement in power factor.
Shunt inductive compensation
This method is used either when charging the transmission line, or, when there is very low load at
the receiving end. Due to very low, or no load very low current flows through the transmission
line. Shunt capacitance in the transmission line causes voltage amplification (Ferranti Effect). The
receiving end voltage may become double the sending end voltage (generally in case of very long
transmission lines). To compensate, shunt inductors are connected across the transmission line.
The power transfer capability is thereby increased depending upon the power equation

Fig Shunt Compensation
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power angle
Reactive current is injected into the line to maintain voltage magnitude. Transmittable active power is
increased but more reactive power is to be provided.

Examples of shunt compensation
Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM); previously known as a static condenser
(STATCON)
Static VAR compensator (SVC). Most common SVCs are:
o Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR): reactor is connected in series with a bidirectional
thyristor valve. The thyristor valve is phase-controlled. Equivalent reactance is varied
continuously.
o Thyristor-switched reactor (TSR): Same as TCR but thyristor is either in zero- or full-
conduction. Equivalent reactance is varied in stepwise manner.

Examples of FACTS for shunt compensation (schematic)
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o Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC): capacitor is connected in series with a bidirectional
thyristor valve. Thyristor is either in zero- or full- conduction. Equivalent reactance is
varied in stepwise manner.
o Mechanically-switched capacitor (MSC): capacitor is switched by circuit-breaker. It aims
at compensating steady state reactive power. It is switched only a few times a day.

Arumugam Rajendran
STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR:

The IEEE definition of the SVC is as follows: A shunt connected static var generator or absorber whose
output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific
parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage).
In other words, an SVC is a static var generator whose output is varied in order to maintain or control the
specific parameters of an electric power system. SVCs are primarily used in power systems for voltage
control or for improving system stability.
The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system closer to unity power
factor. SVCs are used in two main situations:
Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage ("Transmission SVC")
Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("Industrial SVC")
In transmission applications, the SVC is used to regulate the grid voltage. If the power system's reactive
load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will use thyristor controlled reactors to consume vars from the
system, lowering the system voltage. Under inductive (lagging) conditions, the capacitor banks are
automatically switched in, thus providing a higher system voltage. By connecting the thyristor-controlled
reactor, which is continuously variable, along with a capacitor bank step, the net result is continuously-
variable leading or lagging power.
In industrial applications, SVCs are typically placed near high and rapidly varying loads, such as arc
furnaces, where they can smooth flicker voltage.
Principle
Typically, an SVC comprises one or more banks of fixed or switched shunt capacitors or reactors, of
which at least one bank is switched by thyristors. Elements which may be used to make an SVC typically
include:
Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), where the reactor may be air- or iron-cored
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
Harmonic filter(s)
Mechanically switched capacitors or reactors (switched by a circuit breaker)
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One-line diagram of a typical SVC configuration; here employing a thyristor-controlled reactor, a
thyristor switched capacitor, a harmonic filter, a mechanically switched capacitor and a mechanically
switched reactor
By means of phase angle modulation switched by the thyristors, the reactor may be variably switched into
the circuit and so provide a continuously variable Mvar injection (or absorption) to the electrical network.
In this configuration, coarse voltage control is provided by the capacitors; the thyristor-controlled reactor
is to provide smooth control. Smoother control and more flexibility can be provided with thyristor-
controlled capacitor switching.

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Advantages
The main advantage of SVCs over simple mechanically-switched compensation schemes is their near-
instantaneous response to changes in the system voltage. For this reason they are often operated at close
to their zero-point in order to maximize the reactive power correction they can rapidly provide when
required.
They are, in general, cheaper, higher-capacity, faster and more reliable than dynamic compensation
schemes such as synchronous condensers. However, static var compensators are more expensive than
mechanically switched capacitors, so many system operators use a combination of the two technologies
(sometimes in the same installation), using the static var compensator to provide support for fast changes
and the mechanically switched capacitors to provide steady-state Vars.
SVCs are mainly used for
1. Increasing power transfer in long lines
2. Stability improvement (both steady state and transient) with fast acting voltage regulation
3. Damping of low frequency oscillations (corresponding to electromechanical modes)
4. Damping of sub synchronous frequency oscillations (due to torsional modes)
5. Control of dynamic over voltages

V-I Characteristics of the SVC
The dynamic and steady-state characteristics of SVCs describe the variation of SVC bus voltage with
SVC current or reactive power. Two alternative representations of these characteristics are shown in Fig. :
part (a) illustrates the terminal voltageSVC current characteristic and part (b) depicts the terminal
voltageSVC reactive-power relationship.

Dynamic Characteristics:

Reference Voltage, V
ref
: This is the voltage at the terminals of the SVC during the floating condition,
that is, when the SVC is neither absorbing nor generating any reactive power. The reference voltage can
be varied between the maximum and minimum limitsV
ref

max
and V
ref

min
either by the SVC control
system, in case of thyristor-controlled compensators, or by the taps of the coupling transformer, in the
case of saturated reactor compensators. Typical values of Vref max and Vref min are 1.05 pu and 0.95 pu,
respectively.

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Linear Range of SVC Control: This is the control range over which SVC terminal voltage varies linearly
with SVC current or reactive power, as the latter is varied over its entire capacitive-to-inductive range.

Slope or Current Droop: The slope or droop of the V-I characteristic is defined as the ratio of voltage-
magnitude change to current-magnitude change over the linear-controlled range of the compensator.
Thus slope K
SL
is given by

Where, V = Change in Voltage magnitude, I = Change in Current magnitude
The per-unit value of the slope is obtained as

Where, V
r
and I
r
represent the rated value of SVC Voltage and Current respectively.

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For I = I
r,

Thus the slope can be defined alternatively as the voltage change in percent of the rated voltage measured
at the larger of the twomaximum inductive- or maximum capacitive-reactive-power outputs, as the
larger output usually corresponds to the base reactive power of the SVC. In some literature, the reactive
power rating of the SVC is defined as the sum of its inductive and capacitive rating. The slope is often
expressed as an equivalent reactance:
X
SL
= K
SL

The slope can be changed by the control system in thyristor-controlled compensators, whereas in the case
of saturated reactor compensators, the slope is adjusted by the series slope-correction capacitors. The
slope is usually kept within 110%, with a typical value of 35%.

Overload Range: When the SVC traverses outside the linear-controllable range on the inductive side, the
SVC enters the overload zone, where it behaves like a fixed inductor.

Steady-State Characteristic:
The steady-state V-I characteristic of the SVC is very similar to the dynamic V-I characteristic except for
a dead band in voltage, as depicted in Figs. In the absence of this dead band, in the steady state the SVC
will tend to drift toward its reactive-power limits to provide voltage regulation. It is not desirable to leave
the SVC with very little reactive-power margin for future voltage control or stabilization excursions in the
event of a system disturbance. To prevent this drift, a dead band about V
ref
holds the I
SVC
at or near zero
value, depending on the location of the dead band. Thus the reactive power is kept constant at a set point,
typically equal to the MVA output of the filters. This output is quite small; hence the total operating
losses are minimized. A slow susceptance regulator is employed to implement the voltage dead band,
which has a time constant of several minutes. Hence the susceptance regulator is rendered virtually
ineffective during fast transient phenomena, and it does not interfere with the operation of the voltage
controller.

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Voltage Control by the SVC
The voltage-control action of the SVC can be explained through a simplified block representation of the
SVC and power system, as shown in Fig.a.

The power system is modeled as an equivalent voltage source, Vs, behind an equivalent system
impedance, Xs, as viewed from the SVC terminals. The system impedance Xs indeed corresponds to the
short-circuit MVA at the SVC bus and is obtained as

Where, S
C
= the 3-phase short circuit MVA at the SVC bus
V
b
= the base line to line voltage
MVA
b
= the base MVA of the system

If the SVC draws a reactive current I
SVC
, then in the absence of the SVC voltage regulator, From the
Phasor diagram the SVC bus voltage is given by

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The SVC current thus results in a voltage drop of I
SVC
X
s
in phase with the system voltage Vs. The SVC
bus voltage decreases with the inductive SVC current and increases with the capacitive current. The
above equation represents the system load line or power system characteristic and it implies that the SVC
is more effective in controlling voltage in weak ac systems(high Xs) and less effective in strong ac
systems (low Xs).

The intersection of the SVC dynamic characteristic and the system load line provides the quiescent
operating point of the SVC, as illustrated in Fig. (c).

The voltage-control action in the linear range is described as

where I
SVC
is positive if inductive, negative if capacitive.

Advantages of the Slope in the SVC Dynamic Characteristic:
Although the SVC is a controller for voltage regulation, that is, for maintaining constant voltage at a bus,
a finite slope is incorporated in the SVCs dynamic characteristic and provides the following advantages
despite a slight deregulation of the bus voltage. The SVC slope
1. substantially reduces the reactive-power rating of the SVC for achieving nearly the same
control objectives;
2. prevents the SVC from reaching its reactive-power limits too frequently; and
3. facilitates the sharing of reactive power among multiple compensators operating in parallel.
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Influence of SVC on System Voltage:
Coupling Transformer Ignored: The SVC behaves like a controlled susceptance, and its effectiveness in
regulating the system voltage is dependent on the relative strength of the connected ac system. The
system strength or equivalent system impedance, as seen from the SVC bus, primarily determines the
magnitude of voltage variation caused by the change in the SVC reactive current. This can be understood
from the simplistic representation of the power system and SVC shown in Fig. (a).

In this representation, the effect of the coupling transformer is ignored and the SVC is modeled as a
variable susceptance at the high-voltage bus. The SVC is considered absorbing reactive power from the ac
system while it operates in the inductive mode.

The SVC bus voltage, V
SVC
, is given by Eq.

Linearizing the above Eq. gives the variation in the V
SVC
as a function of change in the SVC current,
I
SVC
. Thus for the constant-equivalent-source voltage Vs,
V
SVC
= - X
s
I
SVC

ESCR = B
s
=

Where, ESCR = Effective short circuit ratio.

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The V
SVC
is also related to I
SVC
through the SVC reactance, B
SVC
, as follows:
I
SVC
= B
SVC
V
SVC

For incremental changes, above Eq. is linearized to give
I
SVC
= B
SVC0
V
SVC
+B
SVC
V
SVC0

Fig (b) two SVCs in parallel with difference in the reference-voltage set points without current droop;
Fig (c) two SVCs in parallel with current droop and with difference in the reference-voltage set points.

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Coupling Transformer Considered:
As shown in Fig., the representation of the SVC coupling transformer creates a low-voltage bus
connected to the SVC and the transformer reactance X
T
is separated from X
s
. The high-voltage side, V
H
, is
then related to low-voltage side, V
SVC
, as

Fig. Representation of the power system and the SVC, including the coupling transformer.

Linearizing the above equation, gives

Substituting the above equation in the expression
results in

)

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SVC Applications:
INCREASE IN STEADY-STATE POWER-TRANSFER CAPACITY:
An SVC can be used to enhance the power-transfer capacity of a transmission line, which is also
characterized as the steady-state power limit. Consider a single-machine infinite-bus (SMIB) system with
an interconnecting lossless tie line having reactance X shown in Fig.

The single-machine infinite-bus (SMIB) system: (a) an uncompensated system and (b) an SVC-
compensated system.

Let the voltages of the synchronous generator and infinite bus be V
1
& V
2
0
0
, respectively. The
power transferred from the synchronous machine to the infinite bus is expressed as

For simplicity, if V
1
= V
2
= V, then

The power thus varies as a sinusoidal function of the angular difference of the voltages at the synchronous
machine and infinite bus, as depicted in fig.
The maximum steady-state power that can be transferred across the uncompensated line without SVC
corresponds to = 90; it is given by

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Fig.The variation of line real-power flow and SVC reactive-power flow in a SMIB system.

Let the transmission line be compensated at its midpoint by an ideal SVC. The term ideal corresponds to
an SVC with an unlimited reactive-power rating that can maintain the magnitude of the midpoint voltage
constant for all real power flows across the transmission line. The SVC bus voltage is then given
by V
m
/2.

The electrical power flow across the half-line section connecting the generator and the SVC is expressed
as

The power transfer in the other half-line section interconnecting the SVC, and the infinite bus is also
described by a similar equation. Assuming further that V
m
= V
1
= V
2
= V, and the above eqn can be
rewritten as

which is already depicted in the above graph.
The maximum transmittable power across the line is then given by

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which is twice the maximum power transmitted in the uncompensated case and occurs at /2= 90
0
.
In other words, the midpoint-located ideal SVC doubles the steady-state power limit and increases the
stable angular difference between the synchronous machine and the infinite bus from 90
0
to 180
0
.

If the transmission line is divided into n equal sections, with an ideal SVC at each junction of these
sections maintaining a constant-voltage magnitude (V), then the power transfer (Pc) of this line can be
expressed theoretically by

The maximum power, P
c
max, that can be transmitted along this line is nV
2
/ X. In other words, with n
sections the power transfer can be increased n times that of the uncompensated line. It may be understood
that this is only a theoretical limit, as the actual maximum power flow is restricted by the thermal
limit of the transmission line.

ENHANCEMENT OF TRANSIENT STABILITY
An SVC significantly enhances the ability to maintain synchronism of a power system, even when the
system is subjected to large, sudden disturbances.

Power-angle curves depicting transient-stability margins in the SMIB system:
(a) the uncompensated system and (b) the SVC-compensated system.
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An enhancement in transient stability is achieved primarily through voltage control exercised by the SVC
at the interconnected bus. A simple understanding of this aspect can be obtained from the power-angle
curves, of the uncompensated and midpoint SVCcompensated SMIB system. Consider both the
uncompensated and SVC-compensated power system depicted in Fig. Assume that both systems are
transmitting the same level of power and are subject to an identical fault at the generator terminals for an
equal length of time. The power-angle curves for both systems are depicted in Fig. The initial operating
points in the uncompensated and compensated systems are indicated by rotor angles
1
and
C1
. These
points correspond to the intersection between the respective power-angle curves with the mechanical
input line P
M
, which is same for both the cases.

In the event of a 3-phase-to-ground fault at the generator terminals, even though the short-circuit current
increases enormously; the active-power output from the generator reduces to zero. Because the
mechanical input remains unchanged, the generator accelerates until fault clearing, by which time the
rotor angle has reached values
2
and
C2
and the accelerating energy, A
1
and A
C1
, has been accumulated
in the uncompensated and compensated system, respectively. When the fault is isolated, the electrical
power exceeds the mechanical input power, and the generator starts decelerating. The rotor angle,
however, continues to increase until
3
and
c3
from the stored kinetic energy in the rotor. The decline in
the rotor angle commences only when the decelerating energies represented by A
2
and A
C2
in the two
cases, respectively, become equal to the accelerating energies A
1
and A
C1
. The power system in each case
returns to stable operation if the post-fault angular swing, denoted by
3
and
C3
, does not exceed the
maximum limit of
max
and
C max
, respectively. Should these limits be exceeded, the rotor will not
decelerate. The farther the angular over swing from its maximum limit, the more transient stability in the
system. An index of the transient stability is the available decelerating energy, termed the transient-
stability margin, and is denoted by areas A
margin
and Ac margin in the two cases, respectively. Clearly, as
A
c margin
significantly exceeds A
margin
, the system-transient stability is greatly enhanced by the installation
of an SVC. The increase in transient stability is thus obtained by the enhancement of the steady-state
power-transfer limit provided by the voltage-control operation of the midline SVC.

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Prevention of voltage instability
Voltage instability is caused by the inadequacy of the power system to supply the reactive-power demand
of certain loads, such as induction motors. A drop in the load voltage leads to an increased demand for
reactive power that, if not met by the power system, leads to a further decline in the bus voltage. This
decline eventually leads to a progressive yet rapid decline of voltage at that location, which may have a
cascading effect on neighboring regions that causes a system voltage collapse.
Principles of SVC Control
The voltage at a load bus supplied by a transmission line is dependent on the magnitude of the load, the
load-power factor, and the impedance of the transmission line. Consider an SVC connected to a load bus,
as shown in Fig. (a). The load has a varying power factor and is fed by a lossless radial transmission line.
The voltage profile at the load bus, which is situated at the receiver end of the transmission line, is
depicted in Fig.(b). For a given load-power factor, as the transmitted power is gradually increased, a
maximum power limit is reached beyond which the voltage collapse takes place. In this typical system, if
the combined power factor of the load and SVC is appropriately controlled through the reactive-power
support from the SVC, a constant voltage of the receiving-end bus can be maintained with increasing
magnitude of transmitted power, and voltage instability can be avoided.

Arumugam Rajendran
A Case Study: An SVC can be used successfully to prevent voltage instability. The case study presented
here demonstrates the application of SVC to mitigate voltage instability in a radial system loaded by a
large composite load of induction motors and static loads, all under steady-state and transient conditions.

The 400-kV radial case-study system shown in Fig. involves power supply over a double-circuit
transmission line to a load center that comprises a 50% large induction motors (IM) and 50% static loads.
An FCTCR SVC is connected to the tertiary of a 3-winding load transformer, and the SVC voltage
controller is of the PI type. The instability is caused by tripping one of the transmission lines and is
detected from eigenvalue analysis. The post disturbance response for 1 s period is shown in Fig. 6.26. In
the absence of the SVC, the load voltage falls to a level of 0.8 pu in 80 ms after the initial transients and
falls further to a magnitude of 0.57 pu in less than 1 s. The onset of induction-motor instability occurs at
a voltage of 0.8 pu. With falling terminal voltage, the induction-motor load reactive power starts
increasing rapidly, leading to eventual voltage collapse. If the induction motor loads are completely
replaced by static loads of same value, voltage instability does not occur.

Arumugam Rajendran

Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC):
TCSC is a series capacitor bank is shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor. The basic conceptual TCSC
module comprises a series capacitor, C, in parallel with a thyristor-controlled reactor, L
S
, as shown in Fig.

However, a practical TCSC module also includes protective equipment normally installed with series
capacitors. A metal-oxide varistor (MOV), essentially a nonlinear resistor, is connected across the series
capacitor to prevent the occurrence of high-capacitor over-voltages. Not only does the MOV limit the
voltage across the capacitor, but it allows the capacitor to remain in circuit even during fault conditions
and helps improve the transient stability.

Basic Operating Principle of TCSC:
A TCSC is a series-controlled capacitive reactance that can provide continuous control of power on the ac
line over a wide range. From the system viewpoint, the principle of variable-series compensation is
simply to increase the fundamental-frequency voltage across an fixed capacitor (FC) in a series
compensated line through appropriate variation of the firing angle,. This enhanced voltage changes the
effective value of the series-capacitive reactance.

Fig. A variable inductor connected in shunt with an FC.

Arumugam Rajendran

The behavior of the TCSC is similar to that of the parallel LC combination. The difference is that the LC-
combination analysis is based on the presence of pure sinusoidal voltage and current in the circuit,
whereas in the TCSC, because of the voltage and current in the FC and thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR)
are not sinusoidal because of thyristor switchings.
Modes of TCSC Operation:
There are four different modes of TCSC operation. They are
(a) the bypassed-thyristor mode;
(b) the blocked-thyristor mode;
(c) the partially conducting thyristor (capacitive-vernier)mode; and
(d) the partially conducting thyristor (inductive-vernier) mode.

Bypassed-Thyristor Mode: In this bypassed mode, the thyristors are made to fully conduct with a
conduction angle of 180
0
. Gate pulses are applied as soon as the voltage across the thyristors reaches zero
and becomes positive, resulting in a continuous sinusoidal of flow current through the thyristor valves.
The TCSC module behaves like a parallel capacitorinductor combination. However, the net current
through the module is inductive, for the susceptance of the reactor is chosen to be greater than that of the
capacitor.

Also known as the thyristor-switched-reactor (TSR) mode, the bypassed thyristor mode is distinct from
the bypassed-breaker mode, in which the circuit breaker provided across the series capacitor is closed to
remove the capacitor or the TCSC module in the event of TCSC faults or transient over voltages across
the TCSC.
Arumugam Rajendran

This mode is employed for control purposes and also for initiating certain protective functions. Whenever
a TCSC module is bypassed from the violation of the current limit, a finite-time delay, T
delay
, must elapse
before the module can be reinserted after the line current falls below the specified limit.

Blocked-Thyristor Mode: In this mode, also known as the waiting mode, the firing pulses to the thyristor
valves are blocked. If the thyristors are conducting and a blocking command is given, the thyristors turn
off as soon as the current through them reaches a zero crossing. The TCSC module is thus reduced to a
fixed-series capacitor, and the net TCSC reactance is capacitive. In this mode, the dc-offset voltages of
the capacitors are monitored and quickly discharged using a dc-offset control without causing any harm to
the transmission-system transformers.

Partially Conducting Thyristor, or Vernier, Mode This mode allows the TCSC to behave either as a
continuously controllable capacitive reactance or as a continuously controllable inductive reactance. It is
achieved by varying the thyristor-pair firing angle in an appropriate range. However, a smooth transition
from the capacitive to inductive mode is not permitted because of the resonant region between the two
modes. A variant of this mode is the capacitive-vernier-control mode, in which the thyristors are fired
when the capacitor voltage and capacitor current have opposite polarity.

Arumugam Rajendran

This condition causes a TCR current that has a direction opposite that of the capacitor current, thereby
resulting in a loop-current flow in the TCSC controller. The loop current increases the voltage across the
FC, effectively enhancing the equivalent-capacitive reactance and the series-compensation level for the
same value of line current. To preclude resonance, the firing angle of the forward-facing thyristor, as
measured from the positive reaching a zero crossing of the capacitor voltage, is constrained in the range
min
180
0
. This constraint provides a continuous vernier control of the TCSC module reactance. The
loop current increases as is decreased from 180
0
to
min
. The maximum TCSC reactance permissible
with =
min
is typically two-and-a-half to three times the capacitor reactance at fundamental frequency.

Another variant is the inductive-vernier mode, in which the TCSC can be operated by having a high level
of thyristor conduction. In this mode, the direction of the circulating current is reversed and the controller
presents net inductive impedance.

Based on the three modes of thyristor-valve operation, two variants of the TCSC emerge:
1. Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC), which permits a discrete control of the capacitive
reactance.
2. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC), which offers a continuous control of capacitive or
inductive reactance. (The TSSC, however, is more commonly employed.)

Advantages of the TCSC
Use of thyristor control in series capacitors potentially offers the following little-mentioned advantages:
1. Rapid, continuous control of the transmission-line series-compensation level.
2. Dynamic control of power flow in selected transmission lines within the network to enable optimal
power-flow conditions and prevent the loop flow of power.
3. Damping of the power swings from local and inter-area oscillations.
Arumugam Rajendran

4. Suppression of sub synchronous oscillations. At sub synchronous frequencies, the TCSC presents an
inherently resistiveinductive reactance. The sub synchronous oscillations cannot be sustained in this
situation and consequently get damped.
5. Decreasing dc-offset voltages. The dc-offset voltages, invariably resulting from the insertion of series
capacitors, can be made to decay very quickly (within a few cycles) from the firing control of the TCSC
thyristors.
6. Enhanced level of protection for series capacitors. A fast bypass of the series capacitors can be
achieved through thyristor control when large over voltages develop across capacitors following faults.
Likewise, the capacitors can be quickly reinserted by thyristor action after fault clearing to aid in system
stabilization.
7. Voltage support. The TCSC, in conjunction with series capacitors, can generate reactive power that
increases with line loading, thereby aiding the regulation of local network voltages and, in addition, the
alleviation of any voltage instability.
8. Reduction of the short-circuit current. During events of high short-circuit current, the TCSC can switch
from the controllable-capacitance to the controllable-inductance mode, thereby restricting the short-circuit
currents.

Fixed Series Compensation:
Series capacitors offer certain major advantages over their shunt counterparts. With series capacitors, the
reactive power increases as the square of line current, whereas with shunt capacitors, the reactive power is
generated proportional to the square of bus voltage. For achieving the same system benefits as those of
series capacitors, shunt capacitors that are three to six times more reactive power rated than series
capacitors need to be employed. Furthermore, shunt capacitors typically must be connected at the line
midpoint, whereas no such requirement exists for series capacitors.

The Need for Variable-Series Compensation
Compensation of transmission lines by series capacitors is likely to result in the following:
1. enhanced base-power flow and loadability of the series-compensated line;
2. additional losses in the compensated line from the enhanced power flow;
3. increased responsiveness of power flow in the series-compensated line from the outage of other lines in
the system.

Arumugam Rajendran

Modelling of TCSC::
A TCSC involves continuous-time dynamics, relating to voltages and currents in the capacitor and
reactor, and nonlinear, discrete switching behavior of thyristors. Deriving an appropriate model for such a
controller is an intricate task.

Variable Reactance Model of TCSC:
A TCSC model for transient- and oscillatory-stability studies, used widely for its simplicity, is the
variable-reactance model depicted in Fig. In this quasi-static approximation model, the TCSC dynamics
during power-swing frequencies are modeled by a variable reactance at fundamental frequency. The other
dynamics of the TCSC modelthe variation of the TCSC response with different firing angles, for
exampleare neglected.

It is assumed that the transmission system operates in a sinusoidal steady state, with the only dynamics
associated with generators and PSS. This assumption is valid, because the line dynamics are much faster
than the generator dynamics in the frequency range of 0.12 Hz that are associated with angular stability
studies.
The reactance-capability curve of a single-module TCSC exhibits a discontinuity between the inductive
and capacitive regions. However, this gap is lessened by using a multimode TCSC. The variable-
reactance TCSC model assumes the availability of a continuous-reactance range and is therefore
applicable for multi module TCSC configurations. This model is generally used for inter-area mode
analysis, and it provides high accuracy when the reactance-boost factor (= X
TCSC
/X
C
) is less than 1.5.

A block diagram of the variable-reactance model of the TCSC.

Arumugam Rajendran

TCSC Applications:

IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM-STABILITY LIMIT
During the outage of a critical line in a meshed system, a large volume of power tends to flow in parallel
transmission paths, which may become severely over loaded. Providing fixed-series compensation on the
parallel path to augment the power-transfer capability appears to be a feasible solution, but it may
increase the total system losses. Therefore, it is advantageous to install a TCSC in key transmission paths,
which can adapt its series-compensation level to the instantaneous system requirements and provide a
lower loss alternative to fixed-series compensation.
The series compensation provided by the TCSC can be adjusted rapidly to ensure specified magnitudes of
power flow along designated transmission lines. This condition is evident from the TCSCs efficiency,
that is, ability to change its power flow as a function of its capacitive-reactance setting:

Where,
P
12
= the power flow from bus 1 to bus 2
V
1
, V
2
= the voltage magnitude of buses 1 and 2, respectively
X
L
= the line inductive reactance
X
C
= the controlled TCSC reactance combined with fixed series capacitor reactance
= the difference in the voltage angles of buses 1 and 2.

This change in transmitted power is further accomplished with minimal influence on the voltage of
interconnecting buses, as it introduces voltage in quadrature. In contrast, the SVC improves power
transfer by substantially modifying the interconnecting bus voltage, which may change the power into any
connected passive loads. The freedom to locate a TCSC almost anywhere in a line is a significant
advantage. Power-flow control does not necessitate the high-speed operation of power flow control
devices. Hence discrete control through a TSSC may also be adequate in certain situations. However, the
TCSC cannot reverse the power flow in a line, unlike HVDC controllers and phase shifters.

Arumugam Rajendran

ENHANCEMENT OF SYSTEM DAMPING
The TCSC can be made to vary the series-compensation level dynamically in response to controller-input
signals so that the resulting changes in the power flow enhance the system damping. The power
modulation results in a corresponding variation in the torques of the connected synchronous generators
particularly if the generators operate on constant torque and if passive bus loads are not installed.
The damping control of a TCSC or any other FACTS controller should generally do the following:
1. stabilize both post disturbance oscillations and spontaneously growing oscillations during normal
operation;
2. obviate the adverse interaction with high-frequency phenomena in power systems, such as network
resonances; and
3. preclude local instabilities within the controller bandwidth.
In addition, the damping control should
1. be robust in that it imparts the desired damping over a wide range of system operating conditions, and
2. be reliable.
Principle of Damping
The concept of damping enhancement by line-power modulation can be illustrated with the two-machine
system depicted in Fig.

Fig. The TCSC line-power modulation for damping enhancement.
Arumugam Rajendran

The machine SM
1
supplies power to the other machine, SM
2
, over a lossless transmission line. Let the
speed and rotor angle of machine SM
1
be denoted by
, respectively; of machine SM
2
, denoted
by
, respectively.
During a power swing, the machines oscillate at a relative angle
.If the line power is

modulated by the TCSC to create an additional machine torque that is opposite in sign to the derivative of
the rotor-angle deviation, the oscillations will get damped.
This control strategy translates into the following actions: When the receiving endmachine speed is
lower than the sending endmachine speed, that is,
is negative, the TCSC should increase

power flow in the line. In other words, while the sending-end machine accelerates, the TCSC control
should attempt to draw more power from the machine, thereby reducing the kinetic energy responsible for
its acceleration. On the other hand, when is positive, the TCSC must decrease the power transmission
in the line. This damping control strategy is depicted in Fig. through plots of the relative machine angle
, the relative machine speed , and the incremental power variation P
mod
.

The incremental variation of the line-power flow P, given in megawatts (MW), with respect to Q
TCSC
,
given in MVAR, is as follows :

Where, = the angular difference between the line terminal voltages
I = the operating point steady state current
I
N
= the rated current of the TCSC
Thus the TCSC action is based on the variation of line-current magnitude and is irrespective of its
location. Typically, the change in line-power transfer caused by the introduction of the full TCSC is in the
range of 12, corresponding to an angular difference () of 30
0
40
0
across the line. The influence of any
bus load on the torque/ power control of the synchronous generator is derived for the case of a resistive
load and completely inductive generator impedance. The ratio of change in generator power to the ratio of
change in the power injected from the line into the generator bus is expressed as

Where the + sign corresponds to the sending end; the sign ,the receiving end.
Also,
Where P
m
= the variation in generator power
P = the variation in power injected from the transmission line in to the machine bus
Arumugam Rajendran

(it is assumed that R

load
>> X
Source
)
The effect of all practical passive loads is generally moderate, and the sign of generator power is not
changed. In the absence of any bus load, Pm = P. It is not necessary to make the entire series
compensation in a line controllable; in fact, the effectiveness of a TCSC is shown to increase in presence
of fixed series compensation. The required series compensation in a line is therefore usually split into a
fixed-capacitor component and a controllable TCSC component. The controlled-to-fixed ratio of
capacitive reactance in most applications is in the 0.050.2 range, the exact value determined by the
requirements of the specific application.

VOLTAGE-COLLAPSE PREVENTION
Voltage-collapse problems are a serious concern for power-system engineers and planners. Voltage
collapse is mathematically indicated when the system Jacobian becomes singular. The collapse points are
indicative of the maximum loadability of the transmission lines or the available transfer capability (ATC).
The TCSCs can significantly enhance the loadability of transmission networks, thus obviating voltage
collapse at existing power-transfer levels. While the TCSC reduces the effective line reactance, thereby
increasing the power flow, it generates reactive power with increasing through-current, thus exercising a
beneficial influence on the neighboring bus voltage.

The voltage profile of the critical bus employing 50% TCSC compensation.

Arumugam Rajendran

The system faces voltage collapse or a maximum loading point corresponding to a 2120-MW increase in
the net load. If a TCSC is installed to provide 50% compensation of the line experiencing the highest
increase in power at the point of collapse, the maximum loadability will be enhanced to 3534 MW. The
influence of the TCSC on the voltage profile of a critical bus is illustrated in above Fig.

A performance factor, f
p
, indicates the maximum increase in loadability,
0
, for a given percent of line
compensation.

Where X
ref
= the reactance reference setting of the TCSC
X
line
= the line reactance

This index can be gainfully employed to obtain the best location of the TCSC in a system. The
enhancement of system loading and variation of the performance factor with TCSC compensation are
depicted in following Fig.

Fig. The effect of changing the TCSC compensation levels for the critical line: (a) the loading margin and
(b) the performance measure, f p.

It is suggested that TCSC reactance-modulation schemes based on line current or line power, or on the
angular difference across lines, may prove unsuccessful for voltage-stability enhancement. The reason is
that these controls constrain any variation in the corresponding variables that may be necessary with
changing loads, thereby limiting any power-flow enhancement on the line.

Arumugam Rajendran

THE STATCOM
The STATCOM (or SSC) is a shunt-connected reactive-power compensation device that is capable of
generating and/ or absorbing reactive power and in which the output can be varied to control the specific
parameters of an electric power system. It is in general a solid-state switching converter capable of
generating or absorbing independently controllable real and reactive power at its output terminals when it
is fed from an energy source or energy-storage device at its input terminals. Specifically, the STATCOM
is a voltage-source converter that, from a given input of dc voltage, produces a set of 3-phase ac-output
voltages, each in phase with and coupled to the corresponding ac system voltage through a relatively
small reactance (which is provided by either an interface reactor or the leakage inductance of a coupling
transformer). The dc voltage is provided by an energy-storage capacitor.

A STATCOM can improve power-system performance in such areas as the following:
1. The dynamic voltage control in transmission and distribution systems;
2. the power-oscillation damping in power-transmission systems;
3. the transient stability;
4. the voltage flicker control; and
5. the control of not only reactive power but also (if needed) active power in the connected line, requiring
a dc energy source.

Furthermore, a STATCOM does the following:
1. it occupies a small footprint, for it replaces passive banks of circuit elements by compact electronic
converters;
2. it offers modular, factory-built equipment, thereby reducing site work and commissioning time; and
3. it uses encapsulated electronic converters, thereby minimizing its environmental impact.

A STATCOM is analogous to an ideal synchronous machine, which generates a balanced set of three
sinusoidal voltagesat the fundamental frequencywith controllable amplitude and phase angle. This
ideal machine has no inertia, is practically instantaneous, does not significantly alter the existing system
impedance, and can internally generate reactive (both capacitive and inductive) power.

To summarize, a STATCOM controller provides voltage support by generating or absorbing reactive
power at the point of common coupling without the need of large external reactors or capacitor banks.

Arumugam Rajendran

The Principle of Operation
A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source. It provides the desired reactive-power generation
and absorption entirely by means of electronic processing of the voltage and current waveforms in a
voltage-source converter (VSC).

The STATCOM principle diagram: (a) a power circuit; (b) an equivalent circuit; (c) a power exchange.

A single-line STATCOM power circuit is shown in Fig.(a), where a VSC is connected to a utility bus
through magnetic coupling. In Fig.(b), a STATCOM is seen as an adjustable voltage source behind a
reactancemeaning that capacitor banks and shunt reactors are not needed for reactive-power generation
and absorption, thereby giving a STATCOM a compact design, or small footprint, as well as low noise
and low magnetic impact. The exchange of reactive power between the converter and the ac system can
be controlled by varying the amplitude of the 3-phase output voltage, E
s
, of the converter, as illustrated in
Fig.(c). That is, if the amplitude of the output voltage is increased above that of the utility bus voltage, E
t
,
then a current flows through the reactance from the converter to the ac system and the converter generates
capacitive-reactive power for the ac system. If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased below the
utility bus voltage, then the current flows from the ac system to the converter and the converter absorbs
inductive-reactive power from the ac system. If the output voltage equals the ac system voltage, the
reactive-power exchange becomes zero, in which case the STATCOM is said to be in a floating state.
Adjusting the phase shift between the converter-output voltage and the ac system voltage can similarly
control real-power exchange between the converter and the ac system. In other words, the converter can
supply real power to the ac system from its dc energy storage if the converter-output voltage is made to
Arumugam Rajendran

lead the ac-system voltage. On the other hand, it can absorb real power from the ac system for the dc
system if its voltage lags behind the ac-system voltage. A STATCOM provides the desired reactive power
by exchanging the instantaneous reactive power among the phases of the ac system. The mechanism by
which the converter internally generates and/ or absorbs the reactive power can be understood by
considering the relationship between the output and input powers of the converter. The converter switches
connect the dc-input circuit directly to the ac-output circuit. Thus the net instantaneous power at the ac
output terminals must always be equal to the net instantaneous power at the dc-input terminals (neglecting
losses).
Assume that the converter is operated to supply reactive-output power. In this case, the real power
provided by the dc source as input to the converter must be zero. Furthermore, because the reactive power
at zero frequency (dc) is by definition zero, the dc source supplies no reactive power as input to the
converter and thus clearly plays no part in the generation of reactive-output power by the converter. In
other words, the converter simply interconnects the three output terminals so that the reactive-output
currents can flow freely among them. If the terminals of the ac system are regarded in this context, the
converter establishes a circulating reactive-power exchange among the phases. However, the real power
that the converter exchanges at its ac terminals with the ac system must, of course, be supplied to or
absorbed from its dc terminals by the dc capacitor. Although reactive power is generated internally by the
action of converter switches, a dc capacitor must still be connected across the input terminals of the
converter. The primary need for the capacitor is to provide a circulating-current path as well as a voltage
source. The magnitude of the capacitor is chosen so that the dc voltage across its terminals remains fairly
constant to prevent it from contributing to the ripples in the dc current. The VSC-output voltage is in the
form of a staircase wave into which smooth sinusoidal current from the ac system is drawn, resulting in
slight fluctuations in the output power of the converter. However, to not violate the instantaneous power-
equality constraint at its input and output terminals, the converter must draw a fluctuating current from its
dc source. Depending on the converter configuration employed, it is possible to calculate the minimum
capacitance required to meet the system requirements, such as ripple limits on the dc voltage and the
rated-reactive power support needed by the ac system. The VSC has the same rated-current capability
when it operates with the capacitive- or inductive-reactive current. Therefore, a VSC having a certain
MVA rating gives the STATCOM twice the dynamic range in MVAR (this also contributes to a compact
design). A dc capacitor bank is used to support (stabilize) the controlled dc voltage needed for the
operation of the VSC. The reactive power of a STATCOM is produced by means of power-electronic
equipment of the voltage-source-converter type. The VSC may be a 2- level or 3-level type, depending on
the required output power and voltage. A number of VSCs are combined in a multi-pulse connection to
form the STATCOM. In the steady state, the VSCs operate with fundamental-frequency switching to
Arumugam Rajendran

minimize converter losses. However, during transient conditions caused by line faults, a pulse width
modulated (PWM) mode is used to prevent the fault current from entering the VSCs. In this way, the
STATCOM is able to withstand transients on the ac side without blocking.

The V-I Characteristic
A typical V-I characteristic of a STATCOM is depicted in Fig.

Fig. V-I Characteristics of STATCOM
As can be seen, the STATCOM can supply both the capacitive and the inductive compensation and is
able to independently control its output current over the rated maximum capacitive or inductive range
irrespective of the amount of ac-system voltage. That is, the STATCOM can provide full capacitive-
reactive power at any system voltageeven as low as 0.15 pu. The characteristic of a STATCOM reveals
strength of this technology: that it is capable of yielding the full output of capacitive generation almost
independently of the system voltage (constant-current output at lower voltages). This capability is
particularly useful for situations in which the STATCOM is needed to support the system voltage during
and after faults where voltage collapse would otherwise be a limiting factor.

The above Figure also illustrates that the STATCOM has an increased transient rating in both the
capacitive- and the inductive-operating regions. The maximum attainable transient overcurrent in the
capacitive region is determined by the maximum current turn-off capability of the converter switches. In
the inductive region, the converter switches are naturally commutated; therefore, the transient-current
rating of the STATCOM is limited by the maximum allowable junction temperature of the converter
switches.
Arumugam Rajendran

In practice, the semiconductor switches of the converter are not lossless, so the energy stored in the dc
capacitor is eventually used to meet the internal losses of the converter, and the dc capacitor voltage
diminishes. However, when the STATCOM is used for reactive-power generation, the converter itself can
keep the capacitor charged to the required voltage level. This task is accomplished by making the output
voltages of the converter lag behind the ac-system voltages by a small angle (usually in the 0.180.28
range). In this way, the converter absorbs a small amount of real power from the ac system to meet its
internal losses and keep the capacitor voltage at the desired level. The same mechanism can be used to
increase or decrease the capacitor voltage and thus, the amplitude of the converter-output voltage to
control the var generation or absorption.
The reactive- and real-power exchange between the STATCOM and the ac system can be controlled
independently of each other. Any combination of real power generation or absorption with var generation
or absorption is achievable if the STATCOM is equipped with an energy-storage device of suitable
capacity, as depicted in Fig.

Fig: The power exchange between the STATCOM and the ac system.

With this capability, extremely effective control strategies for the modulation of reactive- and real-output
power can be devised to improve the transient- and dynamic-system-stability limits.
Arumugam Rajendran

UPFC:
A Unified Power Flow Controller (or UPFC) is an electrical device for providing fast-acting reactive
power compensation on high-voltage electricity transmission networks. It uses a pair of three-phase
controllable bridges to produce current that is injected into a transmission line using a series transformer.
The UPFC uses solid state devices, which provide functional flexibility, generally not attainable by
conventional thyristor controlled systems. The UPFC is a combination of a static synchronous
compensator (STATCOM) and a static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) coupled via a common
DC voltage link.
The UPFC is the most versatile FACTS controller developed so far, with all-encompassing capabilities of
voltage regulation, series compensation, and phase shifting. It can independently and very rapidly control
both real- and reactive power flows in a transmission line. The UPFC is able to control, simultaneously or
selectively; all the parameters affecting power flow in the transmission line (i.e. voltage, impedance, and
phase angle). And this unique capability signified by the adjective unified in the name.

Circuit Arrangement:

Fig: The implementation of the UPFC using two back-to-back VSCs with a common dc-terminal
capacitor.

Arumugam Rajendran

The Principle of Operation:

UPFC comprises two VSCs coupled through a common dc terminal. One VSCconverter 1is
connected in shunt with the line through a coupling transformer; the other VSCconverter 2is inserted
in series with the transmission line through an interface transformer. The dc voltage for both converters is
provided by a common capacitor bank.
The series converter is controlled to inject a voltage phasor, Vpq, in series with the line, which can be
varied from 0 to Vpq max. Moreover, the phase angle of Vpq can be independently varied from 0
0
to 360
0
.
In this process, the series converter exchanges both real and reactive power with the transmission line.
Although the reactive power is internally generated/ absorbed by the series converter, the real-power
generation/ absorption is made feasible by the dc-energystorage devicethat is, the capacitor. The
shunt-connected converter 1 is used mainly to supply the real-power demand of converter 2, which it
derives from the transmission line itself. The shunt converter maintains constant voltage of the dc bus.
Thus the net real power drawn from the ac system is equal to the losses of the two converters and their
coupling transformers. In addition, the shunt converter functions like a STATCOM and independently
regulate the terminal voltage of the interconnected bus by generating/ absorbing a requisite amount of
reactive power.
Basic Power flow control function:

Fig: A phasor diagram illustrating the general concept of series-voltage injection and attainable power-
flow control functions: (a) series-voltage injection; (b)terminal-voltage regulation; (c) terminal-voltage
and line-impedance regulation; and (d) terminal-voltage and phase-angle regulation.
Arumugam Rajendran

Series Voltage Injection: Fig (a) depicts the addition of the general voltage Phasor Vpq to the existing
bus voltage, V
0
at an angle that varies from 0
0
to 360
0
.

Terminal Voltage regulation: Voltage regulation is effected if Vpq (= V
0
) is generated in phase with
V0, as shown in Fig (b).
Terminal Voltage and line impedance regulation: A combination of voltage regulation and series
compensation is implemented and illustrated in Fig (c), where Vpq is the sum of a voltage regulating
component V
0
and a series compensation providing voltage component Vc that lags behind the line
current by 90
0
.
Terminal Voltage and Phase angle regulation: Fig (d) In the phase-shifting process the UPFC-
generated voltage Vpq is a combination of voltage-regulating component V
0
and phase-shifting voltage
component Va. The function of V is to change the phase angle of the regulated voltage Phasor, V0 + V,
by an angle .
A simultaneous attainment of all three foregoing power-flow control functions is depicted in Fig. 10.27.

Fig. A phasor diagram illustrating the simultaneous regulation of the terminal voltage, line impedance,
and phase angle by appropriate series-voltage injection.

Arumugam Rajendran

The controller of the UPFC can select either one or a combination of the three functions as its control
objective, depending on the system requirements. The UPFC operates with constraints on the following
variables :
1. the series-injected voltage magnitude;
2. the line current through series converter;
3. the shunt-converter current;
4. the minimum line-side voltage of the UPFC;
5. the maximum line-side voltage of the UPFC; and
6. the real-power transfer between the series converter and the shunt converter.
Operating modes of UPFC:
The upfc have many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is operating in a such a
way to inject a controllable current Ish into the system transmission line. The shunt inverter can be
controlled in two different modes
1. VAR Controllable mode: The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request. The
shunt inverter control converts the VAR reference into a corresponding shunt current request and
adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. For this mode of control a feedback
signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc is also required.
2. Automatic voltage control mode: The shunt inverter reactive current is automatically regulated
to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection to a reference value. To this
mode of control, voltage feedback signals are obtained from the sending end bus feeding the
shunt coupling transformer. The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage
injected in series with the line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the
injected voltage can be obtained in different ways.

1. Direct voltage injection mode: The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and
phase angle of the series voltage.
2. Phase angle shifter emulation mode: The reference input is phase displacement
between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage.
3. Line impedance emulation mode: The reference is an impedance value to insert in
series with the line impedance.
4. Automatic power flow control mode: The reference inputs are values of P and Q to
maintain on the transmission line despite system changes.
Arumugam Rajendran

Applications of UPFC:

Power flow control
Power swing damping
voltage dips compensation
Fault current limiting

Arumugam Rajendran

FACTS Controller interactions:
Controller interactions can occur in the following combinations:
1. Multiple FACTS controllers of a similar kind.
2. Multiple FACTS controllers of a dissimilar kind.
3. Multiple FACTS controllers and HVDC converter controllers.
The term coordinated implies that the controllers have been tuned simultaneously to effect an overall
positive improvement of the control scheme. The frequency ranges of the different control interactions
have been classified as follows:
0 Hz for steady-state interactions
03/ 5 Hz for electromechanical oscillations
215 Hz for small-signal or control oscillations
1050/ 60 Hz for sub synchronous resonance (SSR) interactions
>15 Hz for electromagnetic transients, high-frequency resonance or harmonic resonance
interactions, and network-resonance interactions

Steady-State Interactions
Steady-state interactions between different controllers (FACTSFACTS or FACTSHVDC) occur between
their system-related controls. They are steady state in nature and do not involve any controller dynamics.
These interactions are related to issues such as the stability limits of steady-state voltage and steady-state
power; included are evaluations of the adequacy of reactive-power support at buses, system strength, and so
on. An example of such control coordination may be that which occurs between the steady-state voltage
control of FACTS equipment and the HVDC supplementary control for ac voltage regulation. Load-flow and
stability programs with appropriate models of FACTS equipment and HVDC links are generally employed to
investigate the foregoing control interactions. Steady-state indices, such as voltage-stability factors (VSF),
are commonly used. Centralized controls and a combination of local and centralized controls of participating
controllers are recommended for ensuring the desired coordinated performance.

Electromechanical-Oscillation Interactions
Electromechanical-oscillation interactions between FACTS controllers also involve synchronous generators,
compensator machines, and associated power system stabilizer controls. The oscillations include local mode
oscillations, typically in the range of 0.82 Hz, and inter-area mode oscillations, typically in the range of 0.2
0.8 Hz. The local mode is contributed by synchronous generators in a plant or several generators located in
close vicinity; the inter-area mode results from the power exchange between tightly coupled generators in two
areas linked by weak transmission lines. Although FACTS controllers are used primarily for other objectives,
such as voltage regulation, they can be used gainfully for the damping of electromechanical oscillations.
Arumugam Rajendran

In a coordinated operation of different FACTS controllers, the task of damping different electromechanical
modes may be assumed by separate controllers. Alternatively, the FACTS controllers can act concertedly to
damp the critical modes without any adverse interaction. Eigenvalue analysis programs are employed for
determining the frequency and damping of sensitive modes.

Control or Small-Signal Oscillations
Control interactions between individual FACTS controllers and the network or between FACTS controllers
and HVDC links may lead to the onset of oscillations in the range of 215 Hz (the range may even extend to
30 Hz). These oscillations are largely dependent on the network strength and the choice of FACTS controller
parameters, and they are known to result from the interaction between voltage controllers of multiple SVCs ,
the resonance between series capacitors and shunt reactors in the frequency range of 415 Hz , and so forth.
The emergence of these oscillations significantly influences the tuning of controller gains. Analysis of these
relatively higher frequency oscillations is made possible by frequency-scanning programs, electromagnetic-
transient programs (EMTPs), and physical simulators (analog or digital). Eigenvalue analysis programs with
Modeling capabilities extended to analyze higher-frequency modes as well may be used.

Sub synchronous Resonance (SSR) Interactions
Sub synchronous oscillations may be caused by the interaction between the generator torsional system and the
series-compensated-transmission lines, the HVDC converter controls, the generator excitation controls, or even
the SVCs. These oscillations, usually in the frequency range of 1050/ 60 Hz, can potentially damage
generator shafts. Sub synchronous damping controls have been designed for individual SVCs and HVDC links.
In power systems with multiple FACTS controllers together with HVDC converters, a coordinated control can
be more effective in curbing these torsional oscillations.

High-Frequency Interactions
High-frequency oscillations in excess of 15 Hz are caused by large nonlinear disturbances, such as the
switching of capacitors, reactors, or transformers, for which reason they are classified as electromagnetic
transients. Control coordination for obviating such interactions may be necessary if the FACTS and HVDC
controllers are located within a distance of about three major buses. Instabilities of harmonics (those ranging
from the 2nd to the 5th) are likely to occur in power systems because of the amplification of harmonics in
FACTS controller loops. Harmonic instabilities may also occur from synchronization or voltage-measurement
systems, transformer energization, or transformer saturation caused by geo magnetically induced currents
(GICs). FACTS controllers need to be coordinated to minimize or negate such interactions.

Arumugam Rajendran

Coordinated Control and Interactions between
FACTS Controllers in Multi-Machine Power System
Environments: An Overview & Issues
Bindeshwar Singh, N. K. Sharma and A. N. Tiwari
Abstract -This paper presents a review of several literatures in
regarding with interaction problems and various
techniques/methods for coordinated control between PSS and
FACTS controllers or FACTS to FACTS controllers in multi-
machine power system environments and also review of the
various techniques/methods for optimal choice and allocation of
FACTS controllers in multi-machine power systems
environments. This paper also presents review of current status
of coordinated control techniques/methods for FACTS
controllers and placement of FACTS controllers from different
operating conditions viewpoint in multi-machine power systems.
It may also be effective in transient stability improvement, power
oscillations damping and balancing power flow in parallel lines.

Keywords- Control coordination, Flexible AC transmission
systems (FACTS), FACTS controllers, interactions,
placements, voltage stability.
I. INTRODUCTION
Modern power systems are heading towards a deregulated
environment. This results in simultaneous installation oI
FACTS controller in the system. A need thereIore arises to
examine possible control interactions amongst these FACTS
controllers. In this paper studies are perIormed to gain an
insight into the interaction between controllers oI two FACTS
controllers or PSS to FACTS controllers which are electrically
close to each other |1|.
It is understood that the FACTS controller will normally be
equipped with higher order controllers such as power swing
damping controller, Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR)
damping controller etc. Still to develop an insight, the FACTS
controller is assumed to be equipped with simple PI controller
only |1|.The interactions between PSS`s and FACTS
controllers are conducted on the 9-bus Western South
Coordinated Council (WSCC) system is presented in |1|.
Since FACTS controller are installed in power system mainly
Ior increasing the power transIer limit and improving the
voltage proIile oI the system, the eIIiciency oI FACTS
controllers needs to be studied at operating point close to
stability limit |2|.
The various interactions that can potentially occur between
the diIIerent FACTS controllers, as well as between FACTS
and PSS`s or HVDC controllers, in power system
environments. The likely interactions have been classiIied into
diIIerent Irequency ranges.
Inter-area oscillations with Irequencies ranging Irom 0.1 to
0.8 Hz |2| are common problems in large extended power
systems. They are usually spontaneous; that is, they can be
initiated by small disturbances, such as changes in load that
take place continually.
There are several methods proposed in literature Ior
Placement oI FACTS controllers Irom voltage stability/small
signal stability viewpoint |3|-|21|. Various other techniques
such as bus participation Iactor method |7|, residue method
|9|, and location index Ior eIIective damping (LIED) |10|
have been used Ior placement oI FACTS controllers in power
system networks.
A new method called extended voltage phasors approach
(EVPA) has been proposed Ior identiIying the most critical
segments/bus in power system Irom the voltage stability
viewpoint.
The results oI EVPA are compared with the line Ilow index
(LFI) method |11|. The LFI method identiIies exact location
and cause oI the voltage collapse (whether due to real or
reactive power loading) by identiIying critical lines instead oI
critical buses and it does not require computation oI the
jacobian matrix.
There are several methods proposed in literature Ior
coordination oI FACTS controllers Irom voltage stability/
small signal stability viewpoint |22|-|44|.Various other
techniques Ior coordination oI FACTS controllers in power
system networks such as Iuzzy coordination method |26|,
genetic algorithms method |32| have been used Ior
coordination oI FACTS controllers in power system networks.
There are several interaction problems between FACTS
controllers or FACTS to PSS`s Irom voltage stability/ small
signal stability viewpoint are review in literature |1|, |45|-
|47|.
Inter-area oscillations are associated with the linear response
oI the system and represent natural modes oI oscillation.
Interarea oscillations can also be associated with the nonlinear
response oI the system. They appear when the system is
subjected to large disturbances, such as sudden and large load
change or system Iaults |48|. Inter-area oscillations involve
oscillations oI a group oI generators in one area swinging
against a group oI generators in another area. Such oscillations
are very harmIul and may cause a total breakdown in the
Fifteenth National Power Systems Conference (NPSC), IIT Bombay, December 2008
547
power transIer, especially when there are weakly coupled
transmission lines in the system carrying large loads.
A common approach adapted to aid damping oI these
oscillations is the use oI power system stabilizers (PSS`s) to
modulate the generator excitation control. This has been
introduced and used in power industry Ior quite some time.
However, PSS`s are designed individually Ior each generator
that is likely to be aIIected by these oscillations. Due to
complexity oI present day power systems, the number oI
modes oI oscillation experienced by a particular generator has
become large and the Irequency oI these modes has begun to
vary over a wide range. ThereIore the design oI an eIIective
PSS has become extremely complex and diIIicult |45|.
To overcome this problem, the use oI new equipment such as
a static VAr compensator (SVC), and various Ilexible AC
transmission systems (FACTS) controller are being
increasingly considered to aid the damping oI these
oscillations |22|,|23|,|49|.
These techniques have become Ieasible owing to recent
advancements in power electronic technology. The impact oI
individual FACTS controllers on control centre operations is
not very signiIicant. However, as multiple FACTS systems are
added to a transmission system, it becomes necessary Ior the
control activities to be integrated and centrally coordinated.
This is to avoid unIoreseen interactions between control
operations in one area with that in another area |4|.
II. PLACEMENTS OF FACTS DEVICES
FACTS make the application oI a large amount oI Var
compensation more eIIicient, Ilexible, and attractive.
Consequently, a series oI questions have been raised
Irequently by utility planners and manuIacturers: where is the
right location and what is right size Ior the installation oI
reactive power compensators considering technical and
economic needs? Can the models, methods, and tools used Ior
static Var planning be applied in dynamic Var planning? The
answers to these questions are needed Ior utilities to make
better use oI these new power electronic controlled Var
sources.
In order to answer the above questions, it should be stated
that optimal allocation oI static and dynamic Var sources
belongs to the Reactive Power Planning (RPP) or Var
planning category. RPP deals with the decision on new Var
source location and size to cover normal, as well as,
contingency conditions. The planning process aims at
providing the system with eIIicient Var compensation to
enable the system to be operated under a correct balance
between security and economic concerns.
Essentially, RPP is a large-scale nonlinear optimization,. The
solution techniques oI Optimal Power Flow (OPF) have
evolved over many years, each with its particular
mathematical and computational characteristics. The majority
oI the techniques discussed in the literature oI the last 20 years
use at least one oI the Iollowing 3 categories oI methods |50|.
A. Conventional Methoas (Location Optimum). A group oI
methods such as Generalized Reduced Gradient (GRG),
Newton`s Approach, and Successive Quadratic Programming
(SQP) Ior NFL problems are oIten trapped by a local optimal
solution.
B. Heuristic Methoas (Near-Global Optimum). In recent
years, the intelligent optimization techniques such as
Simulated Annealing (SA), Genetic Algorithms (GA), and
Tabu Search (TS) have received widespread attention as
possible techniques to get a global optimum Ior RPP problem,
but these methods are time consuming.
C. Sensitivity Basea Methoas. Such as index, model or
eigenvalue analysis.
At considerations here Ior the placement oI FACTS
controllers in the power system. The objectives Ior controllers
placement may be one oI the Iollowing:
Reduction in the Real Power Loss oI a Particular Line.
Reduction in the Total System Real Power Loss.
Reduction in the Total System Reactive Power Loss.
Maximum RelieI oI Congestion in the System.
For the Iirst three objectives, methods based on the sensitivity
approach may be used. II the objective oI FACTS controllers,
placement is to provide maximum relieI oI congestion, the
controller may be placed in the most congested lines or,
alternatively, in locations determined by trial-and-error |51|.
Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) controllers are
being used to damp out the power system oscillations. The
eIIectiveness oI these controllers depends on their optimal
location in the power system network. A controllability index
has proposed in |13| to Iind the optimal location oI the
FACTS controllers to damp out the inter-area mode oI
oscillations. Three types oI FACTS controllers have been
considered, which include static var compensator, thyristor
controlled series compensator and uniIied power Ilow
controller. The proposed controllability index is based on the
relative participation oI the parameters oI FACTS controllers
to the critical mode. A simple approach oI computing the
controllability indices has been proposed in |13|, which
combines the linearised diIIerential algebraic equation model
oI the power system and the FACTS output equations. The
placements oI FACTS controllers have been obtained Ior the
base case as well as Ior the critical contingency cases. The
eIIectiveness oI the proposed method is demonstrated on New
England 39-bus system and 16-machine, 68-bus system. In
Addition, the placement oI FACTS controllers has been
obtained through a static criterion based on loss sensitivity
indices is presented in |16|.
Power system restructuring requires expanding unused
potentials oI transmission systems due to environmental, right
oI way, and cost problems, which are major hurdles Ior power
transmission network expansion. FACTS devices can be an
alternative to reduce the Ilows in heavily loaded lines,
resulting in an increased loadability, low system loss,
improved stability oI the network, reduced cost oI production
and IulIilled contractual requirements by controlling the power
548
Ilows in the network. This letter suggests Iirst, the Iew optimal
location oI FACTS devices and then determines the best
optimal location in order to reduce the production cost along
with the device cost is presented in |14|. The allocation and
requirement are also discussed. The eIIectiveness oI the
proposed methods is demonstrated on an IEEE 14- bus system
|14|.
The continuous change in power demand and supply altered
the power Ilow patterns in transmission networks in such a
way that some oI the corridors are lightly loaded and some oI
the corridors get over loaded. This raises serious challenge in
operating the power system in secure and reliable manner. To
cope with this problem Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS) is used. It plays a very important role in improving
the power system operating perIormance but these devices are
costly and need to be placed optimally in power system.
Suggests a new sensitivity based approach to locate Thyristor
Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) and UniIied Power
Flow Controller (UPFC) Ior enhancing the power system
loadability. The eIIectiveness oI the proposed method is tested
and illustrated on 5-bus and IEEE 14-bus systems.
A novel approach Ior the identiIication oI the optimum site
Ior power system stabilizers. The method makes use oI
participation Iactors to locate the generator in multi-machine
power system which is most eIIective in damping
enhancement using power system stabilizers is presented in
|18|. A comparative study between the proposed approach and
the conventional eigenvector method has been perIormed on
two utility systems. It is Iound that the participation Iactor
method is a better criterion Ior the determination oI optimum
stabilizers location |18|.
The development oI mathematical model representations oI
variable series capacitors and static phase shiIters which are
also known as Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) in
power system economic dispatch. The objective oI proposed
in |19| is to Iind the optimal locations oI FACTS devices Ior
improved economic dispatch. The proposed approach is based
on the decomposition- coordination method and the network
compensation technique.
To obtain optimal system perIormance, the location oI any
FACTS controller in an interconnected power system must be
determined careIully. Four broad categories oI techniques
have been proposed in |3| Ior determining best suited
locations.
1. Jacobian Based Sensitivity Methodologies.
2. Non- Jacobian Based Techniques.
3. Eigen-Analysis Based Methods
4. Optimization and ArtiIicial Intelligence Based
Techniques
Placement techniques (3) and (4) are complex and
computationally time intensive but are claimed to be more
accurate. Techniques (1) and (2) are comparatively simple and
are shown to be reasonably accurate even through they do not
consider system dynamics as in (3) and system nonlinearities
as in (4). Between (1) and (2), the non-jacobian based
techniques are simpler and less time consuming |4|.
The optimal choice and allocation oI FACTS device in multi-
machine power systems using genetic algorithm is presented
in |5|.The objective is to achieve the power system economic
generation allocation and dispatch in deregulated electricity
market. Using the proposed method, the locations oI FACTS
controllers, their type and rating are optimized simultaneously.
DiIIerent kinds oI FACTS controllers are simulated in |5|,
UPFC, TCSC, TCPST, and SVC. Furthermore, their
investment costs are also considered. Simulation results
validate the capability oI this new approach in minimizing the
overall system cost Iunction, which include the investment
costs oI the FACTS controllers and the bid oIIers oI the
market participants. The proposed algorithm is an eIIective
and practical method Ior the choice and allocation oI suitable
FACTS controllers in deregulated electricity market
environment |6|, |7|.
A new method called the extended voltage phasors approach
(EVPA) is proposed Ior placement oI FACTS controllers in
power systems is presented in |8|. While the voltage phasors
approach (VPA) identiIies only the critical paths Irom the
voltage stability point oI view, the proposed method
additionally locates the critical buses/line segments. The
results oI EVPA are compared with the well-established line
Ilow index (LFI) method Ior 9-bus, 39-bus, and 68-bus power
systems is presented in |8|. It is shown that the EVPA
provides accurate indication Ior the placement oI FACTS
controllers.
A screening technique Ior greatly reducing the computation
involved in determining the optimal location oI a uniIied
power Ilow controller (UPFC) in a power system is presented
in |21|. The Iirst-order sensitivities oI the generation cost with
respect to UPFC control parameters are derived. This
technique requires running only one optimal power Ilow
(OPF) to obtain UPFC sensitivities Ior all possible
transmission lines. IEEE Iive-, 14- and 30-bus systems were
used to illustrate the technique is presented in |21|.
The Iirst-order sensitivity technique to screen Ior optimal
UPFC locations in a large power system by ignoring the
transmission lines with low MVs and running a Iull OPF only
Ior the lines with higher MVs to obtain actual cost savings.
Thus, this technique can reduce the computational burden oI
determining the optimal location oI the UPFC in a large power
system |21|.
An algorithm Ior optimally locating FACTS controllers in a
power system is presented in |20|. The proposed Evolution
Strategies (ES). The optimal conIiguration will be the one that
maximizes the system loadability while keeping the power
system operating within appropriate security limits. Three
important aspects to be considered throughout the
optimization are the types oI FACTS controllers used, their
location, and their corresponding settings. Simulations are
carried out on a modiIied IEEE-30 bus test system |20| Ior
diIIerent numbers and types oI FACTS controllers. The results
obtained demonstrate that the best option to increase the
loadability oI the system is by using diIIerent types oI FACTS
controllers simultaneously. In addition, it is observed that
there exists a maximum number oI FACTS controllers beyond
549
which it us impossible to improve the loadability oI the
system.
The onging power system restructuring requires |12| an
opening oI unused potentials oI transmission system due to
environmental, right-oI-way and cost problems which are
major hurdles Ior power transmission network expansion.
FACTS controllers can be an alternative to reduce the Ilows in
heavily loaded lines, resulting in an increased loadability, low
system loss, improved stability oI the network, reduced cost oI
production and IulIilled contractual requirement by controlling
the power Ilows in the network. In literature suggests, Iirst, the
Iew optimal locations oI FACTS controllers and then
determines the best optimal location in order to reduce the
production cost along with the controllers cost. The
eIIectiveness oI the proposed methods is demonstrated on
IEEE 14-bus system is presented in |12|.
III. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FACTS CONTROLLERS
Flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) controllers either
extend the power-transIer capability oI existing transmission
corridors or enhance the stability and security margins Ior
given power transmission limits.
Fast controls associated with FACTS controllers do provide
these system improvements, but they also can interact
adversely with one another |52|.
An interaction phenomenon between dynamic loads and
FACTS controllers in power systems. DiIIerent power system
conIigurations have been studied (power system with/without
dynamic loads, uncertainty and variation oI dynamic load
parameters). Two methods have been proposed in |46| to
solve this problem. The Iirst one based, on sensitivity and
residues techniques, takes into account the uncertain character
oI dynamic loads to compute the most eIIicient phase
compensation Ior low Irequency oscillations damping. The
second approach consists on designing a robust damping
controller by LMI (Linear Matrix Inequalities) techniques in
the aim oI guaranteeing a certain degree oI stability and
perIormances oI the FACTS controllers in presence oI
dynamic loads uncertainties.
The Iirst one, inspired Irom the classical technique oI
residues (or eigenvalues sensitivities), takes into account the
margin oI uncertainty in power system dynamic loads.
The second proposed method to deal with the problem oI
interaction between dynamic loads and FACTS controllers
relies on the use oI Linear Matrix Inequalities (LMI). This
relatively new approach in control theory has more recently
been applied to the robust control problem in power systems is
presented in |53|,|54|. Tests have been carried out using a
two-area Iour-machine test system to demonstrate the
eIIectiveness oI the proposed methods. This system, well
known Ior low Irequencies oscillations studies, exhibits low
damped oscillations.
Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) damping control
is superimposed on FACTS normal control Iunctions and so
its eIIectiveness can be hampered by the interaction between
FACTS normal control and the damping control Iunction.
Based on the relative gain array (RGA) theory, a modiIied
RGA assesses the interactions between FACTS normal control
and damping control Iunction is presented in |47|. The
application oI the proposed modiIied RGA Ior the eIIective
design oI FACTS damping controllers is demonstrated by two
examples: the selection oI a UPFC control Iunction on which a
UPFC damping control is superimposed, and the selection oI
FACTS voltage control devices (SVC and STATCOM) where
a damping controller is installed. This is the Iirst time that this
issue oI FACTS control interaction is addressed and
considered in the design oI eIIective FACTS damping
controllers |47|.
Type oI Interactions oI FACTS Controllers:
Multiple FACTS Controllers oI a Similar Type
Multiple FACTS Controllers oI a Dissimilar Type
Multiple FACTS Controllers and HVDC Converter
Controllers
Because oI the many combinations that are possible, an
urgent need arises Ior power systems to have the controls oI
their various dynamic controllers coordinated. The term
coordinated implies that the controllers have tuned
simultaneously to eIIect an overall positive improvement oI
the control scheme in |24|, |45|, |55|.
The Irequency ranges oI the diIIerent control interactions
have been classiIication as Iollows |24|.
A. 0 H: for Steaay State Interactions
Steady-state interactions between diIIerent controllers
(FACTS-FACTS or FACTS-HVDC) occur between their
system related controls.
They are steady state in nature and do not involve any
controller dynamics. These interactions are related to issues
such as the stability limits oI steady-state voltage and steady-
state power; included are evaluations oI the adequacy oI
reactive power support at buses, system strength and so on
|55|.
B. 0-3/5 H: for Electro-Mechanical Oscillations

Electromechanical-oscillation interactions between FACTS
controllers also involve synchronous generators, compensator
machines, and associated power-system stabilizer controls.
The oscillations include local mode oscillations, typically in
the range oI 0.8-2 Hz, and inter-area mode oscillations,
typically in range oI 0.2-0.8 Hz |45|.
C. 2-15 H: for Small-Signal or Control Oscillations
Control interactions between individual FACTS controllers
and the network or between FACTS controllers and HVDC
links may lead to the onset oI oscillations in the range oI 2-15
Hz (the range may even extend to 30 Hz). These oscillations
are largely dependent on the network strength and the choice
oI FACTS controllers parameters |45|.
D. 10-50/60 H: for Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR)
Interactions
550
Sub synchronous oscillation may be caused by the
interaction between the generator torsional system and the
series compensated transmission lines |24|.
E. ~15 H: for Electromagnetic Transients, High Frequency
Resonance or Harmonic Resonance Interactions
High- Irequency oscillations in excess oI 15 Hz are caused
by large nonlinear disturbances, such as the switching oI
capacitors, reactors, or transIormers, Ior which reason they are
classiIied as electromagnetic transients |24|.

IV. COORDINATION OF FACTS
CONTROLLERS
The essential design Ieatures oI multiple FACTS controllers
that can ensure secure operation with suIIicient damping over
a wide range oI power system operating conditions are
presented in |45|. The term coordination does not imply
centralized control; rather, it implies the simultaneous tuning
oI the FACTS controllers to attain an eIIective, positive
improvement oI the overall control scheme. It is understood
that each controller relies primarily on measurements oI
locally available quantities and acts independently on local
FCATS equipments.
In a practical power system, there could be number oI
FACTS devices installed, which may cause interaction
between them. This is more likely to be true in Ioreseeable
Iuture in the deregulated environment. These multiple FACTS
devices have the potential to interact with each other. This
interaction may either deteriorate or enhance system stability
depending upon the chosen controls and their placement.
Hence there is a need to study the interaction between the
FACTS controllers |1|,|56|.
The Linear techniques Ior the control design oI multiple
SVCs along a transmission line have been presented in |25|.
A Iuzzy modeling approach to a coordinated control oI
voltage and reactive power in order to enhance voltage
security oI power system is presented in |57|.The results oI the
proposed approach shows that coordinated control oI available
voltage control devices leads to more secure system operating
condition.
The proposed approach uses combination oI heuristic rules
and linear equations is proposed in |58|.
A Iuzzy-coordination controller is presented in |26| Ior the
coordinated oI traditional FACTS controllers. The Iuzzy logic
controllers are rule-based controllers in which a set oI rules
represents a control decision mechanism to adjust the eIIect oI
certain cases coming Irom power system. Furthermore, Iuzzy
logic controllers do not require a mathematical model oI the
system. They can cover a wider range oI operating conditions
and they are robust |26|.
The FACTS transient controllers and POD controller achieve
diIIerent control objectives in diIIerent operation states.
Conventionally, in order to enhance transient stability and
damp the subsequent oscillations, a switching control strategy
is always used to coordinate between the two diIIerent
controllers (Lei, et al., 2000).
In order to coordinate the transient stability controller and
the POD controller under diIIerent operating situations and
diIIerent Iault sequences, the Iuzzy-logic coordination
controller is proposed in |26|.
The control oI series FACTS controllers Ior the coordination
between their transient stability controller and Power
Oscillation Damping (POD) controllers in multi-machine
power systems environments is presented in |26|.The design
aspects and their implementation in Iorm oI Iuzzy-logic
coordination controller are presented in |26|.Furthermore,
Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy InIerence System (ANFIS) is
employed Ior the training oI the proposed Iuzzy-logic
controller. The local signals oI FACTS devices are applied to
achieve the coordination objectives.
Usually, the coordination between FACTS Transient
controllers and POD controllers is achieved using a pre-set
Iixed time switch (Lei., et al., 2000). However, the optimal
switching time is varied with diIIerent disturbances and
diIIerent operating conditions. The switching time is then
controlled by means oI the Iuzzy-logic approach. Furthermore,
the parameters oI the proposed controller are optimized using
the ANFIS algorithm (Shing, and Jang., 1993).
A new Iuzzy proportional action is introduced to enhance the
perIormance oI out put Ieedback controllers is presented in
|23|. This Iuzzy system has a simple structure and acts as a
nonlinear Iunction so that the gain oI the controller is not
constant but changes according to the error value. To show the
eIIectiveness oI the proposed Iuzzy output Ieedback controller
computer simulations Ior co-ordination application oI two
thyristor controlled series capacitor based stabilizers are
perIormed |23|.
The eIIectiveness oI FACTS controllers on power system
stability during and aIter large and small disturbances has been
demonstrated |27|.
Coordination application oI FACTS based stabilizers has
been addressed |59|. Modern control theory has been widely
used in conventional approaches to co-ordination oI FACTS
based stabilizers. One oI the most important methods
applicable in this area is output Ieedback control. Based on
this method co-ordination oI the thyristor controlled series
capacitor (TCSC) and the thyristor controlled phase angle
regulator (TCPAR) Ior damping inter-area oscillations have
been investigated in |28|.
Two methods based on decentralized optimal control and
pole placement Ior determining` globally coordinated settings
oI PSS and FACTS controllers, supplementary signals are
presented in |29|. Three FACTS controllers such as SVC,
TCSC and Phase ShiIter are considered in 13-machines, 77-
bus equivalent system Ior the Southern Brazil Interconnected
Network. The Proposed approach does not explicitly consider
robustness as a design requirement.
The damping oI inter-area and local electromechanical
oscillation modes using controllable series capacitor (TCSC)
and controllable shunt capacitor (SVC) is presented in |60|. It
has been Iound that a TCSC and an SVC do not have the same
eIIect on damping oI the local modes. It is shown that TCSC
551
exhibits more eIIective damping than SVC Ior inter-area
mode.
An integrated methodology (FACTS Optimal Power Flow)
Ior assessing the behavior oI FACTS controllers within the
Iramework oI economic power system studies is presented in
|61|. The non-linear TCSC, IPFC and UPFC models re
incorporated directly in the Hessian Jacobian matrix oI
Newton`s Method. The FACTS-OPF algorithm uses multiplier
method and determines the level oI active power to be
regulated by FACTS controllers such that it leads to more
economical solution |61|.
The application oI multiple Ilexible AC system (FACTS)
controllers has received considerable recent interest as a
means oI enhancing system dynamic perIormance |61|.
The coordinated control action oI a TCSC and Thyristor
Controlled Phase Angle Regulator (TCPAR) to increase power
transIer and system damping using model control theory is
proposed in |28|.In |62| a Coordinated Damping Optimal
(CDO) controllers to design and implement multiple TCSC
controllers in a transmission network oI interconnected power
system is proposed. The proposed CDO controller shows its
eIIectiveness to damp inter-area oscillation and to enhance
power system damping during large disturbances. The CDO
controllers are validated using real time simulation studies
using PSCAD/RTDC soItware packages.
The application oI decentralized power system controllers
Ior damping low-Irequency inter-area oscillation in large
interconnected power system is presented in |63|. A two-stage
Irequency domain design methodology based on
decentralized control theory and residue analysis is proposed
to co-ordinate controllers as well as to minimize the potential
Ior adverse interaction between control loops.
The method takes into account both, the dynamic oI the
process and the dynamics oI the controllers. A residue-based
method is then used to tune system controllers. The design
methodology is tested on a 6-area, 130-machni and 351-bus
practical power system in which several large static VAR
compensators (SVCs) are embedded in a complex AC
network. Special eIIorts are devoted to quantiIy the inIluence
oI existing SVC dynamic support to enhance the damping oI
three critical inter-area modes. Time-domain analysis as well
as to assess the impact oI dynamic voltage support on transient
system behavior |63|.
Global parameter setting method Ior power damping control
oI multi-FACTS controllers is presented in |64|. In Network
Torsion Machine Control (NETOMAC) simulation program
non-linear optimization technique has been used Ior
minimizing overall power swings under transient conditions.
However, uncoordinated local control oI FACTS devices and
PSS`s always causes destabilizing interactions.
To improve overall system perIormance, many researches
were made on the coordination between PSS`s and FACTS
POD controllers |26|. The simultaneous coordinated tuning oI
the FACTS POD controller in multi-machine power systems.
Using the linearized system model and the parameter-
constrained nonlinear optimization algorithm, interactions
among FACTS controller and PSS controllers are considered
|30|, |31|.
A new method is presented in |32| based on the method oI
inequalities Ior the coordinated synthesis oI power systems in
order to enhance overall system small signal stability. Since
the coordination and control oI PSS`s is a Pareto-optimization
problem, a comprehensive list oI design objectives has been
presented in terms oI a set oI inequalities. To solve these
inequalities. Genetic algorithms have been applied to
determine the PSS parameters.
An optimization based tuning algorithm is presented in |33|
to coordinate among multiple controllers simultaneously. This
algorithm optimizes the total system perIormance by means oI
sequential quadratic programming method. By minimizing the
objective Iunction in which the inIluences oI both PSS`s and
FACTS POD controllers re considered, interactions among
these controllers are improved. ThereIore, the overall system
perIormance is optimized |34|,|35|.
A comprehensive annotated bibliography oI FACTS devices
modeling, placement, control, coordination including a list oI
major FACTS installations in the world is presented |65|.
A problem oI interest in the power industry is the mitigation
oI power system oscillations. These oscillations are related to
the dynamics oI system power transIer and oIten exhibit poor
damping. With utilities increasing power exchanges over a
Iixed network, the use oI new and existing equipment in the
transmission system Ior damping these oscillations is being
considered in |36|. The Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
(TCSC) and Static Var Compensator (SVC) are both members
oI the Flexible AC Transmission systems (FACTS) Iamily.
The TCSC is a series compensation device. With the Iiring
control oI the thyristors, it can change its apparent reactance
smoothly and rapidly. This characteristic meets the demands
oI the modern power system that must operate Ilexibly and
react quickly. The SVC is a shunt compensation device. It is
originally designed Ior voltage support in power systems.
Much as the TCSC, the SVC is also capable oI rapid and
Ilexible adjustment. Individually, the TCSC and the SVC can
improve the damping perIormance oI the power system. They
can be combined together Ior superior beneIits. Nevertheless,
the coordination between them is very important. Otherwise,
unnecessary complication may arise Irom their dynamic
interaction aIIecting the perIormance oI the power system
|37|.
A control scheme using projective controls is developed Ior
the simultaneous coordination oI TCSC and SVC to enhance
the damping perIormance oI the power system is presented in
|36|.
The method presented here demonstrates the control action
oI the TCSC in conjunction with the control action oI the SVC
to increase system damping and power transIer capabilities
beyond those achievable with a single FACTS controllers. It
also illustrates how the measurement and control signals are
coordinated to Iorm eIIective FACTS controllers. Controller
perIormance over a range oI operating conditions is
investigated using linear analysis and nonlinear time domain
simulation.
552
The simulation results in a single machine inIinite bus
(SMIB) power system show that the proposed controller with
coordinated control oI TCSC and SVC can signiIicantly
improve system damping perIormance. A SMIB power system
is used Ior simulation studies because it qualitatively
represents the behavior oI a multimachines power system and
is extremely useIul in describing the general concepts oI
power system stability |36|.
A method to coordinate stabilizers so as to increase the
operational dynamic stability margin oI power system is
presented in |66|. This solution indirectly takes into account
diIIerent operating conditions to design robust stabilizers
based on local measurements. Non-linear simulation on a
sample 46-machine power system, including a thyristor
controlled series capacitor (TCSC) and an uniIied power Ilow
controller (UPFC), is employed to explore the eIIectiveness oI
the procedure |66|.
A linear optimal controller is designed to implement
multiple variable series compensations in transmission
networks oI interconnected power systems is presented in
|38|.
An immune algorithm solution is proposed in |39| to deal
with the problem oI optimal coordination oI local physically
based controllers in order to preserve or retain mid and long
term voltage stability. This problem is in Iact a global
coordination control problem which involves not only
sequencing and timing diIIerent control devices but also
tuning the parameters oI controllers. A multi-stage
coordinated control scheme is presented, aiming at retaining
good voltage levels with minimal control eIIorts and costs
aIter severe disturbances in power system |7|.
A new real and reactive power coordination controller Ior
uniIied power Ilow controller (UPFC) is presented in |39|.
FACTS controllers provide the possibility to control
voltages and power Ilows in a power system and thereIore to
improve the security oI the system.
But due to the large size oI power systems, it is oIten diIIicult
Ior diIIerent reasons to include the entire system into the
optimization process. The sensitivity analysis method is
presented in |22| is used to determine the area on which the
FACTS controllers has considerable inIluence and then only
this limited area is included in the optimal power Ilow control.
II there are several devices placed in the same power system,
the areas assigned to these devices might over lap indicating
mutual inIluences.
ThereIore, a coordination oI the control entities is needed in
order to avoid conIlicting behavior oI the FACTS controllers
raising the issue oI multi-area control |22|.
A non-linear methods presented in |40| Ior coordinated
generator excitation, static phase shiIter (SPS) and static Var
compensator (SVC) controllers is proposed to enhance the
transient stability oI a power systems. The proposed controller
is novel since it is able to control the three main parameters
aIIecting ac power transmission; namely voltage, phase angle,
and reactance in a coordinated manner. The SPS is located
near the generator terminal and the SVCs are located at the
midpoint oI each transmission line in a power system.
Nonlinear Ieedback control law is Iound which linearize and
decouple the power system. The coordinated controller
consists oI three separate controllers: an adaptive excitation
and SPS controller and two SVC controllers. These controllers
are designed based on local measurements only.
The results show that the proposed nonlinear coordinated
series and shunt FACTS controller are able to enhance the
transient stability oI a single machine-inIinite-bus (SMIB)
power system.
A Proposition is made to design and coordinate multiple
stabilizers in order to enhance the electro-mechanical transient
behaviors oI power system is presented in |41|. A technique
Ior tuning FACTS-based stabilizers as an optimization
problem is presented in |41|. The stabilizers parameters are
obtained through the minimization oI an objective Iunction
based on second order eigen-sensitivities, and set up by some
dominant eigenvalues and their leIt and right-eigenvectors
calculated Ior diIIerent operating conditions. The eIIectiveness
and robustness oI the procedure are demonstrated through
digital simulations on a 16-machine power system embedding
an STATCOM is presented in |41|.
The inherent dynamical relationship between the under-
excitation limiter (UEL) and the power system stabilizer (PSS)
control loops in synchronous generators is studied using the
Irequency response technique. While the stabilizers are
eIIective in introducing electromechanical damping torque
components into the generators, it is shown that the limiters
should be designed to aIIect much slower response
characteristics as their main Iunction is to prevent excessive
stator end-core heating is presented in |43|. Four broad
categories oI techniques have been proposed in |43| Ior co-
ordinations oI multiple FACTS controllers.
1) Conventional Methoas for Cooraination
Newton`s Approach.
Successive Quadratic Programming (SQP) Ior
NFL problems.
2) Sensitivity Basea Methoas for Cooraination
Eigen values Analysis Based Controller Optimization
and Coordination Techniques.
Index Methods
3) Control Design Basea Methoaology for Cooraination
Linear Control Method
Non-Linear Control Methods
4) Optimi:ation ana Artificial Intelligence Basea
Techniques
Fuzzy Coordination oI Multiple FACTS Controllers
Genetic Algorithms (GA) Ior Coordination oI
Multiple FACTS Controllers
A. Nonlinear Constrainea Optimi:ation of a Selective
Moaal-Performance Inaex
553
In the nonlinear-constrained optimization techniques, the
objective Iunction is called a modal-perIormance index, which
relates exclusively to system damping enhancement |67|. This
index computes the energy enveloped by the damped
sinusoidal-signal responses that arises Irom a given initial
conditions. A large value oI this index implies a scanty level
oI damping; a minimum value, on the other hand, implies an
optimally damped closed loop system.
B. Linear Quaaratic Regulator (LQR) Basea
Technique
The LQR technique is one oI optimal control that can be used
to coordinate the FACTS controllers with the overall objective
oI damping low-Irequency inter-area modes during highly
stressed power system operations |28|, |68|.
Using a projective controls approach |69|, the control
coordination method involves Iormulating an LQR problem to
determine a Iullstate Ieedback controller in which a
quadratic perIormance index is minimized.
C. Controller Cooraination for Damping Enhancement
These techniques Ior the coordination FACTS controller to
improve the damping oI electromechanical modes is based on
the damping-torque contribution oI each FACTS controller, as
well as that oI any other controller present in the system- PSS,
HVDC, and so on. The damping torque contribution oI a
controller is related to the leIt shiIt that it introduces in the
relevant electro-mechanical mode. A need then arises Ior
using automated techniques Ior FACTS controller
coordination. The control coordination techniques is
automated by Iormulating it as a linear programming problem
|33|.
D. Constrainea Optimi:ation Techniques
Constrained-optimization techniques Ior control coordination
oI FACTS control structures generally used in industry, but
they may or not use robustness criterion explicitly in the
design process. In such a case controller robustness must be
veriIied separate Irom the design process.
Techniques Without Explicit Robustness Criterion
Pole placement is one technique |70| in which the robustness
requirement is not explicitly considered. In this method, the
critical electro-mechanical modes are assigned a priori new
locations that are placed deeper into the leIt halI oI the s-
plane. The controllers parameters are then selected to result in
these assigned pole locations. This method can applied easily
to large system, as the inherent sparsity in system matrices can
be used to the advantage oI such systems.
Techniques With Explicit Robustness Criterion
These techniques that explicitly consider the robustness
requirements |44|, in the system operating pints caused by line
switching, load variations, or contingencies are incorporated
as changes in the matrix elements oI the linearized systems.
These matrix-element variations are called admissible
uncertainties. The robust control design relates to the
determination oI a state-Ieedback matrix that can maintain
stability oI the closed loop system Ior any admissible
uncertainty. This method is somewhat diIIicult to apply to
large systems, as it relies totally on a linearized system model.
E. Global Cooraination Using Nonlinear- Constrainea
Optimi:ation Techniques
In the global coordination technique, the parameters ( gain
and time constants) oI the damping controllers oI multiple
FACTS controllers are coordinated globally by using
nonlinear-constrained optimization|45|. It is usually their
damping action on the real-power oscillations causes
substantial reactive power oscillations.
F. Cooraination of Multiple FACTS Controllers Using
Linear-Control Techniques
The essential design Ieatures oI multiple FACTS controllers
that can ensure secure operation with suIIicient damping over
a wide range oI power system operating conditions are
presented in |45|. The term coordination does not imply
centralized control; rather, it implies the simultaneous tuning
oI the FACTS controllers to attain an eIIective, positive
improvement oI the overall control scheme. It is understood
that each controller relies primarily on measurements oI
locally available quantities and acts independently on local
FACTS equipments.
G. Cooraination of Multiple FACTS Controllers Using Non-
Linear Control Techniques
Even through rotor-angle stability is essentially a nonlinear-
control problem, the theoretical concepts oI linear-control
theory can be applied to solve many issues related to this
stability problem. Recently, however, several nonlinear-
control techniques have been applied Ior the design oI FACTS
controllers |71|. These techniques are likely to yield greatly
improved controllers, as they include the eIIects oI system
nonlinearities.
One nonlinear control technique in which the system
nonlinearities are expressed as system changes constituting a
Iunction oI time is the adaptive control |72|,|73|. II the
number oI controller parameters to be optimized is not too
large, a cost-penalty Iunction technique can be used, which is
based on nonlinear simulation |74|. An eIIective technique
commonly used Ior enhancing transient stability during large
disturbances is the discontinuous control or bang- bang control
|75|,|76|. Another nonlinear control technique is the normal
Iorms, which includes the eIIects oI higher-order terms in
Taylor`s series to represent power systems-especially during
high power transIers |77|,|78|. For damping low-Irequency
oscillations, FACTS controllers can be designed using the
dissipation technique, which is based on the concept that
passive systems always absorb energy |79|. For designing the
controls oI FACTS controllers in large power systems, the
energy, or Lyapunov, technique can be used |80|, |81|. For
stability enhancement, nonlinear Iuzzy and neural net
techniques are presented being researched |82|.
554
In the Iuture, these techniques may be extended Ior
coordination oI FACTS controllers. One possible approach
could be to Iirst do a coarse coordination using linear-control
techniques, Iollowed by a Iine coordination employing the
nonlinear-control methods |83|.
H. Control Cooraination of FACTS Controllers Using
Genetic Algorithms
Genetic algorithms are optimization techniques based on the
laws oI natural selection and natural genetics |84| that recently
have been applied to the control design oI power systems |42|,
|85 |.
These techniques provide robust, decentralized control
design and are not restricted by problems oI non-
diIIerentiability, nonlinearity, and non-convexity, all oI which
are oIten limiting in optimization exercises.
The Ioregoing optimization problem involves a computation
oI eigenvalues oI a large system matrix, which is usually
diIIerent to solve with conventional techniques. An advantage
oI genetic algorithm techniques is that the parameter limits can
be varied during the optimization, making the techniques
computationally eIIicient. An application oI these techniques
to two large power systems is presented in |45|. Us oI high
perIormance computation (parallel processing) is
recommended Ior reducing the computational time associated
with the application oI these techniques.
I. Control Cooraination of FACTS Controllers Using Fu::y
Logic Algorithms
Fuzzy coordination oI FACTS controllers is presented in |26|
Ior traditional FACTS controllers in multi-machine power
systems environments. The Iuzzy logic controllers are rule-
based controllers in which a set oI rules represents a control
decision mechanism to adjust the eIIect oI certain cases
coming Irom power system. Furthermore, Iuzzy logic
controllers do not require a mathematical model oI the system.
They can cover a wider-range oI operating conditions and they
are robust. The Iuzzy coordination controller involves
FuzziIication, InIerence and DeIuzziIication unit |26|.
V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a review oI several literatures in regarding with
interaction problems and various techniques/methods Ior coordinated
control between PSS and FACTS controllers or FACTS to FACTS
controllers in multi-machine power system environments and also
review the various techniques/methods Ior optimal choice and
allocation oI FACTS device in multi-machine power systems
environments. The signiIicant contributions oI the review oI the
several literatures is presented in this paper are as Iollows.
The problem oI interaction between dynamic loads and FACTS
controllers has been investigated in literature. It appears that the
choice oI the loads models can signiIicantly impact system
perIormance. While an accurate modeling oI loads in power system is
a diIIicult task and oIten uncertain because oI the non-deterministic
character oI the loads, it becomes clear that FACTS regulations
improve the overall robustness oI the system.
This paper also presents a review oI a new set oI controllability
indices Ior to Iind the optimal location oI UPFC, TCSC and SVC Ior
enhancing damping oI small signal oscillations and thus, improving
the system stability.
This paper also presents a review oI a new sensitivity based
approach has been developed Ior Iinding suitable placement oI TCSC
and UPFC in power system. The sensitivity Iactors could be
eIIectively used Ior placement oI TCSC and UPFC in order to
increase the loadability oI the system.
Modal analysis can clearly indicate whether the system is stable or
not at the given operating mode. In addition, the participation Iactors
clearly deIine areas prone to voltage instability and indicate elements
which are important to improve the system voltage stability most
eIIectively.
To Iurther improve the perIormance oI the closed-loop system, the
authors are presently investigating the H-inIinity approach to the
design oI the coordinated FACTS controllers in multimachine power
systems, which will result in robust controllers that can perIorm well
under varies operating conditions.
This paper also presents a review oI a new Iuzzy-coordination
method Ior FACTS controllers or PSS`s and FACTS controllers in a
multi-machine power system to damp the electro-mechanical
oscillations.
This review shows that installing multiple controllers on the system
may not improve the dynamic perIormance due to undesirable
interactions. The tuning oI one controller may aIIect other controllers
and thus lead to unstable conditions. These issues should be taken
into consideration when designing systems with multiple controllers.
The implementation oI a coordinated controller tuning procedure to
avoid undesirable interactions in power systems, and thus improve
overall dynamic perIormance is under this review.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Bindeshwar Singh received the M.Tech. in electrical engineering Irom the Indian Institute oI
Technology, Roorkee, in 2001.He is now a Ph. D. student at UPTU, Lucknow,India. His
research interests are in Coordination oI FACTS controllers in multi-machine power systems and
Power system Engg.. Currently, he is a Asst. ProI. with Department oI Electrical &Electronics
Engineering, Krishna Engineering College, Mohan Nagar, Ghaziabad, India, where he has been
since July`2007.
Mobile: 09899984720,
Email: bindeshwarsingh2006rediIImail.com
Nikhlesh Kumar Sharma received the Ph.D. in electrical engineering Irom the Indian Institute
oI Technology, Kanpur, in 2001. Currently, he is a Director with ITM Girls Engineering College,
Gida, , Gorakhpur, India, where he has been since June`2008. His interests are in the areas oI
FACTS control and Power systems.
Mobile: 09415855787
Email: nikleshmailcity.com
A.N.Tiwari received the Ph.D. in electrical engineering Irom the Indian Institute oI Technology,
Roorkee, in 2004. Currently, he is a Asst. ProI. with Department oI Electrical Engineering,
MMMEC, Gorakhpur, India, where he has been since June`2008. His interests are in the areas oI
FACTS control and Power systems.
Mobile: 09451215400
Email:amarndeereIIimail.com
557
International Electrical Engineering Journal (IEEJ)
Vol. 2 (2011) No. 3, pp. 550-554
ISSN 2078-2365

550

Abstract The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)
proposed is a recent concept for the compensation and effective
power flow management of multi line transmission systems. In
its general form, the IPFC employs a number of inverters with a
common DC link, each to provide series compensation for a
selected line of the transmission system [1],[2] & [3]. This paper
investigates the use of IPFC, which are dc/ac converters linked
by common DC terminals, in a DG-power system from an
economy perspective [4]. Because of the common link, any
inverter within the IPFC is able to transfer real power to any
other and thereby facilitate real power transfer among the lines
of the transmission system. Since each inverter is able to provide
reactive compensation, the IPFC is able to carry out an overall
real and reactive power compensation of the total transmission
system. This capability makes it possible to equalize both real
and reactive power flow between the lines, transfer power from
overloaded to under loaded lines, compensate against reactive
voltage drops and corresponding reactive line power and to
increase the effectiveness of the compensating system against
dynamic disturbances.

Keywords: FACTS, Compensation, power flow, IPFC, voltage
stability.

I. INTRODUCTION

The evolution of power industry in recent years has imposed
many challenges due to the radical changes in the energy
market as power demand is more than the availability [4]. Due
to heavy demand of power, distribution networks are always
in stress which results in reduced voltage across the load and
it affect on the performance. It is necessary to improve the
performance of power system to received quality power at the
consumer end. Reactive power compensation is the main
measure to keep power network running with high voltage
stability, high power quality and minimum system loss.
Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices are found to be
very effective controller to enhance the system performance.
FACTS Technology invented in 1986 by N. G. Hingorani from the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) USA and it is based on

Corresponding Author is Akhilesh A. Nimje, School of Electrical
Engineering,KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024, India Email:
buntynimje@yahoo.co.in

thyristor operation techniques. FACTS controllers are broadly
classified as series and shunt, both used to modify the natural
electrical characteristics of ac power system. Series compensation
modifies the transmission or distribution system parameters, while
shunt compensation changes the equivalent impedance of the
load. In both the cases the reactive power that flows through
the system can be effectively controlled by FACTS, which
improves the overall performance of ac power system. The
introduction of the Flexible AC Transmission systems has
been a considerable effort in the recent years on the
development of the power electronic based power flow
controllers. These controllers use thyristor switched
capacitors or reactors to provide reactive shunt and series
compensation. Active Power Filters, Universal Power
Line Conditioners, mainly Unified Power Flow
Controllers and Unified Power Quality Conditioners are
in stage of hard researches and increasingly applied.
Their possible functions are enlarging and include
power flow control, current and voltage harmonic
compensation, voltage imbalance, reactive power,
negative sequence current compensation. To one of the
most powerful arrangements we can add so called
UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controllers). Those systems
are the classical series-parallel filters (or special matrix
converter), which can control active and reactive powers
transmitted through the line. The major purpose of the
parallel filter is to keep voltage on the source element on
constant value. The series filter has to inject controllable
(with angle and magnitude) voltage and in this way
control power flow. One of the disadvantages of this
solution is need to equip every transmission line with
independent UPFC system.

Interline Power Flow Controller: Review
Paper
Akhilesh A. Nimje , Chinmoy Kumar Panigrahi , Ajaya Kumar Mohanty

Akhilesh A. Nimje et al. Interline Power Flow Controller: Review Paper

551 | P a g e

The closing of switches 1 and 2 enable the two
converters to exchange real power flow between the two
converters. The reactive power can be either absorbed
or supplied by the series connected converter. The
provision of a controllable power source on the DC side
of the series connected converter, results in the control
of both real and reactive power flow in the line
(measured at the receiving end). The shunt connected
converter not only provides the necessary power
required, but also the reactive current injected at the
converter bus Thus, a UPFC has three degree of
freedom unlike other FACTS controllers which have
only one degree of freedom (controlled variable). This
solution is not attractive from economical point of view.

The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) concept
proposed in this paper addresses the problem of compensating
a number of transmission lines at a given substation.
Conventionally, series capacitive compensation (fixed,
thyristor-controlled or SSSC based) is employed to increase
the transmittable real power over a given line and also to
balance the loading of a normally encountered multi-line
transmission system. However, independent of their
implementation, series reactive compensators are unable to
control the reactive power flow in, and thus the proper load
balancing of, the lines. This problem becomes particularly
evident in those cases where the ratio of reactive to resistive
line impedance (Xm) is relatively low. Series reactive
compensation reduces only the effective reactive impedance
X and, thus, significantly decreases the effective X/R ratio
and thereby increases the reactive power flow and losses in
the line. The IPFC scheme proposed provides, together with
independently controllable reactive series compensation of
each individual line, a capability to directly transfer real
power between the compensated lines. This capability makes
it possible to: equalize both real and reactive power flow
between the lines; transfer power demand from overloaded to
under loaded lines; compensate against resistive line voltage
drops and the corresponding reactive power demand; increase
the effectiveness of the overall compensating system for
dynamic disturbances. In other words, the IPFC can
potentially provide a highly effective scheme for power
transmission management at a multi-line substation.

(i)

A pure series reactive (controllable) compensation in the
form of TCSC or SSSC can be used to control or regulate the
active power flow in the line, the control of reactive power is
not feasible unless active (real) voltage in phase with the line
current is not injected. The application of a TCSC (or SSSC
with impedance emulation) results in the reduction of net
series reactance of the line. However, X/R ratio is reduced
significantly and thereby increases the reactive power flow
(injected at the receiving end) and losses in the line. The
interline power flow controller (IPFC) provides, in addition to
the facility for independently controllable reactive (series)
compensation of each individual line, a capability to directly
transfer or exchange real power between the compensated
lines. This is achieved by coupling the series connected VSC
in individual lines on the DC side, by connecting all the DC
capacitors of individual converters in parallel. Since all the
series converters are located inside the substation in close
proximity, this is feasible.

II. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF IPFC

Intermediate
Transformer
Intermediate
Transformer
VSC1 VSC2
SW1
CB
Shunt
Transformer
Series
Transformer
SW2
FIG. 1. A UPFC SCHEMATIC
Fig. 2. A Two Converter IPFC
VSC1 VSC2
+
_
DC Bus
Conv1 Conv2 Conv3
.
Optical Links
Fig. 3 IPFC Comprising n Converters
Control
_
Vol. 2 (2011) No. 3, pp. 550-554
ISSN 2078-2365

552

An IPFC with two converters compensating two lines is
similar to UPFC in which the magnitude and phase angle of
the injected voltage in the prime system (or line) can be
controlled by exchanging real power with the support system
(which is also a series converter in the second line). The basic
difference with a UPFC is that the support system in the later
case is the shunt converter instead of a series converter. The
series converter associated with the prime system of one IPFC
is termed as the master converter while the series converter
associated with the support system is termed as slave
converter. The master converter controls both active and
reactive voltage (within limits) while the slave converter
controls the DC voltage across the capacitor and the reactive
voltage magnitude.
For the system shown in figure 4, the received power
and the injected reactive power at the receiving end of the
prime line (# 1) can be expressed as:

) 1 (
2
cos
2
sin
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
10 1
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ = |
o
|
o
X
VV
X
VV
P P
r
p

) 2 (
2
sin
2
cos
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
10 1
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ = |
o
|
o
X
VV
X
VV
Q Q
r
p
where o
1
= u
1
- u
2
,
2
sin 2
sin
1
1
o
|
V
V
p
=
P
10
and Q
10
are the real power and reactive power in the line 1
(at the receiving end ) when both V
p1
and V
r1
are zero. These
are expressed as:
( ) ) 3 ( cos 1 ,
sin
1
1
2
10
1
1
2
10
o
o
= =
X
V
Q
X
V
P

Similar equations also apply to the support line (# 2) except
that V
p2
is not independent. It is related to V
p1
by the equation.
V
p1
I
1
+ V
p2
I
2
= 0. (4)
The above equation shows that V
p2
is negative if V
p1
is
positive. With the resistance emulation, we have
V
p1
= -R
1
I
1
, V
p2
= - R
2
I
2
. (5)
Substitute equation (5) in equation (4), we get the constraint
involving R
1
and R
2
as R
1
I
1
2
= - R
2
I
2
2
(6)
The constraint equation (4) and (6) can limit the utility of
IPFC. In such a case, an additional shunt converter (forming a
GUPFC) will be useful as shown in figure 5 below:
The concept of combining two or more converters
can be extended to provide flexibility and additional degrees
of freedom. A generalized UPFC refers to three or more
converters out of which one is shunt connected while the
remaining converters are series connected as shown in figure
5.

III. MODELLING OF MULTI CONVERTER FACTS
DEVICES

The studies of multi converter FACTS devices are carried out
from the objectives of planning and operational analysis. The
broad spectrum of the required studies is listed below with
increasing order of complexity.
1. Power flow studies
2. Dynamic stability

VZu1
Vp1
Vp2
Vr1
Vr2
+ +
+ +
j X1
j X2
VZu2
VZu3
o1 = u1 - u2 o2 = u1 - u3
1 2
3
I1
I2
|
.
|
\
|
Z =
1
1
1 1
2
|
o
I I |
.
|
\
|
Z =
2
2
2 2
2
|
o
I I
Fig.4. Representation of IPFC
Fig. 5. A Three Converter GUPFC
VSC1 VSC2
Series Series
Shunt
VSC

Akhilesh A. Nimje et al. Interline Power Flow Controller: Review Paper

553 | P a g e

3. Transient analysis neglecting harmonics
4. Detailed transient analysis considering switching action
in the converters.
The power flow studies involve the computation of
solution of non-linear algebraic equations that relate the
specifications to the system state variables. The constraints
are usually handled by modifying the specifications. For
example, limits on the reactive current/ power are handled by
changing the voltage (magnitude) specification.
The dynamic stability refers to the stability of a power
system influenced by various controllers (AVR, PSS and
network controllers including HVDC and FACTS). There are
different mechanisms of system instability.
Both power flow and dynamic stability analysis are based
on the single - phase models of the network. Since dynamic
stability analysis involves phenomena of frequency below 5
Hz, the network variables (voltage and currents) are
represented by phasors that vary slowly.
However it is essential to test the controller performance
using detailed three phase models to validate the simplified
analysis. For example, the design of AC voltage regulator for
shunt converter requires the study electromagnetic
interactions that result from the network transients. In general,
this is true for all fast acting controllers. The detailed transient
simulation considers three phase nonlinear models of all
relevant components.
For the analysis and simulation of SSR, network
transients (below third harmonic) need to be modeled by
approximate models. For example, a transmission line can be
modeled by a single t equivalent model. There is no need to
consider the switching action in the converters and the
resulting harmonics. The FACTS controllers can be modeled
using dynamic phasors or d q variables referred to a
synchronously rotating reference frame.

It would be desirable to employ a common model for all
types of studies. For multi-converter circuits, a converter can
be modeled by a variable voltage source in series with
inductive impedance as shown in figure 6. Here the voltage
source is related to the voltage across the DC capacitor based
on the converter topology and control action. For three phase
models, the voltage source is defined instantaneously and
contains harmonics. Neglecting harmonics, we can represent
the voltage by d q components (dynamic phasors) that are
determined by exact controller models.
The phasor inj V
.
is expressed differently for the shunt
and series converters. For the shunt converter,
( ). | |
1
o u + Z =
.
sh
inj V V For the series converter,
( ). | | | + Z =
.
se
inj V V
For transient or dynamic stability analysis, the converter
model shown above can be represented conveniently by
Norton equivalent that simplifies the network solution using
the admittance matrix. For power flow analysis, a shunt
converter in isolation can be modeled as synchronous
condenser with the specification of bus voltage (magnitude).
The two control variables |V
sh
| and o are calculated from the
specified voltage magnitude and the constraint equation that
relates the power drawn to the losses in the converter. For the
series converter, the specification in the line power flow (P)
and the constraint is the power supplied by the series
converter which may be assumed as zero. For the coupled
converters such as UPFC, the four control variables, |V
sh
|,
|V
se
|, o and can be computed from the three specified
variables, (say V
1
, P
2
, Q
2
) and the constraint that relates the
power balance in the DC circuit.

IV. APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
The concept and basic operating principles of the IPFC
are explained in this paper. In practical applications the IPFC
would, in general, have to manage the power flow control of a
complex, multi-line system in which the length, voltage, and
capacity of the individual lines could widely differ. One of the
attractive features of the IPFC is that, although it may pose
engineering challenges particularly in the area of control, it is
inherently flexible to accommodate complex systems and diverse
operating requirements. A few relevant points to consider are briefly
mentioned below.
(1) The IPFC is particularly advantageous when controlled
series compensation or other series power flow control
(e.g., phase shifting) is contemplated. This is because the
IPFC simply combines the otherwise independent series
compensators (SSSCs), without any significant hardware
addition, and provides some of those with greatly
enhanced functional capability.
(2) The operating areas of the individual inverters of the
IPFC can differ significantly, depending on the voltage
and power ratings of the individual lines and on the
amount of compensation desired. It is evident that a high
power line may supply the necessary real power for a low
capacity line to optimize its power transmission, without
significantly affecting its own transmission.
(3) The IPFC is an ideal solution to balance both the real and
reactive power flow in a multi-line system.
(4) The prime inverters of the IPFC can be controlled to
provide totally different operating functions, e.g.,
independent P and Q control, phase shifting
(transmission angle regulation), transmission impedance
control, etc. These functions can be selected according to
prevailing system operating requirements.

V1Zu1
Vinj
+
V2Zu2
IZ|
Lt
Rt
Fig. 6. Model of a SVC
Vol. 2 (2011) No. 3, pp. 550-554
ISSN 2078-2365

554

V. CONCLUSION
IPFC like other FACTS Controller contribute to the
optimal system operation by reducing the power loss and
improving the voltage profile. The IPFC is a kind of
combined compensators, which combines at least two SSSCs
via a common DC voltage link. This DC voltage link provides
the device with an active power transfer path among the
converters, which enables the IPFC to compensate multiple
transmission lines at a given substation. This is a very
attractive feature of this FACTS device.

REFERENCES

[1] Narain G. Hingorani, Laszlo Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS
Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems,
IEEE Press, Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi.
[2] K. R Padiyar, FACTS Controllers in Power Transmission and
Distribution, New Age International Publishers (formerly Wiley
Eastern Limited), New Delhi.
[3] Laszlo Gyugyi, Kalyan K. Sen, Colin D. Schauder, The Interline
Power Flow Controller Concept : A New Approach to the Power Flow
Management, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol.14, no. 3, pp 1115
1123, July 1999.
[4] Kishor Porate, K. L. Thakre, G. L. Bodhe, Voltage Stability
Enhancement of Low Voltage Radial Distribution Network Using
Static VAR Compensator: A Case Study, WSEAS Transactions on
Power Systems, Issue 1, vol. 4, pp 32 41, January 2009.
[5] R. Strzelecki, G. Benysek, Interline Power Flow Controller
New Concept in Multiline Transmission Systems.

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.If the line power is

is negative, the TCSC should increase

(it is assumed that R

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