Pressure Evaluation

The basic pressure-determination data plotted on formation logs are generally derived from physical measurements made at the wellsite. These include such parameters as ROP, shale and mud densities, and connection gas fluctuations. When mud-logging programs lock in more detail at pressure evaluation, they generally emphasize two aspects mathematical treatment of drilling data for quantifying the effects of downhole pressure changes and integrated trend evaluation, in which a variety of surface and down hole parameters are mutually considered to obtain a "best fit" interpretation of true formation pressure conditions. Mathematical Treatment The common mathematical approach used by mud-logging companies in advanced pressure-evaluation programs is to remove the effects of such variables as rock type and bit condition from penetration rate so that anomalous drilling responses can be recognized and equated to pore pressure. This may be thought of as normalizing ROP to quantify overpressure in much the same manner that cuttings gas is normalized to quantify the magnitude of a show. Through usage, the mathematical variable obtained following such a normalization, or modeling, generally is referred to as the "d-exponent" (d, dexp). The d-exponent was first applied by Bingham (1965) to the empirical definition of the relationship between rock strength, work done by the drill bit, and ROP. This can be expressed in the general form

(1) where: R = penetration rate, ft/min N = rotary speed, rpm W = weight on bit, lb D = diameter of bit, ft K = matrix strength constant, dimensionless d = bit weight exponent, dimensionless Drillability of rock at the bottom of the borehole is related to two factors, (1) rock strength and (2) confining stress supplied by drilling mud density the overbalance. Jordan and Shirley (1966) approximated a solution to Bingham's equation for a single unknown, the d-exponent, by eliminating variable K (assuming it to be constant as in a uniform shale). They also inserted constants in the equation to in-corporate American oilfield units of measurement.

(2) where: R = penetration rate, ft/hr N = rotary speed, rpm W = weight on bit, lb D = diameter of bit, inches Other modifications or variations have been made by individual logging companies to the d-exponent for specific uses. In a uniform lithology, with constant bit type and mud overbalance, the d-exponent will increase with increasing depth that is, with increasing compaction or rock strength. Overall, it will have an inverse relation with ROP. A break or reversal in slope of this increasing d-exponent trend will be seen when overpressured zones are entered (Figure 1, General relationships between d-exponent, drill depth, mud column length and ROP while drilling through a uniform lithology with both normally pressured and overpressured intervals).

Figure 1

Unfortunately, d-exponent deviations will also result whenever overbalance is changed by varying mud density. Conversely, a deviation in d-exponent caused by a change in pore pressure will be exactly reversed if mud density is increased sufficiently to restore the original overbalance. This can be encountered routinely where mud density is very accurately controlled, as in a drilling optimization program. Rehm and McClendon (1971) proposed a correction (dxc, dcs, dc) to the d-exponent that removes the effect of mud-density changes. Although without theoretical basis, there is much empirical evidence for the utility of this correction.

(3) where: dxc = mud density corrected d-exponent d = d-exponent (gnormal) = normal pore fluid pressure gradient, lb/gal

(ECD) = actual drilling fluid effective circulating density, lbs/gal (which is dependent both on mud density and mud resistance to flow in the annulus) The general value used in mud logging for gnormal is 9.0 lb/gal. If the mud system is in good condition, ECD is generally considered equivalent to mud weight (MW). Therefore, the approximation reads (4) After correction for mud weight, the dxc-exponent will respond predictably to pore pressure gradient. It is also at this point in advanced pressure-evaluation programs that the dxcexponent is normally used to determine mud density requirements to regain mud overbalance. Determination of down hole pore pressure is made by use of a graphic plot (Figure 2, Example of graphic determination of downhole pore pressure and appropriate mud weights),

Figure 2

or by mathematical calculations, applying the formula

(5) where: Ppa = actual pore pressure (or pore pressure gradient) at depth of interest Ppn = normal formation pore pressure (or pore pressure gradient) at the same depth dxcn = normal dxc value at the same depth dxco = observed dxc value at the depth of interest It is essential to point out that any mathematical treatment of subsurface pressure is relatively imprecise unless consistent balanced-drilling practices are used throughout the drilling phase. If excessive mud density is used, as an example, it is easy to see from equation 3 that an overly high pore pressure will be predicted because the denominator in the fraction is higher than should be. A comparably erroneous high pressure also will be predicted using mud with poor flow properties because of a large annular pressure loss. However, it is practical to recognize excessive mud density by cross plotting both d-exponents and dxc-exponents. Remember that the dxc-exponent adjusts only for mud overbalance under one set of conditions; this is because it has been derived from the d-exponent (Eq. 2). As has been stated, changes in such variables as lithology will be accompanied by changes in rock strength. Different bit types, bit conditions, or bit hydraulics will change drill bit efficiency. These variables will produce offsets to dxc-exponent plots ( Figure 2 ) unless they are continually incorporated in d-exponent normalization calculations as the bit extends the drillhole. Integrated Trend Evaluation Recognition of overpressure conditions by wellsite geologists and engineers can prove to be difficult in many situations where only a few measurements are available for evaluation, or where data prove to be contradictory. The task is further complicated by the need to make comparisons between continuous plots, such as ROP or shale density curves, and isolated events, such as hole sloughing or mud surges. Advanced mud-logging pressure-evaluation programs improve this situation by gathering more data, storing them for ready reference and trend projection, and weighing one variable against another to determine the most probable conditions at depth. A set of parameters integrated into a pressure trend evaluation is generally selected from: Formation Log Data ROP; depth; lithology; shale density; mud gas concentration and composition; connection and trip gas values; rotary speed and torque; weight and time on bit. Mud System Data mud properties; pump strokes; lag time; pit volume and level; system volume; circulating pressure; mud weight, flow rate, temperature, and chloride content in and out; resistivity.

 Analytical and Observation Data cation exchange capacity; calcimetry; cuttings size, shape, and volume over shaker; hole fillup on trips; drag on drill pipe. Generated Data d-exponent; lithology factor; pseudoresistivity, sonic, or conductivity logs. Outside Data regional fracture gradient; MWD or adjoining well wireline log trends (gamma ray, emissions increase with compaction; resistivity, resistance increases with compaction; density response increases with compaction; sonic, transit time decreases with compaction). Mud-logging companies providing advanced pressure-evaluation services commonly select from these data and present them on specialized logs, plots, or tables. Typically, presentations are of two types, (1) working logs prepared continuously at the wellsite for quick recognition and response to changing downhole pressure conditions and (2) comprehensive logs prepared intermittently as wireline and other data become available for thorough formation pressure characterization. Working logs typically include selections from such first-generation parameters as ROP; total combustible, connection, and trip gas; shale density and shale factor; mud weight and viscosity; flowline temperature or in-and-out differential; mud conductivity or in-and-out differential; estimated pore pressure based on shale density or dxc-exponent; and drill rig operating conditions. The primary emphasis of working logs is to provide the operator with immediate indications of formation pressure conditions at bottomhole and, if necessary, to provide warning when overbalance is being lost and a well kick is possible. These logs find direct use in the selection of casing points and in determining the mud weights needed to maintain overbalance while still avoiding formation fracture damage. They can be used to project the hydrostatic head that will be needed during trips and to control kicks. The working log also can be used to determine if the well is drilling as projected from comprehensive logs based on adjoining wells and to decide when a deviation from the planned drilling program should be made. Comprehensive logs are broader in nature and prepared intermittently as wider ranges of data become available. Typically included in this presentation will be selected parameters from the formation or working log, such as ROP, shale density, and cuttings gas; calculated data, such as drilling porosity or pseudo-density; plus outside information, such as pore pressure, permeability, and fracture gradient from offset logs, laboratory analysis, and regional studies. Primary use of this more encompassing pressure log is for overall hole evaluation (e.g., pore pressure profile, rock drill strength, fault location), areal over-pressure characterization, and "next hole" planning (Figure 3, Stylized pressure evaluation comprehensive log used to plan an offset well).

Figure 3