1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background and Rationale of the Study Prejudice and discrimination, especially in Mindanao, are very rampant. The recipient of this prejudgment among the tri-people group are the Lumads and Moro groups who are the original dwellers in this island, but are currently considered as the minority. They are labeled as barbaric and queer due to their differences from the majority in terms of culture and ways of living. Because of prejudice, these groups of people are the most prone to be subjects of discrimination. Mindanao generally consists of three groups of people or the tri-people. One of these groups is the Lumad, the common name for different ethno-linguistic tribes that are natives or indigenous in Southern Philippines, particularly the whole area of Mindanao. This group of people is non-Islamized indigenous people of Mindanao (Rodil, 2000). Lumads and Moros are considered as the original inhabitants of Mindanao (Rodil, 2000), but because of the governments resettlement program which led to the heavy migration of Visayans into the island, the Lumads have become a minority in the archipelago. Despite this, they simply retreated to the mountains and forests when migrants came. Aside from being treated with discrimination as a minority in the land they consider their own, the Lumads also faced the issue regarding their ancestral lands (Hemley, 2007). They have a traditional concept of ownership which is based on the consideration of their community and not by a single person only. That is one of the reasons why they are given independent governance by the national government. The

2 decision on their ancestral lands or yutang kabilin is based on the whole members of their community and not by their leaders only. However, if these lands are considered unregistered and untitled, then they are owned and registered in the names of multinational corporation, logging companies and wealthy Filipinos. If the other way goes around, then these lands considered properties of the government at its full disposal. Either way, the Lumads appeared to be squatting in the land they do not own if legalities are concerned (Arche, 2000). Besides, the Lumads face the problem of Regalia Principle. This is a principle in the Philippine Constitution, which adopts international laws. One of these laws is found in Article XII, Section 2 which states that a State automatically manages a land even if it is owned and inhabited by an individual or group so long as minerals are found in a certain land (De Leon, 2005). Whenever happens, the land becomes a property of the State. The places where Lumads retreated to are areas which are bountiful of minerals to which the State is after. The government wants to secure their property, so they send the military to do it for them. This is the reason why the Lumads are militarized. This is not the only reason though why militarization exists on the countryside. Another reason is the hideout of the rebels or more commonly known as NPA (New Peoples Army). Most of the resistance of the government choose to camp in rural areas where few people live. Coincidentally, these areas are places where the Lumads are living. Since it is the militarys duty to look for the organizations that are resistant to the government, a certain area will suddenly find itself occupied by the military (Lazarus, 2002).

3 It appears that the aim of militarization is to gain control over the land the Lumads are currently occupying to either (1) prepare the land for the take-over of its owners (in cases of private army), (2) to enable the state to regulate the resources found in the land, or (3) to allow the military to look for the camps of the NPA. It is not only the Lumads who experience militarization but also the migrants who live in rural areas and the Moros as well. Due to lack of education and lack of history in asserting their rights, the Lumads become the group of people to be the most vulnerable victims of the abuses of the military. Militarization means that a certain community or society has been taken over by the military with or without force. In this case, a small area (usually a remote area) where the community of Lumads is situated is being influenced by the armed forces or the military. The problem arises when these unarmed people experience harassment from the military who is perceived by the majority as the protector of the state. Although there is a provision in the Philippine constitution (Article II, Section 22) that protects the human rights of indigenous communities, the way it is implemented is an issue to the human rights of the Lumads involved. Such issue is highlighted especially if the welfare of the people involved is at stake due to the process of militarization. Hence, the study aimed to promote public awareness about the circumstances of the Lumads. Further, it aimed to understand the phenomenon of militarization from the perspective of the Lumads who are being oppressed by the act. Finally, the findings of this study may also be able to suggest alternative strategies for dealing with the interested party without risking the welfare of the Lumads.

4 Statement of the Problem The study aims to describe the profile, experiences and effects of militarization among Lumad residents in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley. This study also aims to know the coping mechanisms of the respondents involved in the study and their suggestions on what to do for their current situation. Specifically, the study aims to answer the following questions: 1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of a. gender b. age c. highest educational attainment 2. What are the experiences related to militarization that are significant to the respondents? 3. What are the aspects of militarization that causes possible disruption in the development of the respondents? 4. What are the effects of militarization among the respondents? 5. How do respondents cope with these effects? 6. What are the suggestions of the respondents for intervention regarding their militarization and their current situation? Significance of the Study This study may be beneficial to the following: To the Lumads, who appeared to be oppressed and abused in the situation of militarization. The study may serve as one way of assessing their current functioning and situation of living. d. religion e. tribe

5 To NGO workers involved in working for the violated human rights of the Lumads. Somehow, in this study, the voices of their battle cry may be heard. Through this, in one way or another, more concerned people may join their cause. To Social Workers, for them to be aware of the current situation of the Lumads so they can extend their services to those who really need it. To the public, for them to be aware of what is really happening to the Lumads particularly in Mindanao. This may also develop critical thinking to the public and to inform them of the current situation. To the government, for them to take appropriate action on this phenomenon. Since it is the governments role to cater to the needs of the people, it is imperative that government officials should look into what is really happening and take appropriate action thereon. To future researchers, this study may serve as a baseline information for further researches about a persons functioning in relation to militarization. Scope and Limitations The respondents of this study were limited to Lumad residents experiencing militarization, aged 15-50 years old residing in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley Province. Information gathered about them should not be considered relevant and does not hold true to others Lumads residing in other regions of Mindanao even if they also experienced militarization. Further, the study is qualitative in nature. It involved description and elaboration of the experiences of militarization among the Lumads. It employed the survey research design, using the indigenous method of pagtatanong-tanong. A self-constructed

6 questionnaire in a checklist format and follow-up individual interviews were employed as the methods of gathering data. Actual data gathering period only took five days which also served as researchers immersion to the community of the Lumads in order to observe their lifestyle. Thus, data from the actual observations were considered most helpful and relevant to understand the experiences of militarization and its effects among the Lumads. Theoretical Framework The phenomenon studied is anchored on the theories of Abraham Maslow, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Carl Rogers, Albert Bandura and William Glasser. In addition, Smooth Interpersonal Relations Model by Limpingco and Tria (1990) was also used to better understand the phenomenon. The theory of the heirarchy of needs of Abraham Maslow stresses the importance of an individuals needs. It says that the lower the need, the more dominant and recurrent it is. As the lower needs are being satisfied, new and higher needs emerge and wait to be satisfied. Moreover, Maslow indicated that there are two types of motivation: the deficiency motivation and the growth motivation. The four lower needs which are the physiological, safety, love and belongingness and esteem needs cause the deficiency motivation while the highest need self-actualization need causes growth motivation. Accordingly, it is not necessary to achieve self-actualization; but it is best if an individual has achieved it. For a person to achieve the highest need, the lower needs must be satisfied first (cited in Hall, Lindzey & Gardner, 1998). In militarization, a persons physiological needs could be affected, especially in terms of food, which is a very important need for survival. Indigenous people rely on the

7 lands for their living but it is possible that because of militarization, they can be evicted from the lands they are cultivating causing their situation to worsen. Their basic needs are then affected. More often than not, when militarization happens, the safety needs are often disregarded. Safety means that a person senses security, stability and freedom from fear (cited in Hall et al., 1998). This is mostly achieved by adolescents when they live in a hospitable society. In addition to the safety needs, esteem needs are also important to these people. Esteem, in Maslows theory (cited in Hall et al., 1998), includes the desire for strength and achievement. In order to achieve the need, one must experience respect from others and a person must feel that he or she has dignity. However, with militarization, all of these are taken out of the picture, and people experience otherwise. In addition to Maslows concept of self-actualization, there is also Carl Rogers (1954 as cited in Lawrence & John, 2002) concept of the same term. For Rogers, selfactualization will only happen if there is congruence between self and experience. Person-centered theory is focused on the concept of self and experiences related to self. This theory follows the concept of phenomenology which states that every individual perceives the world in a unique way. This means that two individuals may experience the same thing, but the way they perceive the experience could be different. In a situation where anxiety is present, an individual may prevent awareness of experiences that are assumingly perceived as threatening. Anxiety which becomes a response to the perception that an experience is incongruent with self-structure may enter awareness; thus forcing change in self-concept. Incongruence becomes a constant source of tension.

8 Most of the times, it is the need of positive regard which introduces the rift between experiences and self. When one does not feel being regarded positively, there will be lack of congruence between self and experience that could lead to psychopathology. Incongruence may happen because of the negative regard that is brought by militarization. Anxiety is present because of the presence of physical and verbal abuse. Others might be able to cope with the anxiety-inducing experience but some may develop maladaptive behavior. People may have the same experience with the phenomenon but perceive it in a differently. There are others who may experience minimal damage in their psychosocial wellbeings; others may experience more damages in their psychosocial wellbeing. Similar to Rogers emphasis between self and experience, William Glassers Choice Theory (2000 as cited in Corey, 2008) states that all people have a choice. In everything that they do, it is their responsibility. Though it is named choice theory, it is not only limited to the persons choices. Choice theory stresses the concept of a quality world. Quality world contains pleasurable things which is not only limited to things but also to person, idea, place anything that is pleasurable. The most important in a quality world is the need to love and to belong. When what is perceived in the quality world is not consistent with what is in reality, a discrepancy might occur in an individual (cited in Corey, 2005). The theory further stressed that what is perceived as pleasurable and what is pleasurable in reality must coincide with one another. However, it is not always the case. According to Karen Horneys concept of basic anxiety, a child or a person in general gets the feeling of being isolated and helpless

9 in a potentially hostile world especially if the immediate environment is already hostile, which in this case is the environment tinted with militarization. Adverse factors such as hostility from the person experiencing helplessness may also be a possible recourse (cited in Hall et al., 1998) and possibility of maladaptive behavior is very high. During adolescence, the individual begins to sense a feeling of identity and a feeling that one is unique; yet is ready to take a role to play in the society. This is a time in life during which one wishes to define what he/she wants to be. But when an adolescent is unable to establish his or her identity, identity confusion develops. The period of adolescence is the most confusing due to the uncertainty of an adolescents role to his/her family and community. The very nature of being an adolescent is confusing, and when other factors are present, such as insecurity in the environment, the more that identity confusion develops (Skolnick, 1986). An example of this is in the presence of militarization. This case is also applicable to the indigenous people involved in the study especially because the unsecure environment created by militarization can also lead to confusion in their identity, not only as individuals, but as a tribe as well. But a persons resilience when faced with hostility can also be described following the model of Smooth Interpersonal Relations. This is defined as the ability to get along with others in such a way that any signs of conflicts are avoided. When conflict arises, the person starts to feel hostility and it is covered through optimism. The person who adapts optimism views any unfriendly situation as something positive. Moreover, because of this model, in the Filipino culture, harsh and insulting speech is frowned upon and is being regarded as a sign of ill-breeding (cited in Limpingco & Tria, 1990). This

10 could be an explanation why conflict in militarization only stems from one side that is, the military. Lumad communities prefer to talk about the matter concerned rather than engage in war. Not only exposure to a threatening environment could affect the persons perception about the world but it may also affect his/her behavior towards others. Like Banduras study (1977 as cited in Lawrence & John, 2002) about modeling of aggression, children eventually learned to be aggressive due to observational learning. Social cognitive theory states that a behavior is learned when it is present and can be observed by others, especially children. Harassment is present in militarization, and this could breed more offenders for children and adolescents alike can see and observe how it is done, much more that it is done to them. Conceptual Framework This study investigated the views about militarization from the perspective of those who really went through it, the experiences and effects it affects to the respondents of the study. Suggestions from the respondents are also gathered so that an intervention plan can be created. The process of militarization was systematically investigated through the experiences of the respondents. In addition, their experiences may also serve as a guide to the explanation of their current functioning which can be attributed to the militarization. Furthermore, the aspects of militarization are also established and are added as additional information to understand their experiences. Militarization on Lumad residents in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley is the focus of this study. The experiences of the Lumad residents may vary according to

11

MILITARIZATION

Lumad Residents in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley Age Sex Highest Educational Attainment Religion

Experiences

Effects

Coping

Suggestions
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the conceptual framework

12 their demographic profile, which includes age, gender, religion, family income and highest educational attainment. Because of these varying demographic characteristics, the effects of militarization may also vary. It is assumed that experience of militarization is similar to war and its effects are almost similar (Wiktonowicz, 2003). It is conceptualized in the study that the current functioning of the respondents in terms of cognitive, behavioral, emotional and physical aspects may be attributed to their experiences of militarization. In addition, the development of their sense of morality and other beliefs and values, such as the need for learning and to be educated, may also be influenced by the phenomenon. These effects may not be considered good for an individual and may deviate from the established norms. In addition, it is also assumed that their sense of morality may also deteriorate. They see other people doing things that are not considered proper and might view it otherwise because they have seen it being done. The respondents experiences and the effects of militarization may disrupt their functioning as a person. Thus, an intervention plan may be needed. Their experiences of militarization may vary; so do ways of coping. From these, suggestions from the respondents as to what they need for intervention may be necessary; thus are solicited. All the variables considered in the study are interrelated. From the experience of militarization, effects may be significant as they influence respondents current functioning. To counter these effects, respondents may cope either positively or negatively. To alleviate respondents lot in life, appropriate intervention may be proposed on the basis of what respondents suggested.

13 Definition of Terms Coping refers to the process by which a person attempts to manage stressful situations (Atkinson et al., 1996). In this study, coping strategies refers to the ways the Lumad respondents deal with their problems regarding militarization, especially its aftermath. Effects. According to Encarta Dictionary (2008), an effect means a change or changed state occurring as a direct result of action by somebody or something else. In this study, the word is used as pertaining to the change caused by the militarization. It is the state of a persons functioning after the militarization took place. These effects are mainly divided into three aspects: psychological, physical, and behavioral effects. Psychological effects refer to the emotional and mental manifestations observed in the respondents. Physical effects refer to the body changes respondents observed in themselves. Behavioral effects refer to the changes in the actions and behaviors of the respondents after militarization took place. Experience. Encarta Dictionary (2008) defines experience as an active involvement in an activity or exposure to events or people over a period of time that leads to an increase of knowledge or skill. In this study, experience refers to the significant happenings, events and situations brought about by militarization to the respondents life. Intervention plan. Intervention is defined as a deliberate entry into a situation or dispute in order to influence events or prevent undesirable consequences (Encarta Dictionary, 2008). In this study, intervention means an anticipated intercession or activity to counter the effects of militarization on the basis of what respondents suggested.

14 Lumad. According to Kadil (2002), Lumad is a group of indigenous people within Mindanao who are not Islamized. They belong to a group of people who live together in a communal land. Their main occupation is farming and they follow paganism or animism as their religious belief. In this study, the term is used to refer to the respondents of the study who are living in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley. Militarization. Encarta Dictionary (2008) defines militarization as conversion of something such as piece of land or building for military use. In this study, the term is used to refer to the taking over of the military in remote areas like Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley where the Lumads are situated. Purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is a sampling method by which the researchers knowledge about the population is used to hand-pick sample members (Rodriguez & Rodriguez, 2007). This study used purposive sampling in the selection of respondents that should be included in this study. Residents. As defined from the 1973 Philippine Constitution (cited in Guerrero, 2005), resident means a person who is a long-term dweller in the place where one has his true permanent home and to which, whenever absent, he has the intention of returning. In this study, the term pertains to the people of twelve households living in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley who have experienced militarization for the past five years. Suggestion refers to an idea or proposal put forward for consideration (Encarta, 2008). In this study, suggestion refers to the respondents proposal/recommendations as to how their lives can get better especially after militarization happened.

15 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter presents literatures, articles, studies and investigations conducted about the Lumads in Mindanao, militarization, and psychosocial functioning of a person especially those who have experienced militarization and related events. These related literatures and studies are presented according to the following sequence: A) The Lumads in Mindanao, B) Militarization; and C) Lumads and Militarization. A. The Lumads in Mindanao The term lumad is used to denote the group of indigenous people found in Southern Philippines, particularly those who are non-Islamized. The term is a shortcut for katawhang lumad which is a Cebuano term that literally means indigenous people. They have come up a collective name in 1986 to formalize that their group exists and so that those in political power will also recognize them and by this time, as a one group. With fifteen representatives from different tribes, they agreed that they will be called katawhang lumad or Lumads (Hemley, 2007). There are 18 Lumad ethno-linguistic groups which, according to Lumad Development Center Inc., are spread in 19 provinces across the country (Rodil, 1992). These groups include Ata, Bagobo, Banwaon, Blaan, Bukidnon, Dibabawon, Higaonon, Mamanwa, Mandaya, Manguwangan, Manobo, Mansaka, Subanon, Tagakaolo, Tasaday, Tboli, Teduray, and Ubo. Due to intermarriages with other tribes, new tribal groups, such as Ata-Manobo and Ata-Subanon, now exists. The Lumad groups generally comprise 18% of the Philippine population and most of them live in the hinterlands, forests, lowlands, and coastal areas. Those who are keen to preserve their culture and who want to be

16 unaffected by the sophistication of migrant majorities decided to retreat to the top of the mountains and heart of the forests. Access to these people is very difficult since they live in very remote areas (Hemley, 2007). The Lumads have a different way of living compared to Christian immigrants in Mindanao. In the early days, their population is so minimal (and even up to these days). They engaged in kaingin and they are still practising it even nowadays. Their marriage is patterned almost the same like Christian immigrants and Moros (Rodil, 1992). The marriage pattern starts in courtship, engagement (this is the time when the dowry is discussed), which eventually leads to the wedding ceremony. Like the Moros and other cultures, there are also voluntary and fixed marriages in the Lumad culture (Hemley, 2007). Unlike the commonly known formal education, that of the Lumads is different. They have no formal school so they have to go to nearby barangays where the nearest formal schools are located. In their indigenous way of education, the males are taught to hunt and gather food for the community. On the other hand, women are taught to sew, cook, rear children and do other house chores. Some subgroups of the Lumads like the Higaonons have their own system of writing. Records of tribal history, religion, traditional law, war and agriculture are only read for certain people. The reading of such records requires ceremony to invoke the spirits they greatly defer (1979 as cited in Ledesma, 2008). Lumads are pagans and animists who believed in many gods and goddesses they call diwata. Their gods and goddesses are environmental spirits and are related with their

17 daily activities. Sicknesses and ailments that befall them are attributed to the anger of gods (1979 as cited in Ledesma, 2008). Aside from religion, they also have their own political system. Their community, balangay, is headed by the datu they consider as chief ruler. His power is extensive. He holds the executive, legislative and judicial power. The wife of a datu is called ba-i. The datu is assisted by his advisers called timuays who manage the villages assigned to them. They also implement laws promulgated by the datu. Titles are hereditary and the power to rule is by means of succession (Hemley, 2007). In other countries, such as United Kingdom and erstwhile culture of Europe, it is required that only the sons can inherit the throne or the leadership of the country (Crittenden, 1999). Before, there was a double standard between men and women in the society. Lumads have a different kind of succession of leadership. True, the descendant of the former leader inherits the passing on of leadership but the people can choose from among them as to who could be the best to lead them. The succession is not strictly limited to the eldest son. Furthermore, it is reasonable in their culture for a woman to lead them. As long as the offspring of the datu is intellectually competent, then he or she is qualified to take the position. They are more focused on the intellectual aspect that is why engagement of offensive war is discouraged. Warring is a grievous sin and crime for them so they use domination instead, through the use of their intellectual capabilities. Weapons such as spears and swords can only be used for hunting of food but never for war (Kadil, 2008). Though they are socially stratified, it does not mean that there are considered rich and poor among them. There are nobles and slaves in their social ranking but the nobles

18 do not necessarily mean that they are wealthy. The slaves have no ambition to be wealthy because that concept does not even exist among Lumads. Everything is shared with everyone. Women cook the wild animals men were able to hunt and everyone eats the food they were able to gather. This concept of sharing also reflects the concept of their land ownership. Land ownership is based on historical validity. The concept of ancestral land means that a territory occupied by an indigenous community becomes a private communal property, and its community members have the right to use any piece of land that is unoccupied within the communal property (Hemley, 2007). Probably because of their different way of living from the majority (having paganism or animism as their established religion, eating corn and sweet potato crops as main meals for the day, and their way of dressing), they are discriminated. Dating back to the 1980s, discrimination about them of being barbarians was already established. These discriminations are mostly held by the Christian immigrants in Mindanao. An example of this is a remark made by Fr. Francisco Combes (1979 as cited in Hemley, 2007): The fourth nation (of Mindanao) is that of the Subanun (who) are the least esteemed both in account of their natural barbarism, living as they do in a high wild country, with as little sociability as animals and having their homes a league apart wherever they may be pleased to make himself a settlement. Originally, only the Lumads and Moros are the majority dwellers in Mindanao. Due to heavy migration of the Visayans to Mindanao, the 17 out of 24 provinces controlled by the Lumads before are now gone. By the 1980 census, they constituted less than 6% in the whole of Mindanao and Sulu. An example of this is the case in Bukidnon. The Bukidnon province had a population in 1948 of 63, 470 Lumads which suddenly grew bigger in 1960 to 194, 368 Lumads, and in 1970, the population erupted to 414, 762.

19 The population of indigenous people living in Bukidnon deteriorated from 64% to 33% to 14% (Montalvan, 2010). Aside from being a minority, another major issue that the Lumads are facing is their right to ancestral domain or ancestral land. Their concept of land ownership is in conflict with the concept of land ownership in the Philippine constitution. Besides, while the government stresses out that lands must be registered and lands that are unregistered is the property of state, the Lumads are also fighting to regain their lost ancestral lands. They are also fighting to keep the small lands that they own now (1979 as cited in Ledesma, 2008). Lumad groups share the common traditional concept of land ownership. The territory over which the chief maintains jurisdiction is recognized as collective ancestral property of the clan and tribe in general. As quoted from Stuart Schlegels (cited in Rodil, 1992) research, this is how the indigenous people view their land: 1. No individual can claim ownership over the land. It is not given to a single individual Conversely, it is given to the community and the community has the obligation to take care of it. Whatever a person may reap from its bounty, he has to share [with] the community, especially those who need them most. 2. It is the source of existence. The spring of its bounty is the source of livelihood. Without it people will die. 3. It is where their ancestors lived, and where they are buried. As such, it is very sacred for it is where the spirits of their ancestors wander. Their ancestors help them take care of their land. With these views of Lumads regarding their land, it is assumed that what Adamat (2005) observed of them is true: that the Lumads used to live a life of natural abundance, of traditional yet sustainable initiatives, and of simplicity as long as the environment is there to help them.

20 The problem about ancestral domain started during Spanish period. They brought the concept of Regalian Doctrine which insisted that since they colonized the Philippine Islands, the King has the right to give lands to his subjects. In 1898, the King of Spain commanded his subjects to obtain the lands of Mindanao for themselves. This order marked the start of long period of wars in Mindanao (Rodil, 2000). During the American regime, the resettlement of people from Luzon and Visayas started in 1912. By 1935, the biggest wave of ressetlers is sent to Mindanao under the regime of Quezon. The population of Lumads decreased. They then started to be discriminated by the ressetlers because of their different ways of living. This is also the time that land-grabbing from the Lumads became rampant. Some of the Lumads became a tenant of their own lands. Because of this, the Lumads found the necessity of Torrens System of Land Entitlement. Torrens system provides privatization of lands so the Lumads opted to make their lands a private communal property. By virtue of Torrens System, land (cited in Rodil, 1992) can pass hands by mere exchange of money, execution of requisite documents and the registration of such documents anybody who wishes to deal with the land need look only at the certificate of title. This system of land entitlement carried institutionalized and legalized destruction of ancestral domain of the indigenous people. The concept of Lumad communal property and Torrens are irreconcilable. Though they found a way to get the best out of it, the Torrens system is still not congruent to the concept of land sharing among the indigenous people. In 1946, the commission of National Integration is established to implement postwar plan of action for Filipino majority in Mindanao (Rodil, 1992). The truth behind

21 this is that it is only a military strategy for unifying dislocated Filipino people. This event only pressed the Lumads to be more oppressed. The small lands remained to them became smaller because military secured it for the resettlers and not for the Lumads. Aside from Torrens law and resettlements that the government initiates, the Philippine Constitution enacted a law which did not recognize even the slightest acknowledgement of the communal property of Lumads with respect to their lands. This law is Republic Act No. 718 which is entitled An Act making void land grants from Moro Sultans or Datus or from Chiefs from Non-Christian tribes without government authority or consent (cited in Rodil, 1992). For the past years, the Lumads have been fighting for their right of ancestral domain and self-determination. As seen in petition of ALUHAMAD (Alyansa ng mga Lumad sa Habagatang Mindanao) or Lumad Alliance Democracy in Southern Mindanao and by other organizations, such as Tribal Filipino Center for Development-Southern Mindanao and Diocesan TF Program (cited in Rodil, 1992), it was stated that We demand in strongest possible terms the recognition of our communal ownership of our tribal domains and the right to control and govern these in accordance with our indigenous customary laws without outside interference. After the struggle for many years, for the first time, in 1973, the Lumads were noticed by the government. In 1973 Philippine Constitution, the indigenous communities in the whole Philippines were addressed in the Constitution. It states that: The State shall consider the customs, traditions, beliefs, and interests of national cultural communities in the formulation and implementation of state policies. Aside from that, in 1974, Presidential Decree No. 410 is made to protect the ancestral domains of the Lumads. However, it seems like it is more of a concession than

22 genuine concern of group rights because no action was taken. There was not even a Letter of Implementation issued. In their continuing struggle for self-determination, they were at least given another attention in the amendment of the Philippine Constitution (1987 as cited in De Leon, 2005). In this, the Lumads were given attention in Article XII, Section 5 which states that: The State, subject to the provisions of this Constitution and national development policies and programs, shall protect the right of indigenous cultural community to their ancestral lands to ensure their economic, social and cultural well-being. The Congress may provide for the applicability of customary laws governing property rights or relations in determining the ownership and extent of ancestral domains. Even the right to preserve and develop their cultures, traditions and institutions are being put in Constitution as seen in Article XIV, Section 17. Despite the provisions made for the indigenous people, another section becomes a threat for the ancestral domain of the Lumads. This is the adoption of the Regalian Doctrine as found in Article XII, Section 2. This section states that all private and public lands with potential energy or natural resources will be owned by the State and the State has the right to explore these lands found to be promising. Most of the lands the Lumads are occupying now are filled with minerals and other natural resources such as gold, copper, and iron. This means that the State has the right to exploit their land and that they can let investors do large-scale mining in the area (Hemley, 2007). Because the Lumads are firm in their resolve to keep their lands, this is where militarization takes place. The cruelty of militarization becomes one of the reasons for their hostility towards the government. In relation to that, some Lumads are said to have joined the New

23 Peoples Army to fight for their cause, their right to self-determination and ancestral lands. The Lumads never formed a revolutionary group to struggle against the government. Despite this, some Lumads have become pawns between the wars of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the New Peoples Army. The New Peoples Army and Moro Armed groups have recruited Lumads to join their rank. In return, the AFP also recruits Lumads to be a part of the military (Rodil, 2000). But the truth is, the Lumads are caught in the middle of this war. B. Militarization Militarization means taking control over of a certain place or society by the military. This does not mean though, that militarization is limited to physical aspects in such a way that the military attempts to gain control in a certain area in which they create checkpoints, build their forts and so on. Militarization has many types and forms (Wiktonowicz, 2003). There are three dimensions of militarization. These are political, economic and social and cultural militarization. Political militarization is the most known form of militarization. In this, the military tries to literally take over a certain society or place. There could be militarization in a certain area. The military is also trying to strengthen their forces and most of the times, there is a war involved. The military is also used by the government so that it can gain or maintain its power in the society. In some cases, political militarization means that the military has already taken over the government and the military is the authority in the government (Liebknecht, 2009). The other form of militarization is economic militarization. This type of militarization is more focused on the expenditure caused by building of army. Economic

24 militarization also means the building up of private militaries by individuals or group of people who hold high position in the economy of a society. They do this in order to maintain the security of their properties and sometimes, they also use their private army in order to gain other properties. Example of this is by threatening a group of people to move out of their homes so that they can use the land with a potential use for their business (Liebknecht, 2009). The last type of militarization is social and cultural militarization. This type of militarization is more on the usage of subliminal messages to recruit the mass of people into joining the army. Under this type of militarization is the use of toys and games to encourage people, especially the children, to engage into the military. This technique is also called psychological militarization. It is not only the toys and games which are used to promote engagement in military but also through the use of media. Advertisement is the explicit form of recruiting people to join the military but there are other dimensions in media as well which is used in recruitment such as the utilization of movies, songs and literature to send concealed message of recruiting people into the army (Liebknecht, 2009). The focus in this study is on political and economic militarization in relation to their activities towards the indigenous people in Mindanao. The effects of militarization in an individual or groups of individual are almost the same as the effects of war. However, aside from the traumatic experience an individual gained because of war or militarization, the difference between the two is that in militarization, the perception of the person involved towards the authority is mixed with the feeling of hatred or hostility (Bowman, 2002). Bowmans explanation for this is

25 that this happens because in war, there are two groups involved and the one in line with the authority becomes the protector of the civilians while the other one is the enemy who needs to be feared. In the case of militarization, it is perceived that the ones in authority or the supposed to be protector is the one who has been oppressing civilians and so, perception towards them has been distorted. This happens especially in cases where there is no armed conflict involved in the militarization. It is found out that psychiatric states of depression, anxiety and anger and the trigger of acute and chronic stress have been correlated with the morbidity and mortality from cardiac events. In the study conducted by Springer (2000), the psychiatric states involved are aftermaths of the war. Later, it is found out that there is a high increase of vulnerability to cardiac arrests in those individuals who are involved. But the cardiac arrests are not sudden. What were first seen were the dysfunctional psychological states of the subjects and after months, event of cardiac arrests happened. Another study which investigated the traumatic effects of war is the study conducted by The National Academies Press (2008). It is not only the psychological aspect which is affected in the people who were involved in war but also their social aspect as well. Aside from suffering depression and posttraumatic stress disorder, the subjects in this study also suffered strains in their social relationships, such as that those who survived the war has a high tendency of marital conflict and divorce. Their relationship outside their family is more strained than those inside their family circle. There is also the possibility that stress disorder will develop. According to the DSM-IV-TR (cited in Sarason & Sarason, 2005), stress disorders, such as acute stress disorder (ASD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) develop from traumatic stress,

26 an event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury to self or others and creates intense feeling of fear, helplessness and horror. Examples of these are bombing, sexual assault, airplane crashes and military combat. ASD and PTSD only differ in some ways. In ASD, four weeks after the exposure to a threatening situation, symptoms arise. These symptoms are dissociative symptoms, re-experiencing event, avoidance of reminders of trauma and marked anxiety and arousal. On the other hand, symptoms in PTSD are either longer lasting or have delayed onset. In addition, nightmares, headaches, gastrointestinal problems and high risk suicide is present. The degree to which PTSD manifests will depend on nature of trauma and individuals exposure to the traumatic event and the availability of social support (Olmann & Emery, 2004). These effects of militarization can be attributed to the characteristics found in militarization. According to Wiktonowicz (2003), there are several aspects of militarization that can cause disruption in the development of a person especially in psychological terms. One of these aspects is the use of physical harm. The military involved in an operation of militarization in an area is more likely to be physically aggressive. The aggression is manifested into swinging or pushing other people, striking and pulling hair, slapping a persons face, grabbing clothes, hostaging, and worse, torturing a person (Bowman, 2002). Verbal aggression is also very high and this may bring an adverse effect to the one experiencing it. Talking in loud noises, cursing and yelling of personal insults can also be experienced in militarization, especially when the military takes over a certain community after a resistance. Grave threats are also being directed to the ones they took

27 over and threats can cause an unpleasant feeling on the person(s) receiving these (Bowman, 2002). In a place where militarization is present, a sexual assault is also not impossible. There are also high tendencies for women to be more abused and they are more likely to be sexually exploited by the military (Liebknecht, 2009). Violence is present and the possibility of war or armed conflict between the military and the tribe they are trying to take over is also very high (Bowman, 2002). C. Lumads and Militarization The militarization of the indigenous people in the Philippines is very rampant. Every Philippine president has declared their own version of a War Policy against rebels which affects the indigenous people. This happens because indigenous areas are seen as popular bases for the rebels and these areas are also subject to large-scale mining by multi-national mining companies. According to Arche (2000), the most militarized area in the Philippines are in Mindanao and Northern Luzon which took place from 1972 to 1986 or during Marcos regime. Militarized areas are flooded with violation of human rights, such as bormbardment, burning and forced reconcentration of villages, imposition of food blockades, extrajudicial killings, abduction, and physical and psychological torture. The indigenous people become victims of violence and aside from that, militarization disrupted many aspect of indigenous life, e.g. inability to perform ritual rites, eroded community cohesion, and fueled armed feuds among tribes and clans. Indigenous women are targets for prostitution, sexual harassment, and other forms of abuse against women are also very high (cited in Montalvan, 2010).

28 In addition, their livelihood is hindered because militaries tend to assign a free firing area on forests where the means of living of the indigenous people are situated. They are restricted by the military to go to their farms and if they insist, an escort is required. They cannot work according to how they like because they are at the mercy of the military (cited in Arche, 2000). It is during the year 2006 when militarization is at its peak. For example, 23 families were internally displaced in Sitio Minlinaw, Brgy. Balit, San Luis, Agusan del Sur on December 22, 2006 due to continuing harassment they received. Another example is the massacre of Bulane family in the same year in Davao del Sur because of a suspicion that they are members of NPA (cited in Arche, 2000). That is the reason why this study is conducted - to assess Lumads current situation which could be a remnant brought by militarization. The experiences and effects of militarization on the Lumads are studied. Despite its broad and yet progressive construct, psychosocial functioning is important in the assessment of a person, much more in its intervention plan. It is hypothesized that an event or episode that disrupts normal development especially experienced in an adolescents life can affect psychosocial functioning. This in turn becomes critical to the individuals social and emotional well-being (Harrop & Tromer, 2003). Deficits in psychosocial functioning include impaired academic and occupational functioning, social difficulty, poor peer relationship, increased adversity and lowered life satisfaction. There are characteristics considered to be manifestations of good psychosocial functioning. There are also characteristics considered to be poor psychosocial functioning

29 as well. A person who feels secure and supported by their primary caregivers is shown to have higher level of perceived competence. This type of person has higher self-esteem and feels less lonely. The social competence is also high. When this person grows and social relationship extends outside the home, the person with good psychosocial functioning can easily adapt to social environment. A person with good psychosocial functioning has the ability to form warm relationship and close attachment to their friends and behavioral problems are low (cited in Zimmer-Gembeck, Siebenbruner & Colino, 2001). On the other hand, people with poor psychosocial functioning are often characterized with high hostility and aggression and low self-esteem. These people have also shown high level of behavioral misconduct. They are also great risk-takers. Their social relationship is strained towards the family and outside the family alike. They have low levels of attachment. They are prone to depression and anxiety and they are, most of the times, noticed only because of their behavioral problems (cited in Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2001). One assumption as to how psychosocial functioning develops is as to how a child is reared. If a child is reared in a secure environment with supportive significant people in his/her life, there is a high possibility that the child will form good self-concept. This self-concept will manifest to the environment and this will be seen in how the child interacts with others. A good quality of child-parent attachment has been linked with formation of self-concept and social competence. This relationship will manifest from childhood through adolescence. As the child matures, attachment is not limited to the family but towards the people outside the home as well (cited in Ro, 2010).

30 Then there is the relationship of the person with other people. Forming and maintaining strong qualitative friendship become of importance during late childhood and adolescence. By the time an individual is in middle adolescence, this becomes the beginning of dating. Development of romantic interests becomes one of the priorities of an adolescent and this continues until a person settles down (e.g. getting married). A person with a good psychosocial functioning means that a person has already established identity. This also means that the person is able to give care and commitment to other person without being preoccupied. Otherwise, problems could precipitate especially if a person with even the slightest difficulty in psychosocial functioning has not consolidated his/her identity (cited in Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2001). There are several ways that psychosocial functioning is used as a means for assessment. The most common way is the Global Assessment of Functioning or GAF. In GAF, functioning is broadly defined and assessed. Domains are incorporated like this: social/interpersonal, occupational, psychological and psychiatric functioning. It results in the fact that psychosocial psychological and social/interpersonal functioning is only under the broad definition of functioning used in GAF for assessment (cited in Ro, 2010). Another means of using psychosocial functioning for assessment is SOFAS or Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale. It differs from GAF in way that it measures social and occupational functioning. In addition, it also uses functioning due to overall assessment which pertains to psychological and physical functioning (cited in Ro, 2010). The abovementioned ways of assessing psychosocial functioning are only those that are common, but there are still many ways of assessing a persons wellness through

31 the use of his/her psychological functioning. By assessing a persons wellness in terms of psychosocial functioning is also a good way to make an intervention plan. An intervention plan that mostly covers multi-dimension uses psychosocial functioning as basis for forming it. Even if the term is broad, there is at least some limitations as to how a person is assessed. There is also a structure followed even if there are many domains to consider. With that, an effective intervention plan can be made. In relation to the study, psychosocial functioning is very helpful in terms of assessment and in making intervention plan. Traumatic experience may be present which needs assessment if any psychological or social damage is present. If assessment finds out that there really is, then a proposed intervention plan will be made.

32 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter presents the methods employed to organize and conduct the study. It is divided into the research design, locale of the study, research sample, instruments used, data gathering procedures, and statistical treatment and analysis of data. Research Design This study used a descriptive-exploratory research design. The exploratory research design aimed to establish the profile about those affected by militarization through a checklist. This study used the descriptive research design to analyze and interpret the data gathered during the interview with the respondents. It enumerated factors that could lead to an understanding why militarization is feared by the Lumads. It also provides possible answers on how the Lumad adolescents view themselves. All data gathered are organized employing descriptive statistics. The respondents in this study were selected through simple purposive random sampling. Respondents are Lumad residents in Barangay Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley province aged 15 to 50 years old who were available to answer the checklist and to undergo one-on-one interview. Locale of the Study The following information about the locale of the study was gathered from the local government unit of Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley. Additional information particularly about the respondents are gathered from the respondents themselves.

33

Figure 2. Map of the research locale

34 The study was conducted among the Lumad residents of Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley. The name Naboc was taken from a Visayan term gibokbok which means being punched or being punished to death. According to a local legend, there was once a husband who came from hunting and on his return, saw his wife talking to a man. The husband punched (gibokbok) his wife because of jealousy. This incident became known in the community and gradually the place was called as such. The first settlers in Naboc are the Mandayas, particularly the families Masumpad, Laling, Mabinsi, Solag, Magayano, Ahero, Erika and Austria. In 1950s, other settlers like Cebuanos, Ilongos, Leteos and other tribes came. Manobos and Matigsalogs who came from Bukidnon and Davao del Norte respectively, also settled in the area for the past ten years. Naboc was declared a barangay in 1961. In 1976, seven puroks were created and in 1994, an additional purok was created which is the Purok 8. The purpose of creating this additional purok was to accommodate settlers from the highlands, which are a mix of Visayans, Manobos and Matigsalogs. Significant events happened in Naboc for some time, especially in 1985. In this year, a flashflood wrenched the Naboc Bridge and in the same year, the barangay was declared as a no mans land due to the massacre of the Dapiton family. Most of the time, the barangay also became a war zone between the NPA and the military because the barangay is the nearest place from the highlands where the NPA sought refuge. Naboc is traversed by a river called Naboc River. Naboc River becomes a source of living because the residents can get excess gold and minerals from Mount Diwalwal through the water. The other source of living in this place is mainly farming. They have

35 rice fields, coconut trees and banana plantation. For those living in the highlands, they grow corn and sweet potato as their staple food. Animal-raising is also a source of income for the residents. The Lumads in Brgy. Naboc are settlers from the area in the mountains, which is called Side Four. The community of the Lumads back then was considered as an interior community since it is located at the top of the mountain. The area is three to five hours walk from Brgy. Naboc. The community is very far from the barangay which makes it appear to be an isolated community. The inhabitants of the area go to the lowland fortnightly to sell their excess harvest of crops. They perform their religious rituals in their community. They also set up a literacy school in that community. In their culture, it is also allowed for their men to have more than one wife. For the inhabitants in the area, it is usual for them to share everything they have (food, shelter, clothes) with their neighbors. Nobody considered oneself poor because for them, being able to eat three times a day and have a shelter to protect them at night are enough. Before militarization happened, being able to do it was not a difficult feat. In 2004, militarization of the Lumads started, which peaked in 2008. The Lumad residents in the area are harassed, the military and NPA put up the war in their community, and their tribal chieftain is acussed to be a member of NPA. Their community is not a safe place to live in anymore so they evacuated with the help of a non-government organization. The evacuees lived in Bangkerohan Gymnasium in Davao City for some time. They came back upon knowing that the wars have ceased. The barangay captain of Naboc, fearing for their safety, offered an area near the mountains which is still a part of Brgy. Naboc, to relocate their houses. The Lumads

36 agreed to this since they were also told by the military not to come back to the area (Side Four) again. They settled in the area given to them. Their community is now a part of Purok 8, a purok which is a mixture of Visayans and Lumads. Research Sample The research sampling design is purposive. Purposive sampling is applied to the Lumad members of the community. Each household was asked to have a representative. To be a respondent, one must be 15 to 50 years old and must have experienced militarization during the past five years. Only those who were available and who consented to be interviewed became the respondents of the study. The study was conducted in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley with the consent and assistance of the NGO workers involved in the area, and also with the help of the local government unit. There are a total of 12 households in the community they are a family of natural-born Lumads and experienced militarization during the past five years. Out of the 12 households, 31 respondents qualified to be the respondents of the study. These people are those who consented to be included in the study and who fitt the criteria set. Instruments Used The instruments used in this study are self-constructed checklist (Appendix A) and a self-constructed unstructured interview guide (Appendix B). A cellular phone recorder was used for the recording of responses during the interview sessions. There are 22 items in the checklist. These items were based on the questions in the statement of the problem. Some items are divided into subgroups of questions. The choices in the checklist are based on the review of related literature. The way the

37 questions were stated was revised because the questions were instead read to them. There are also five questions added which are not in checklist form. It was included in the interview to gain additional information to enrich the study. All instruments in this study were translated into the Visayan dialect for easier comprehension for the respondents. Three translators were employed and those translations were integrated to arrive at a single translated questionnaire/instrument. Data Gathering Procedures The procedure of data gathering is as follows: 1. A letter request to INPEACE Mindanao (NGO involved in the area) was sent to request assistance in the facilitation of the study. 2. Pre-testing of the questionnaire was conducted in Bansalan, Davao del Sur on January 12, 2012. 3. After the pre-testing of the questionnaire, revision of the checklist was done. 4. The data gathering proper started on January 17, 2012 and ended by January 21, 2012. The checklist was distributed to the respondents in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo. The questionnaire was read to them during one-on-one interview and their responses were purely verbal so the researcher recorded it on a cellphone. 5. During the data gathering, the researcher also observed lifestyles and additional information about the area and the people living in the place. 6. The data gathered were processed and treated statistically using descriptive statistics. The data gathered from the interview were content analyzed and organized through simple frequency and percentage distribution tables.

38 Statistical Treatment and Analysis of Data The data gathered were organized, categorized and tabulated using descriptive statistics. Specifically, statistical techniques that were used include: 1. Frequencies and percentages. These were used for the data gathered from the checklist to determine how many belong to a certain category. These were used to determine the distribution of responses in each variable involved. Frequency was obtained by counting the number of responses in each category. On the other hand, percentage was obtained through this formula (cited in Bass et al., 2008): % = (f / N) x 100, where f is the frequency and N is the total number of the respondents. 2. Verbal description. This was used to describe the respondents answers in a narrative form. Verbal description is more of a content analysis and is best applicable to interview questions than of the checklist.

39 CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This chapter presents the data gathered from 31 Lumad residents in Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley Province. Frequency and percentage distribution of data with appropriate tables and figures are presented in the order of the statement of the problem according to the following sections: A. Demographic Profile of the Respondents B. Experiences of the Respondents C. Aspects of Militarization D. Effects of Militarization E. Coping Mechanisms of Respondents F. Suggestions of Respondents for Intervention A. Demographic Profile of the Respondents In this study, the demographic profile of the respondents includes gender, age, highest educational attainment, religion and tribe. Their demographic characteristics is presented in Table 1. As to gender, Table 1 indicates that 58% of the respondents are females while the remaining 42% are males. This proportion indicates that there are more females than males in the area. One factor that contributed to this is the fact that some males have two wives because it is allowed in their culture to have more than one wife. The table further shows that almost half of the respondents are distributed in ages 16 to 21 (23%) and 34 to 39 (23%) years old. The largest portion of the population do not know how old they are. That is why a special category (uncategorized) is created for them (25%).

40 Table 1. Summary of the respondents demographic characteristics (N=31) Demographic Variable Gender Female Male Age 16-21 years old 22-27 years old 28-33 years old 34-39 years old 40-44 years old Uncategorized Highest Educational Attainment Grade I Grade II Grade III Grade IV Grade VI 2nd yr HS Have not attended school Religion Assembly of God Tribe 28 91 1 3 2 1 1 1 22 3 10 7 3 3 3 71 7 4 4 7 1 8 23 13 13 23 3 25 18 13 58 42 f %

41 Manobo Mean age: 26.69 As regards to the highest educational attainment of the respondents, 71% have not attended school. Most of the middle-aged respondents fall into this category. On the other hand, the youngest respondents are those who attended school for some time because schools were built in a rather convenient place especially during 2005 and after the following years. It is also only recently that Lumad parents learned to value education. This happened when they were exposed to people from the lowlands, and they see that education is really valued among this people. The highest educational attainment most of them achieved is in elementary level only, particularly the second grade in primary level. One respondent reached second year in high school; this respondent is one of the youngest respondents. Moreover, the table shows that 91% of the respondents were converted to Assembly of God, a religion following the doctrines of Christianity. The respondents said that they changed their religion after they settled in the barangay. Others remained to be pagans and animists; they worship their gods at the mountains to celebrate it with other inhabitants remaining in the area, if the peace of the place allows them to. The few who converted to other religions admitted that they still hold rituals when occasion dictates so. Finally, the table shows that majority of the respondents are settlers who actually came from Bukidnon, the Manobos (65%). Twenty four percent of them are Matigsalogs who came from Talaingod, Davao del Norte. The remaining 11% are those who are products of inter-marriages among different tribes. They chose to settle in the area they called Side Four. The first settlers in the area were the Manobos. The Matigsalogs are 20 65

42 the sub-branch family of the aforementioned tribe, and by a pact, they were also allowed to settle in Monkayo. B. Experiences Related to Militarization In this section, the experiences of the respondents are presented in order to establish a relation between what they experienced and their current condition. It can also help in the assessment of their psychosocial functioning to better understand them. Furthermore, the experiences presented are gathered through actual data gathering with the help of interview and which serve as verification of what the previous literatures indicated. Table 2 presents the experiences of the respondents, while Table 3 indicates the experiences of other Lumad residents as reported by the respondents. It is done so because these experiences cannot be known unless reported by others because of its very nature. Table 2 further shows the experiences that the respondents went through because of militarization. These experiences are those that they have recalled during the peak of militarization in 2008. It indicates that 71% of them evacuated. Most of them lived in Side Four and all of them farmed in that area before militarization happened. Seventy-one percent (71%) of them evacuated during the war berween the NPA and the military because both parties have already made the nhabited area of Side Four as war zone; 68% have been interrupted in their livelihood. Both men and women do farming as their main occupation, but men also do small-scale logging to add to their income. On the other hand, some women raised chickens, but the military seized their livestock; 45% of the respondents who are mostly males have also experienced physical abuse from the

43 Table 2. Experiences of the respondents due to militarization Experiences* Evacuation Interruption of livelihood Physical abuse (torture, kicking, slapping, etc.) Accused of being an NPA or supporter of NPA Illegal search of homes Verbal abuse Occupation of residential houses by the military Psychological abuse (making them feel that they are uneducated and of inferior race, others) Occupation of public structures (purok, literacy school, church) by the military Seizure of properties Seizure of livestocks Forced surrender of the respondents (as member of NPA) Abduction and imprisonment *multiple responses military. The table further indicated the many unpleasant events that happened to the respondents during the presence of the military. Ledesmas (2008) report about the experiences of people in a militarized area is confirmed in this study. Abduction, physical torture and psychological torture happens whenever militarization is present in a certain area. The data confirmed what are on the reports (Ledesma, 2008): how the indigenous people becomes victims of violence and the f 22 21 14 12 8 6 5 5 % 71 68 45 39 26 19 16 16

16

4 4 4

13 13 13

10

44 many disruptions that happened in the many aspects of indigenous life such as the inability to perform religious rituals. The Lumad farmers were not even given the chance to go to their farms because of fear that the soldiers might see them and mistake them as members of NPA (Arche, 2000). Missing in this study is the information on how militarized areas have become center for prostitution and sexual harassment which was also reported and was given emphasis on Ledesmas (2008) study. As observed in the experiences of the respondents due to militarization, most of them connotes negative impact on human development. This is probably why militarization has been dubbed as an act of human rights violation (Lazarus, 2002) by the Amnesty International, an organization whose aim is to spread awareness about human rights and stop human rights violation. Here is a word-by-word account from a woman who got their livelihood seized: Katong nisaka (sa bukid) ang mga military, Maam, naa ko ato sa among uma. Ginaatiman man to nako among kamote. Wala ko nila makit-i sa balay, sa uma ko nila naabtan. Daghan to sila uy, gitapuk-an ko ug gipangutana ko sa isa kung para aha ba daw ang akong mga tanom. Akong gitubag nga mao ni ang ginakaon sa akong pamilya, ug kung nay sobra kay among ginabaligya sa patag. Nikalit ra man hinuon tong nangutana ug kasuko, gihulbot ra pud niya ug kalit akong mga kamote. Nipalag ko uy pero giingnan man ko niya na atikon daw ko; dili daw to para sa akong pamilya kay ipanghatag ko ra daw to sa mga NPAdili baya tinuod na ipanghatag ra to nako sa NPA. Ako silang giingnan nga wala naman gani ko ikapakaon sa akong mga anak kay haska nilang daghana, manghatag na hinuon ko sa mga NPA. Samot nga nasuko ang military; gihulbot na hinuon tanan nakong kamote. Nagapaningka pa jud; tinudluan daw ko sa mga rebelde kay nganong antigo kuno ko magtubagtubag. Pero tinuod jud, Maam, para ra jud to sa akong pamilya, panginabuhian namu, wala nay lain (By the time the military went to our community, I was at our farm tending to my crops. There were many of them, they crowded to me and asked me for the purpose of the crop. I answered that it is for my family, and if there is more than we eat, we sell them to the lowlands. One man suddenly get angry and grabbed the crop. I tried to resist but he accussed me of being a liar; that its not for my family and that I will just give it to the NPA its not true. I told them that I am

45 having a hard time giving food to my chldre because there are many of them, much more on to give something to the NPA. My answer seems to anger him more; he destroyed all of my crops. He shouted at me; he said I was taught by the rebels that is why I can reason out that easily. But it is true, Maam, the food was for my family, for our living and nothing else) According to some reports, women are subjected to be victimized by militarization (Women and Children, 2010). But basing on the data gathered in this study, it is the men who are more prone to be the subjects of physical abuse. Here is a narration of a man who was physically abused by the military: Naa man patay ato, naglamay mi. Unya kini laging pag naa patay kay nay mag-inom-inom unya nahutdan man ug gin, ako ang nasuguan na magpalit. Mga alas-diyes man to, unya kini laging naa sa bukid, layo kaayo ang tindahan, mga isa pud to ka kilometro. Pauli nami ato sa akong kauban unya naabtan mi sa mga sundalo sa may crossing. Kani ako kauban lagi kay talawan kaayo, pagkakita niya sa mga sundalo, nisirit ra ug dagan. Ako siyempre, isip tahud nalang pud kay nakit-an mi nila, nagpabilin nalang jud ko. Wala man koy sala maong wala ra pud ko nahadlok. Unya kay nagsugod naman na ug singka ng lider-lider nila NPA kuno lagi ko, kinahanglan daw nako itudlo among kuta. Niana ko nga Sir, dili man ko NPA. Sibilyan man tawon ko. Pero dili jud sila mutuo. Natungnan pud nga tunga-tunga sa among pag-istorya kay naa mga NPA nanglabay. Nagka-engkwentro sila. Hadlok lagi kaayo kay natung-an jud ko sa ilang engkwentro. Nakatakas ang mga rebelde unya sa mga sundalo kay nay nangasamaran. Suko kaayo sila (ang mga sundalo) unya kay nakit-an man ko nila. Gipasinginlan ko nga inpormer daw ko sa mga NPA. Wala jud sila nadala ug esplikar uy, gikulata ko nila. Wala man problema nga ila ko gisumbag, gibunalan sa ilang pusil, gisipadidto lang jud ko nalain nga ilaha kong gipaamigasanilaha gigapos akong kamot unya gibutang ko nila atong sa balay sa mga amigas nga haska baying dagkua. Ilaha ra kong gibiyaan didto nga gipaak ko sa mga amigas. Haska pa jud tugnawa. Naabtan jud ko ug buntag didto ayha ko nakit-an sa among purok lider. Natadtad na ko ug paak sa mga amigas. Daghan kaayo ug bun-og akong lawas. (Someone died so we vigiled that night. Whenever on vigil, we cannot help but drink alcohol but then there was shotage and I was the one asked to buy more gin. It was ten in the evening by that time and being in a rural area, the store is very far away, almost one kilometer from where we were. We were already heading back to the place of the vigil when the military caught up with us by the crossing. My companion got scared so he ran as fast as he could. As for me, I wanted to pay respect so I remained in my place. I thought I am not doing anything wrong so there is nothing I have to be afraid of. But then,

46 their leader started to yell he said I am a member of NPA, and I have to tell them where our quarter is situated. I told them that I am a civilian but they did not believe me. by coincidence, in the middle of our conversation, a group of NPA passed by and an encounter happened. I was so scared because I was in the middle of it. The rebels got away while some of the soldiers got wounded. They were very angry and that is when they saw me. They accussed me as an informer of the NPA. I tried to explain my side but they did not listen; instead, they tortured me. there is no problem with me getting ounched, being hit with their weapon, being kicked but I was very hurt when they fed me to ants they tied my arms and put them on a big anthouse. They left me there and it was very cold. I stayed there until morning when our purok leader found me. It was too late; I was full of ant bites. My body sored all-over.) Here is another account from a man who was also physically abused by the military: Baynte man mi ato kabuok nangahoy, naay duha ka bata nga nikuyog sa amua. Puros mi lalaki. Nagpaanod mi ug kahoy kay naa lagi mupalit nga taga-patag. Naabtan man mi sa mga sundalo. Sa sugod kay nangutana ra sila sa amua kung kabalo bad aw mi sa kuta sa NPA, kung asa mangagi ang mga rebelde wala man tawon mi ikatubag ana ug kung naa man, dili pud mi musaba kay kami napud ang maduot sa mga rebelde. Mao na akong giingon sa ilaha. Abi gani nako kay biyaan na dayon mi nila human ato kay wala man mi ikatubag sa ilaha. Nakuratan nalang mi nga nay nikalit ug siyagit sa ilaha nga mga supporter kuno mi sa mga rebelde ug kabalo mi sa ilang kuta pero dili lang jud daw mi magsaba. Dili man mi supporter sa mga NPA pero uban sa among paryente kay niapil man gud ana nga organisasyon ug ginadani pud mi nila na muapil maong kaila mi sa mga myembro nila. Pero dili pasabot nga supporter na dayon mi. Mao to, nasuko ang mga sundalo sa amo; ilaha ming gitiunan sa ilang mga pusil ug nagpatunga sila sa amo. Himuon daw mi nga sagang ingkaso magkaenkwentro sila sa mga rebelde. Ga-ampo nalang jud mi ato ba nga walay engkwentro nga mahitabo aron dili mi maangin. Pag-abot sa patag, abi nako ug buy-an name. Dili pa jud diay. Gidala mi nila sa ilang kampo, gitapok mi sa isa ka lugar. Ginapugos lagi mi nila nga mutug-an kung aha ang kuta sa mga rebelde. Ginakulata mi nila matag pangutana nila na wala mi ikatubag, apil na ang duha ka bata na among kauban. Kadungog ko na gisugo sila sa ilahang komander nga sunugon nalang daw mi. Perte jud naming hadluka. Upat pud mi kaadlaw didto sa ilahang kampo. Maayo nalang gani kay naay mga NGO nangabot kay kung wala pa, anhing na tingali ko karon. (There are twenty of us doing logging, we have two children with us. All of us were men. We were streaming the logs to the lowlands when the military saw us. At first, they were just asking us whether we know the

47 headquarters of NPAs and their routewe do not have any answers for them and even if we can, we will still wont because we do not also want to anger the rebels. Thats what we told them. I thought they were just going to leave us since we do not have any answers. We were shocked when they suddenly shouted us that we are supporters of the rebels. We are not supporters even if some of our relatives joined the organization and they tried to enlist us that is why we knew some of them, but it doesn't make us one. But then, the soldiers got angry; they pointed their guns at us and put themselves behind us. they said they are going to make us as their defense in case the rebels see them. We were praying hard that nothing will happen so that nothing bad will happen to us. when we reached the lowlands, I thought they are going to leave us. I was wrong. They brought us to their camp and put us in one place. They tortured us everytime they ask something and we cannot answer, including the two boys with us. I heard their commander giving out an order that we should be burned. We were held there for four days. Good thing the NGO workers arrived because had they not, we could have been dead by now.) Not all have experienced maltreatment from the military. One woman remembered that one of the militarys soldiers helped her: Nagpasalamat gihapon ko sa ilaha Maam kay kato man gud nagkagubot na, gisulod sa mga sundalo among balay. Nakit an sa isa nga nasakit akong anak. Iyaha ming gihatagan ug tambal ug giingnan na manghawa na mi ato nga lugara aron dili mi maangin sa kagubot. (I am thankful to them, Maam, because when the war broke out, the armed men came inside our house. One of them saw that my child is sick. He gave us medicine for my son and told us to leave the community so that we will not get involved in war.) Table 3. Experiences of other Lumads as reported by the respondents Experiences* Shot by the military Died during evacuation Gave birth due to fear Shot due to indiscriminate firing *multiple responses f 4 3 2 1 % 13 10 6 3

48 Table 3 shows the experiences of other Lumads as reported by the respondents: either an acquaintance, friend or a family member who experienced those things during the peak of militarization. The respondents reported that other Lumads were shot by the military (13%), died during evacuation (10%), some female respondents gave untimely birth due to fear (6%), and some were shot indiscriminately (3%). One man lost a son during the evacuation. Here is his account on how it happened: Kadlawon man to. Nakamata mi sa kasaba sa buto-buto. Nagengkwentro nasad diay ang mga rebelde ug sundalo sa amua jud nga komunidad. Nangahadlok na tawon mi kay unya ug mapusilan mi ug apil o unsa ba kaha ron. Kauban sa ubang pamilya, nagdesisyon nalang jud mi nga mamakwit ug muadto sa patag. Sa among pagpamalhin, lisod kaayo kay maghapa-hapa, managomaglikay ba nga makit an mi sa mga sundalo o rebelde. Ngitngit pa man to kay alas tres pa man tingali to. Kauban nako akong kinamagulangan nga lalaki, akong asawa ug ubang anak kay nakakuyog man sa mga NGO. Kami sa akong anak kay nabulag man mi sa kadaghanan. Basta kay nakapahulay mi sa usa ka bakilid unya nakakita mi nga naay sundalo nga padulong sa amu. Nangahadlok mi sa akong anak; miambak mi ug nanago sa ilalom sa bakilid pero nakabuhi siya sa akong kamot, nahulog tawon siya. Taas-taas man sad gud to nga bakilid. Amua pa siyang nadala sa ospital sa patag pero wala na siya natabang. Ana ang doctor kay dili na daw to nila matabang kay tungod daw sa dugo sa utok ba to dili man unta maing ato akong anak ba kung wala pa gipili sa mga sundalo ug rebelde nga didto mismo sa amuang komunidad sila mag engkwentro. (It was dawn. We heard the noise of gunshots. The soldiers and rebels are waging a war against each other again and this time, it is in our community. We were very scared because we might also get shot. Together with my family, we decided to leave for the lowland. Our evacuation was very hard we are doing our best not to get noticed by either of the warring sides. I was with my eldest son. My wife and other children went with the NGO. My son and I were able to rest on the side of a valley when we saw a soldier approaching us. Both of us got scared; we both jumped and hid under the valley but my son lost grip on my arm and released me. He fell to that rather tall valley. We were still able to bring him to the hospital but he did not survive. The doctor said that survival is impossible for him because of blood in his brainit won't happen to my son had the soldiers and rebels not chosen to war in our community.)

49 The said narration was only attributed to the military but they have no direct involvement as to what happened. But someone being shot by a member of military did really happen. A man witnessed his cousin being shot by the military. This is his narration: Nakabalo man mi nga naay engkwentro ato pagkagabii kay madunggan man namu ang mga buto. Pero nakita man gud namu nga nanguli na ang mga sundalo unya pila napud mi kaadlaw wala kasaka ug maatiman among tanom, mao nga nagdali jud mi sa akong ig-agaw nga makasaka sa bukid aron masusi among tanom. Hapit na mi sa among uma atong nakakita mi sa pusil nga naa sa tunga sa dalan. Kani pud akong igagaw, gipunit man niya kay abi niya ug nahulog ra kung ni kinsawa jud tawon siya kasayod nga gi- set up ra to sa military aron naa sila mapasanginlan. Pagpunit niya, naay mga sundalo nga nigawas. Nagtago ra diay sila sa likod sa mga kahoy. Gitiunan mi sa ilang pusil unya giingnan akong ig-agaw nga rebelde siya ug iyaha tong pusil. Nagsugod na dayon sila ug pangutana sa kuta sa NPA. Wala man tawon mi ikatubag Maam kay wala man mi kasayod. Ang akong ig-agaw kay ila jud ginapugos nga angkunon tong pusil ug mu-surrender na siya. Sila man gud ang ma-promote kung naa sila mapa-surrender ug kung makauli sila ug pusil. Gahi man sad ni akong ig-agaw, murag isa jud ka oras nga nagpugsanay sila hantod sa nasuko ang sundalo, gipusil niya sa tuhod akong ig-agaw. Wala man gihapon siya ni-surrender, mao to, sa agtang na dayon siya gipusil. (We knew that there was a combat the night before because we heard the gunshots in the lowlands. But we saw the soldiers leaving and it has been many days since we were not able to tend to our crop, so my cousin and I hurried to the mountains to see it. we saw a pistol in the middle of the path. My cousin picked it up he has no idea that it was a set-up by the military so that he can be blamed. They went out of hiding and pointed their gun to us. They insisted that it is my cousins weapon. The soldiers started asking about the NPAs quarter but we cannot answer their question Maam because we do not know. They then forced my cousin to own the weapon and to surrender. Truth is, they will get promoted if they can make someone with a gun surrender. My cousin resisted so he was shot on his knee. When he resisted again, he was shot on his forehead.) On some reports, killings happen as to force the Lumads to surrender and be forced to confess that they are a member of NPA (Ledesma, 2008) which is also being reported in this study, though this experience is not rampantly witnessed to produce more

50 positive reports from the actual respondents. There has also been some reports of dying incidents that can be attributed to militarization (Lazarus, 2002). The military though, is not directly responsible for all the death reports by the respondents. The experiences presented in Tables 2 and 3 and the respondents narrations are recollections of what happened in 2004 to 2008. These experiences mostly happened during 2008 when militarization in their area is at its peak. The respondents reported that the military is still present until this time but they do no stay for a long time anymore after what happened in 2008, during which the Lumads evacuated. At present, they reported to still experience some abuses by the military but it only goes to the extent where the military shout at them or put up a very intimidating stance. Other experiences, such as physical abuse and seizure of livestock, are not experienced anymore especially that the Lumads are now living in an area to which access to the authority or local government unit is easy. Besides, a confrontation has already been conducted between the military and the civilians involved with the help of a non-government organization. C. Aspects of Militarization This section presents the aspects of militarization that caused disruption in the respondents way of life. These aspects are parts of militarization process which the military has inflicted on the respondents (Table 2 and 3). Furthermore, aspects of militarization may also be potential carriers of some changes in the lives of the respondents. All the aspects of militarization (Table 4) are reported to have caused the respondents to either evacuate or stop visiting the lands they are tending. Ranked as the number one cause of disruption to the respondents way of living is the harassment (55%)

51 Table 4. Aspects of militarization. Aspects* Harrasment Taking over of an area Warring on areas where civilians are present *multiple responses they received from the military. From this, they fear the military either from experiencing the harassment directly or hearing it from others, which caused them to stay away from the area. Besides, harassment is an unpleasant experience that causes traumatic effects to an individual. Due to harassment, the respondents experience physical and verbal abuse. Another reason why the respondents chose to leave their community is due to the military taking over their area (39%). It was because of the militarys imposing presence and direct orders of leaving the place that they did not hesitate to leave even if their home and livelihood was in the said area. Lastly, a war (32%) was happening inside their community. The respondents were sandwiched on the war between the military and NPA and in order to be safe, they had to go away from the place where they were living. The three aspects of militarization caused disruption to the livelihood of the respondents. Their source of living comes from the land but it was taken away from them, so they ended up with no farms to till. They were also deprived of the place where they can freely perform their religious rituals in the absence of the judgmental eyes of those who cannot understand its essence. This situation is more of political militarization, since the military involved are those from the government itself. Their reason for militarizing the area is due to the F 17 12 10 % 55 39 32

52 presence of NPA. However, there are also hearsays that the military wants to take over because of the potential of the area to be a mining place. But again, due to the presence of the NPA, the militarization in the area remains as political militarization. As one man accounts: Ang pinakaproblema man gud nga among ma-engkwentro tungod sa militarisasyon kay ang pagkawala sa amng yuta nga ginapuy-an ug ginatamnan. Pag naa ang militarisasyon, matanggong mi sa laing lugar kay siyempre, naa didto ang kagubot dala sa giyera. Kung walay giyera, naa man sad ang kahadlok sa mga tao sa mga military, kay mangabuso man gud sila. Mao na nga mapugos mi pagpamalhin. Yuta lang baya ang amoang panginabuhian maong dako kaayo nga kawad on sa amo nga mapahawa mi sa among yuta. (The main problem we encounter due to militarization os the loss of the land where we live on and where we rely for livelihood. Due to militarization, we are forced to go to other places due to the wars happening in our area. Even without war, people are scared on what militarization might do because they abuse us. that is why we are forced to evacuate. We rely on land for our living that is why it is a big loss once our land is taken away from us.) D. Effects of Militarization This section presents the effects of militarization among the respondents. The effects reported by the respondents were the aftermath of the militarization during the year 2008, when it was at its peak. They said that the reported result is still experienced at the present time. The effects are divided into five types which are as follows: (1) effects of militarization on the respondents lifestyle and intracultural relationship, (2) effects of militarization on the respondents attitude towards the military, (3) physical and psychological effects of militarization on the respondents, (4) effects of militarization on the respondents outgroup interpersonal relationship and (5) effects of militarization on the respondents loyalty to their tribe and to the military. Table 5 presents the effects of militarization on the respondents lifestyle. This includes the respondents pattern of behaviors and practices, including the type of place

53 they live in and their social practices. Examples of their lifestyle are their means of income which is planting corn and sweet potato crops and their religious rituals. Table 5. Effects of militarization on the respondents lifestyle and intracultural relationship. Effects* Fear of military abuses Evacuation Disruption of rituals Disputes among tribesmen *multiple responses The effect that was mostly reported is the fear of military abuses (58%) which could have probably stemmed from the harassment the respondents have experienced directly or indirectly. The evacuation (48%) comes in second rank. Due to militarization, the respondents were forced to evacuate because the area they were living in was no longer conducive for residence. The disruption of their rituals and other cultural customs make them lose their identity as indigenous people belonging on a specific tribe. The loss of this identity also leads to the destruction of their relationship towards their fellow tribesmen (cited in Ledesma, 2008). A woman explained why militarization brought disputes between their tribesmen. She said, Isip man gud usa ka tribo, kinahanglan jud mi nga mabuhi nga kauban jud. Mura man gud mi ug usa ka dako nga pamilya. Pag-abot sa militarisasyon sa amoang lugar, lahi-lahi na ang opinyon sa mga tawo. Naay uban nga gusto musukol sa mga sundalo ug dili jud muhawa sa lugar. Naa man pud uban nga namatyan na, maong mahadlok sila sa mga militar. Ang amoa pa jud nga datu kay dili na namu makita sa kanunay kay naa naman patong sa ulo. Imbes nga siya ang magdesisyon para sa amoang tribo, dili na niya mahimo kay nagtago-tago na siya. Mao na f 18 15 5 2 % 58 48 16 6

54 karon, wala pud mi nagkahiusa. Ang among tribo nga gamay nalang gani sa sinugdanan, natunga pa jud karon kay mao lagi ning daghan ug opinyon ang mga tawo ba (As one tribe, we have to live with each other. We are like a big family. Due to militarization, opinions varied. There are those who want to fight and remain in our lands. There are those who are scared of them due to what the military has done. Our chieftain cannot be seen because he is hunted by the military. So instead of him making the decision for our tribe, he cannot do so because he is out of reach. So now, we are not united. Our tribe which is very small from the beginning was divided due to variation of opinions.) There were also those who seriously took consideration about the disruption of their rituals (16%). One said, Wala na ang amoang tinuod nga tinuohan. Napulihan naman ug bag-o nga relihiyon. Maski ako, nausab man akong relihiyon. Assembly of God na akong ginasunod karon na relihiyon, ug gasimba pud ko sa ilang simbahan. Pero naay panahon, labaw na kung ting-ani, nga gatuyo jud ko ug subida aron makasamba pa mi sa among mga diyos-diyos. Naa man koy lahing relihiyon ron tungod kay naa ko sa patag, perme jud gihapon ko nga mangita ug panahon nga makasamba sa amoang tinuod nga tinuohan. Parte man tingali jud na kanako isip usa ka Lumad. (Our original belief is gone. It is replaced by a new religion. Even I changed religion. I follow the belief of Assembly of God and I go to their church but there are times, especially during harvest time, that I purposively go to the mountains to worship our gods. I may have different religion here in lowlands but I will always find time to worship our real gods. I think it is a part of me as a Lumad.) Table 6 shows the effects of militarization on the respondents attitude towards the military. This comprises the respondents belief towards the military with regards to their affective, cognitive and behavioral belief. Despite the harsh treatments they received, many of them still believe that the military is there to protect them from the NPA (32%). Most of those who answered this were women who did not directly experience harassment from the military. Twenty percent of the respondents answered that the military is present because they are looking for the hideout of NPA; this probably came from those who were accused as a member of NPA. Eleven percent said that the military is abusive; this answer most probably came from men who were harshly treated by the

55 military to the highest extent. Twelve percent stated that they have no opinion about the military but it was probably due to fear that they did not say their opinion about them. The respondents reports about their attitude towards the military was said to be the respondents current belief about them. Table 6. Effects of militarization on the respondents attitude towards the military Effects The military protects us from NPA The military only looks for the NPA No opinion The military is abusive The military is present to recruit us TOTAL f 10 7 6 5 3 31 % 32 23 19 16 10 100

Most of the respondents were not able to attend school and even other civilians who are not very much educated (Table 1) do not know the proper function of a military soldier (Militarization and peoples development, 2009). Most of them think that the military is protecting them against the NPA and most of them believe that the sole existence of military is for them to engage with the NPA. Many answered that the military is present to look for NPA. A respondent gave his reason as why he thinks us such: Diba Maam, maong gitapok ang mga sundalo kay tungod sa mga NPA? Mao na nga alang kanako, naga-anhi ang mga sundalo diri kay aron mangita sa mga rebelde! Kung walay rebelde, unsa pa man diay ang ilahang trabaho? (Maam, military is formed because of NPA, right? That is why for me, the soldiers come here to find the rebels! If there are no rebels, then what will the military do?)

56 Table 7 presents the physical and psychological effects of militarization on the respondents observed during the peak of militarization in 2008 and after militarization. Many of these effects are still currently experienced by the respondents. The items on the checklist is based on ASD (acute stress disorder) and PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder) but other answers not found in the checklist was accepted and presented on the table. These conditions are physical, psychological and behavioral manifestations that were observed by the respondents themselves. These symptoms that are present in the respondents could have affected the respondents in their living. The respondents reported that they felt anxious (77%) and fearful (68%) especially during the time when the war happened in their community in 2008. It

is understandable that they felt as such because it is human nature to feel anxiety and fear whenever one finds himself in an unsafe situation (Perry, 2006). The respondents admitted that they do not feel anxious or fearful as of now especially that it happened years ago. The anxiety and fear only reappears whenever the military also reappear in their place just like the previous month before the data gathering took place. They also get easily startled (68%) especially whenever they hear gunshots. They become alarmed and start to think that a war will happen again in their community. This makes them think that they are not safe again and that they have to leave the place. The respondents admitted that even they can say that they have become paranoid whenever they hear gunshots but their excessive alertness for danger (52%) will do them good. It will in a way that they will always be prepared for an incoming danger and they will be able to run ahead of time.

57 Table 7. Physical and psychological effects of militarization on the respondents. Effects* Anxiety Easily startled Fear Excessive alertness for danger Anger Nightmares Fatigue Intrusive thought Carrying of weapons Disturbed sleep General aches and pains *multiple responses Experiencing militarization is almost identical as experiencing war (Bowman, 2002). Most respondents do not necessarily show characteristics of poor psychosocial functioning following the description made by Zimmer-Gembeck et al., (2001). Poor psychosocial functioning is characterized by presence of anxiety, fear, irritability, anger and other negative effects combined with poor relationships which is caused by the negative manifestations mentioned (Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2001). They do not typically experience these symptoms; however, the respondents reported that they are vulnerable to anxiety, fear and anger especially when they perceive the presence of the military. f 24 21 21 16 14 14 10 10 9 9 6 % 77 68 68 52 45 45 32 32 29 29 19

58 Here is an account of a woman who admitted to be overly vigilant especially when the military is present: Dali ra jud ko makurat dai, masking kanang plato lang nga mahulog kay muambak jud dayon ko sa kahadlok. Tong isang bulan kay naa man diri and mga sundalo unya nagpabuto, perte jud nakong hadloka. Pero di raman ako ba. Daghan mi nga gikulban ato uy. Kabalhinon na kaayo mi kay basin among lugar napud ang initan. Maayo nalang kay pagkaugma gubalitaan mi nga hubog ra diay tong army maong nagpabuto. Pero kulba jud kaayo. (I really get easil startled, even if it is only the plates falling, I really jump out because of fear. Last month, the military is hear then we heard a gunshot, so I was very scared. But it is not only me. there were many of us who were on the edge that time. We wanted to go away because we fear that our community will be made as a warzone again. Good thing that by morning, news came that everything is fine and that it was only a drunken bout. But I was very nervous.) Here are also accounts of other respondents to support the study: Hadlok kaayo akong naagian Maam, mao tingali nga ginadaman ko. Dili man hinuon matag gabie pero perme jud maong dili nako malimtan ang pangitabo. (My experience was too scary that is probably why I have nightmares. I dont have it every night but I am disturbed by it every now and then that is why I cannot forget what happened to me.) Ilahang gipatay akong ig agaw maski wala siyay sala. Gipasaylo nako sila sa ilang gibuhat kay humana to pero kung ako ilang hilabtan, musukol jud ko. Mao nang gadala jud ko ug hinagiban; panagana lang ba, in kaso ug magkaengkwentro mi. (They killed my cousin even if he did not do anything wrong. I already forgave them about it because it is done but if they will do anything to me, I am really going to fight back. That is why I always bring a weapon; in case we really have to fight.) Table 8. Effects of militarization on the respondents outgroup interpersonal relationship. Effects* Inability to trust outsiders Fear of foreigners Fear of other tribes *multiple responses f 26 20 7 % 84 65 23

59 Table 8 presents the effects of militarization on the respondents outgroup interpersonal relationship. It focuses on the respondents relationship towards people outside their tribe. This table also describes the respondents way of dealing with people they do not consider of their own race. The figures in the table show that majority (84%) of the respondents are unable to trust outsiders unless people they already know introduce them. They also have fear of foreigners, especially the white, rich type with blond hair which probably refers to Europeans or Caucasians, as they are the ones who mostly hold that characteristic. The respondents current area of residence is a place where they are already mixed with other tribes (Bisaya, Manobo, Matigsalog); so only few are afraid of people from other tribes. Table 9. Effects of militarization on the respondents loyalty to their tribe and to the military. Effects Obedience to the military Defense of military against tribesmen Neutral Betrayal to tribesmen for reward Prefers to be loyal to tribe TOTAL f 11 10 4 3 3 31 % 35 32 13 10 10 100

Table 9 presents the effects of militarization in terms of the respondents standard in decision-making, which mainly focuses on their loyalty or feeling of devotion between their tribe and their obedience to the military. It is said that the principles or belief of a person can be changed by a certain event due to some trigerring factors. People who experienced militarization are most likely to change their belief, such as absolute

60 obedience to the military, even to the extent of betraying their tribesmen. This could be due to their fear towards the military as they (the military) might do something to them (respondents) or the desire (of the respondent) to get a reward. In a study conducted by Springer (2000), it found out that morality might drastically change due to militarization. This is probably because the individual has already seen that to be able to survive, one does not simply wave ones rights so that militarization will stop. The individual will learn that to survive, one has to ingratiate if need be, or get acceptance from higher authority, which in this case, is the military. To be able to survive, an individual needs not heed to previous principles but instead try to adapt with a new one. In this case, it appears that most of the respondents chose to obey the military, or even preferred the military over their tribesmen due to fear. A respondent admitted that if the military asked anything from him, he gladly obeyed them because he did not want to make an enemy of them; 30% of the respondents answered that they have defended and will defend the military for their sake and for the sake of their tribesmen as well. Thirteen percent of the respondents remained neutral regarding this matter. They did not answer the question when they were asked, probably because they were afraid to state their opinion for fear of the consequences they might encounter. A respondent explained: Kinahanglan jud na sundon ang mando sa mga sundalo. Maski unsa pa na, basta dili lang ko madaot. Ug alang kanako, akoa nalang pud sila nga sundon aron wala na kaayoy maangin nga akong katribo. Akoa nalang ginahuna-huna nga isip tabang nalang pud nako sa akong katribo ang akong pagsunod sa ila. Kung musunod man gud ko sa ilahang mando, dili na tingali nila samukon pa ang akoang pamilya ug tribo. (It is necessary to follow the orders of the military soldiers. Whatever it is, as long as it does not harm anyone. For me, I will follow them so that my

61 tribesmen will not get involved anymore. Helping the military is a help to my tribesmen, that is what I think. If I will follow their orders, they might not harass my family and tribesmen anymore.) There are also those who defend the military against their tribesmen due to the following reason: Akoang ginasita Maam uy kung makadungog ko ug dili maayo nga istorya mahitungod sa mga militar. Naa gud tay maikaingon gud tungod sa ilang dili maayo nga gibuhat pero ang sa ako lang, mas maayo nga dili nalang ta magtingog. May mga espiya pa lang sila unya madunggan nga dili maayo ang ginaistorya sa iya, makahuna-huna napud hinuon sila nga kalaban mi nila. Mao na Maam nga ako jud ginakasaban akong mga katribo kung mag-istorya sila ug dili maayo mahitungod nila (mga sundalo). (I reprimand anyone who says bad thing about military. We really have something to say against them especially on what they have done but it is better not to say anything at all. They have spies who might overhear us saying bad things about them, and they will start to think again that we are their enemies. That is why I reprimand them Maam whenever my tribesmen say something bad against the military.) There are also those who admitted that they betrayed their tribesmen so that they will not be subject to the militarys suspicion. One man recalled: Na testingan jud nako Maam na akong giduot akong kauban aron palakwon nako sa mga sundalo. Pero di ko na to usbon Maam Nakonsensya ko kay napatay baya to siya, dili ra ba tinuod akong giingon. Ug gikasab an pud ko sa akong mga katribo. Maayo nalang gani kay nadawat pa ko nila. Maong dili najud ko muusab. (I tried to point the blame to my companion so that the military will let me go. But I will not do it again I was guilty of what Ive said because it is not true. My tribesmen also reprimanded me but fortunately, they still aceept me in the tribe. That is also why I do not want to do it again.) E. Coping Mechanisms of the Respondents Coping mechanisms are very important to an individual, especially for those who have undergone unpleasant experiences. Using a coping mechanism helps a person to succesfully deal what they have experienced. This gives them opportunity to surpass the current situation they are in so that once again they can live a normal life.

62 Table 10. Coping mechanisms of the respondents. Coping mechanism* Forget what happened Complain to the authorities Share experiences with others Thought of revenge Try to live normal lives Help others *multiple responses Table 10 reveals that a number of respondents have chosen to forget what happened (39%). They reported that it is better for them to forget so that they can move on and eventually live their normal lives. Others have chosen to share their experiences (29%) with others so that they will gradually feel less pain about what happened. On the other hand, others have complained to the authority (35%). Some admitted that they were thinking of getting revenge before (23%) by killing a member of the military but then thought that it is better if the authority will be the one to get the revenge for them. Here are some responses from the respondents that can support the findings: Nakahuna-huna jud ko sa una nga mubalos jud ko atong mga sundalo nga nagkulata sa akoa. Sakit jud kaayo ang ilahang gibuhat; dili lang sa akong lawas ang sakit, maski sa akong pamati, dili jud maayo ilang gibuhat. Mura man gud ug dili tao ang pagtrato sa ako ug sa akong mga kaubanpero nahuna-hunaan ra pud nako kadugayan nga dili man diay maayo kung manimalos ko. Basin mapatay pa ko nila nga dili gihapon ko makabalos. Maayo gani kay gitabangan mi sa mga NGO. Nagsumbong nalang ko sa kagamhanan sa nahitabo sa ako ug sa among tribo. (I really thought of getting revenge to those soldiers who tortured me. what they did to me is painful; its not just on my body but even in my emotions, what they did really hurts. Their treatment to me and my companion is inhumanebut eventually, I thought that it is not good f 12 11 9 7 4 4 % 39 35 29 23 13 13

63 getting revenge like that. They might kill me before I can do it. good thing the NGO helped me. I complained to the authority about what happened to me and my tribe.) Akoa nalang gikalimtan ang nahitabo sa akoa, tutal, dili ra man ing ana kasakit ang nahitabo. Ilaha ra man ko nga gisingkahan ug gipahawa sa among balay. Sakit gud, pero human naman. Naa naman pud koy balay sa patag karon maong kalimtan nalang to ug magsugod nasad sa akong bag-ong kinabuhi. (I try to forget what happened to me, it is not that painful anyway. They just yelled at me and told us to leave our house. It is painful, but its done. I already have a house in lowlands now so I think it is better to forget what happened and start anew.) Akoang ginaingon sa uban akong mga nasinati sa mga militar aron makuhaan pud ning sakit nga akong ginabati sa ilaha. Kadugayan, nahuwasan ra man sad akong gibati. Karon pud, bag-o lang, kay nagatabang sad ko sa uban nga mawala na ang kasuko ug kahiubos na ilang gibati sa mga sundalo. Para man sad sa kaayuhan sa akong mga katribo ng dili na sila masuko. (I share my experiences to others so that the pain I am feeling can somehow be eased. Gradually, I feel alright. Just recently, I am helping others to erase the negative feelings they have to the military. It is for their own good.) F. Suggestions for Intervention In this section, several suggestions made by the respondents are presented. These suggestions are divided into two: one that concerns their thoughts as to how militarization should be dealt with while the other one is as to how their current condition can be improved. Table 11 presents the respondents suggestions for intervention regarding militarization. Many agreed that the military can still have their operation on the mountains but on the condition that they have to learn to treat the civilians humanely (55%). The respondents understand that it is the militarys duty to look for and wage war against NPA. Their only request is that they should be spared from harassment and abuses by the military. Others have agreed to totally ban the military from their communal lands (39%), for the reason that they have nothing to do with the NPAs; 29%

64 Table 11. Respondents suggestions as how to deal with militarization. Suggestions Military must be taught to treat civilians humanely Dont let military enter communal Lands Stop the wars in mountains Request NPA to put up quarters far Away TOTAL f 17 % 55

12

39

9 1

29 3

31

100

of the respondents stated that it is the war between the military and NPA that caused them to stay away from the mountains, thus disrupting their livelihood. One respondent pointed out that it is not only the militarys fault but as well as the NPAs. That is why he requested that NPAs should stay away from the civilians so that they will not get involved in the unpleasantries of militarization. One respondent explained: Dawat naman nako nga mao jud na ang trabaho sa mga sundalo: ang mangita sa mga rebelde. Unta lang, dili nila apilon ang mga sibilyan nga sama namo kay kami, dili man namo gusto nga maapil sa kagubot. Gusto lang mi nga mabuhi ug normal. Pwede man sila (ang mga sundalo) nga musubida ug mangita sa mga NPA sa bundok pero dili nalang unta nila apilon ang mga tao nga nagtukod didto ug komunidad. Magpakita ba gud diay mi didto sa ilaha kung NPA mi uyug unta tratuhon lang pud mi nila ug tarong. Tao pud baya mi. (I know that it is the militarys job to look for the rebels. I just hope that they dont involve the civilians in this because we dont want to get involved either. We just want to live normally. They can still enter our lands but they do not have to involve the people belonging in a community. We wont let ourselves be shown by them if we belong in NPA and they have to treat us well. We are also human beings.)

65 Most respondents agreed that the military can still enter their community in highlands. Most answers point the military as the culprit of militarization but one respondent answered differently from the rest. He said: Dili lang man sa mga sundalo nga sala nganong maangin mi sa gubat. Unta lang pud, ang mga NPA kay dili na magkuta sa mga bundok nga naay komunidad sa mga sibilyan. Maangin man gud mi sa mga panahong mag-engkwentro sila sa sundalo ug sa panahong ginapangita sa mga sundalo. Kami na hinuon ang ginapasanginlan tungod nila. Pero dili man siguro kami ang mapangitaan sa mga sundalo sa ilaha kung magpalayo lang sila ug kuta. (It is not only militarys fault why we are involved in this chaos. Hopefully, the NPA will not build quarters near our community so that we dont get involved. We become their escapegoats because they are near us.) Table 12. Suggestions for improvement regarding respondents current condition. Suggestions* Basic needs Education Land reform Job opportunities Road Health services *multiple responses Table 12 presents the respondents suggestions for intervention regarding their current condition now that they are living in the place they call patag. Militarization has already changed their ways of living and now, they have to face all that remains after militarization. The respondents believe that these suggestions they offered can help them a lot to improve what have been left to them after militarization. f 22 16 10 9 1 1 % 71 52 32 29 3 3

66 It is understandable that majority has chosen basic needs (71%) as their main problem as for the moment. Basic needs includes the water they need to use for washing and drinking, food and shelter. This has somehow proven in Abraham Maslows theory on heirarchy of needs (as cited in Hall, 1998) that basic needs should come first in the satisfaction of an individuals needs. Second need is education (52%). The respondent wanted education for their children so that they will not be like their parents who have to till the lands so that they can merely eat rice. Most especially, they want their children to be educated so that, unlike them, their children can stand up for themselves when situation calls for it. The respondents also asked for land reform and job opportunities. A mother of six children said, Sa amoang kahimtang karon, pagkaon ug balay jud among kinahanglan. Napahawa mi sa among gipuy-an sa una, unya naa didto among yuta nga ginatamnan sa among panginabuhian. Sa karon, wala mi yuta nga matamnan kay kani among ginapuy-an sa patag dili amoa. Mao na nga nagalisod pud mi ug pangita sa among pagkaon. Unsa ra gud ning mga Lumad ra mi uypag-uma ra man jud among nahibal-an. Kamote ug mais ra pa jud among nahibal-an nga itanom. (In our condition, what we needed most is food and shelter. We were told to leave in the place where we live before, where our lands that we plant our crops are situated. As for now, we have no lands because where we are living now is not ours. That is why we are also having a hard time looking for our food. What can we do as mere Lumads we only know farming. And what we plant are only sweet potato and corn.) This was supported by several responses: Yutang-kabilin man tong among gipuy-an kaniadto sa Side Four pero ingon sila nga wala daw mi katungod ato kay sa gobyerno man to. Mao na nga sa pagkakaron, ang pinakauna namo nga kinahanglan kay pagkaon. Hurot najud among naipon sa kaniadto pa kay gikuhaan naman mi ug yuta nga matamnan karon. Pagkaon jud, kay perme ra nga magutom akong pamilya, tagsa kay kaisa nalang mi mukaon sa isa ka adlaw. Wala pud mi tubig dinhi nga lugara, kinahanglan pa namo muadto sa lugar sa mga bisaya aron mukabo. Masuko baya sila kung mangadto ang mga Lumad didto. Ambot ani, murag wala name kapaingnan. Tagsa makapangutana ko kung naa ba mi lugar aning kalibutana (We

67 lived in our ancestral lands when we were in Side Four but they said that we have no rights no live on that land because it is governments property. As for now, what we needed is food. What we have saved before is already used up because we do not have lands to till anymore. We really need food, because my family always gets hungry, sometimes we eat once a day only. We do not have water in our area and we needed to go to the place of Visayans to fetch water. They get angry whenever we go there. I dont know, I think we have nowhere to go. Sometimes I ask myself whether we Lumads really have a place in this world) Daghan gud kaayo mi ug mga kinahanglan sa karon. Pagkaon, tubig, kuryente wala man mi kwarta para makuha namo na nga mga butang. Kanang pagkaon, ginasiguro nalang jud na namo, aron lang mabuhi pa mi ug dugay-dugay. Sunod sa pagkaon, ang akong gina-hunahuna ka yang mapaskwela jud akong mga anak. Dili ko gusto nga mapareha sila sa ilang mga ginikanan nga wala nakatungha, mao na nga madaog-daog ra kay mga yanong Lumad lang man mi. Dili ko gusto nga mahitabo na sa akong mga anak. (We need a lot of things as for now. We need food, water, electricity but we have no money to buy these things. We try to secure our food the most so that we can survive longer. Next to food, I am doing my best to send my children to school. I do not want them to be like us who have never attended school, that is why we are subject to abuse because we are mere Lumads. I do not want that to happen to my children.) Sa pagkakaron, pagkaon jud among ginahuna-huna nga among kinahanglan. Alang man gud na sa matag-adlaw nato nga panginabuhi. Yuta pud unta, kinahanglan kaayo aron mi makakaon. Ang among yuta tua man sa taas unya gipahawa naman mi sa gobyerno tungod lagi aning kagubot sa mga sundalo ug rebelde. Unta lang na magbutang ug dalan ang gobyerno aron mas sayon nalang para sa amoa nga mag-uma didto. Sayon nalang pagbitbit sa mga prutas nga among makuha. Dili dayon malata pag abot namo dinhi sa patag. (As for now, food is what we needed the most because it is needed in our daily life. We also need lands, so that we can eat. We have lands on the mountains but we were told to leave there because of the war happening in highlands. Now, I am hoping that the government will make a road connecting the highlands and lowlands so that it will be easier for us to do farming there.) Ang akoa lang jud unta nga hangyo sa gobyerno ka yang mahatagan mi ug trabaho, pareho sa mga bisaya. Dili man mga edukado ang uban pero makatrabaho man sila sa barangay hall isip taga-limpyo o dili ba kaha kay makaabri sila ug tindahan kay tabangan man sila sa gobyerno. Kami pud unta, matagad na. Trabaho nalang pud unta puslan nga wala name yuta nga matamnan. (My request to the government is that they will give us jobs, like the Visayans. They might not be educated

68 but they can have jobs in barangay hall as caretakers or they can open up their own stores because they are assisted by the government. I hope they will do the same to us, especially now that we have no lands as a source for our living.) All of the respondents depend on land for their livelihood. Farming, logging, raising livestock and gathering fruits only happen if they have lands where they can freely do those things but after militarization, the land that was loaned to them is only intended for shelter. Lacking land to make their own puts them in a bad situation: they have no land of their own to put up their shelter and no land to be a source of their living. That is why 32% of the respondents believe that what they need for this moment is for the government to allocate lands for them. There are those who are open to other possibilities. They do not limit themselves to the livelihood usual to them (farming corn and sweet potato crops and logging). They are also open to farm in rice fields or enter as household help. The first problem they face as regards to this is the discrimination they experience due to their race. Most of those who need household helpers prefer a migrant (Visayan, Ilonggo, and others) than a Lumad. That is why Lumads get less chance of being hired. The second problem they face is that they do not know how to farm rice crops, which entails a different method compared to planting corn and sweet potato crops. The respondents may not experience extreme psychological problems due to militarization but what is greatly affected in them is their means of living. Discussion of Findings Results drawn from this research study are the following: Reports made in this study coincide with reports of human rights violation found in Arches (2000), Montalvans (2010), Ledesmas (2008) studies and other media press

69 releases made by organizations focusing on human rights violation and militarization. What did not coincide in this study is the report on how women are made prostitutes and how women become the most vulnerable victims of militarization. In contrast to previous reports, in this study, women are found to be abused less than men; it is men who are more vulnerable to be physically abused than women. There are many aspects in the lives of the respondents which have been disrupted because of militarization, as seen in their experiences. But what are the aspects of militarization that caused them to go through such experiences? Previous study (Wiktonowicz, 2003) states that one aspect of militarization that causes disruption to the respondents way of living is the physical harm it can bring to the victim of militarization. In this study, three aspects of militarization caused the disruption of the development of the respondents. It either forced the respondents to evacuate and to those who own lands to stop making livelihood because the military told them to do so. Because of this, there are specific outcomes that the respondents are now suffering. They suffer not only as a tribe but as individuals as well, and even their relationship with others are affected. Because of these disruptions in their lives, these also resulted to the loss of their cultural identity (cited in Ledesma, 2008). Their cultural identity is the remaining thread that they are holding on, an evidence that they belong to the group of few remaining indigenous people here in the world yet that important thing is also taken away from them because of militarization. Even their means of survival is being taken away by being forced to get out of the lands they are living in. So now, they are facing problems that need coping.

70 Human beings are programmed with individual differences; that is why the coping mechanism is also varied. Many opted to forget what happened, probably as their means of building a new life in their new home. Their main concern for the moment is to satisfy their basic needs, especially food, which is needed for their survival. Other respondents think about the future; they want their children to get education and others wanted to have stable jobs so that they will have constant supply of food. Having stable job means that they can send their children to school. According to Bernardo (1979 as cited in Ledesma, 2008), Lumads have close connection to the lands because this is the main source why they live. Having their land taken away from them is a huge crisis for them; that is why they lack the basic needs because they have nowhere to get it. Looking at their answers, respondents suggested for the improvement of their lives. It is found out that all responses lead to gain of basic needs, particularly food for their survival. The Lumad respondents in this study are seen to be put in a difficult situation after the militarization happened to them. This started when they evacuated in 2008. After their evacuation, they started facing problems regards the means of their survival. The militarization has caused them unpleasant memories of the event and they feel anxiety, fear and anger whenever the military is present. Fortunately, the respondents can still perform the necessities for everyday living, only that sometimes they are disturbed by the reappearance of the military because unpleasant emotions that they have felt during the peak of militarization also reappear. In general, they are functioning well psychosocially.

71 The real problem arises in their current situation of living today. Aside from the disrupted rituals and the identity taken from them, they also face the everyday problem of where to get their basic needs. They only grow sweet potato and corn crops, and these are not enough to buy rice and other needs since these crops are cheaper than what they need. The situation worsened when after militarization, they do not have lands to till anymore. At least, when they were in the mountains before, in case they have no food, they can still find fruits in the forest and wild animals. But this is no longer what is happening in the community. Hence, it is very understandable that they ask for land reform. Their basic needs, especially the water, also need to be secured. They let their children take a bath in the creek where there are many remnants of mercury since the water in that creek came from the mining area upriver, particularly in Mt. Diwalwal. There is a clean source of water in their community but they have to cross the road and go to the community of the Visayans, which the Lumads avoid to do. Discrimination enters the picture; whenever Lumads come to the area, they hear negative things about them to which they cannot bear. That is why they opted to use the water infested with mercury than go to the area with clean water to avoid being negatively discriminated. The aftermath of militarization brought discomfort to the Lumads even if its peak happened three years ago. Living without their lands, they are limited to practice their cultures and traditions. They are also restricted to find their means of living and most of all, they face discrimination from people of other ethnic group who should understand their current situation. That is also probably the reason why some of them said that the Lumads have no place in this world anymore.

72 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary This study was conducted to determine the experiences and effects of militarization among Lumad residents of Brgy. Naboc, Monkayo, Compostela Valley and how these Lumads coped to overcome the effects. Moreover, their suggestions for intervention that may greatly help them improve their lives are also identified. The study highlight the following findings: 1. There are more female respondents than males. Most of them do not know their age but for those who knew, more respondents are in age ranges 16 to 21 years old and 34 to 39 years old. Majority of the respondents have already been converted to Christianity, specifically to the Assembly of God although there are still who practice their old belief. The respondents are classified into two ethnic affiliations Manobo and Matigsalog. Majorityof them were not able to attend school. 2. The respondents have undergone varied experiences due to militarization. The respondents were forced to evacuate, experienced psychological, physical and verbal abuse from the military, being abducted and imprisoned without due process; others were forced to surrender for they are accused of being a member of NPA; their homes are illegally searched and their livestock and properties are being seized for no apparent reasons; some were intentionally and indiscriminately shot and died and a child died during the process of evacuation, while a pregnant woman gave birth prematurely because of fear.

73 3. The aspects of militarization experienced by the include: (1) warring on areas where civilians are present, (2) taking over of an area where the civilians are supposed to be living or have their livelihood and (3) harassment. 4. Effects and changes in the behavior and beliefs of the respondents because of militarization include fear of the military, being forced to evacuate from the area, and disputes among tribesmen and rituals occurred. 5. The coping mechanisms of the respondents also vary - from attempting to forget that it happened to them to complaining the inhumane treatment of the military to those in authority. They have mixed opinions and emotions in dealing with their current condition; others have opted to vengeance but eventually find it more practical to let the government know about their situation to be able to find solution to their problem. There are also some who answered that they try to live their life normally and prefer to help others rather than keeping their feelings to themselves. 6. The respondents have suggestions as to how government is supposed to deal with militarization, or how militarization should be dealt with in general. Most of them agree that it is the militarys job to look for the NPAs; they want the military to treat them humanely; no military should enter their communal lands, and to stop war in their area. The respondents also suggested that the government should provide them what they basically need food, water, and shelter government whould give them lands to own where they can make a living and job opportunities for a stable income. They also need education, although not for themselves, but for their children.

74 Conclusion On the basis of the findings of this study, it is therefore concluded that militarization is truly giving an excuse for some of the military men to violate human rights. The Lumads involved in this phenomenon become victims of human rights violation and their experiences produce effects that are not good and favorable for their wellbeing and development. Based from the respondents opinions, it is not militarization itself that causes trouble to them but the people involved in militarization. What is needed is for military soldiers to learn how to treat civilians humanely, and not to involve them in their fight against the rebels (NPA). Implication Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, several implications are drawn. First, the respondents lack of awareness or their ignorance about their civil and human rights enable them to experience the effects and repercussions of militarization physically and psychosocially. This may indicate that they themselves have tolerated and allowed these activities by the military to happen. By being lenient about it means that they may not know that what were being done to them is not right at all. Their freedom of speech and to live in peace and harmony have been disrupted. In addition, their civil and human rights have been violated. As people living under the umbrella of democracy, they are supposed to have the right to equal treatment especially from those who are working in the government and are considered public servants. This indicates that the Lumads must be taught about their rights as human beings so that no one can abuse them anymore. On the other hand, some men in the military, especially those abusing the civilians, need to be reminded about what they are doing and the main objective of their

75 operations. Military men are supposed to follow proper protocol and codes of conduct in treating Lumads whenever they have military operation in the area. As public servants, they must treat each and everyone with respect. This may also indicate that the military should bear in mind that whatever the circumstances, whether they suspect some of the Lumads as NPA or being in the middle of the war with NPAs, they have to think about the people who are not supposed to be involved in these bloody fights. Since their basis for judging whether a person is a member of NPA or not is their own discretion, it is needed that they learn to balance their decisions; they have to learn to distinguish a member of an NPA from a non-NPA. Both the military and the Lumads need to adjust. The Lumads need to know their rights while the military needs to refrain from violating these rights. The lack of information about these events seem to say that this phenomenon deserves recognition and investigation not only from the media but also from the general public and government as well. The study also implies the importance of human rights, both in knowing, learning and understanding them, and at the same time respecting them. Recommendations On the basis of the findings, conclusions and implications of the study, the following are put forward as recommendations: For the general public 1. To be aware of the current happenings in their surroundings, especially events such as militarization which could involve human rights violations. This may not only happen to Lumads but to anyone else, so it is really better that everyone knows about it, and how to deal with it.

76 2. To eliminate prejudices against the Lumads, but instead help them recover from the aftermath of the militarization. 3. To be aware about these events so that they can help in promoting awareness of human and civil rights and the violations of them. For Social Workers 1. To pay attention to places where Lumads live. The community of Lumads needs further development since they are a starting community. The social workers can focus on projects, such as proper water supply in the Lumad communities, and enabling them to live as an organized community. 2. To disseminate information about the current situation of Lumads so that more can join in the cause of helping them in their current situation. For NGO (Non-Government Organization) Workers 1. To conduct lectures and other symposia to the Lumads about human rights awareness so that they will be able to defend themselves against violation of them. 2. To seek the help from the media, as it is the most powerful information disseminating network that can help expose the phenomenon of militarization. Seeking the help from media to assist them be able to get the support of more people in their cause. For Lumads 1. They should be aware of their human and civil rights so that they can stand up for themselves. In that way, in case they will be subjected to abuse again, they could at least try to defend themselves without being helpless. Even if their rights are violated, they at least know that it is violated and they can ask help from

77 government or any institution for the knowledge that what is being done to them is not right already. Both men and women should know of their rights and even the children should know it so that they will not become subjects of abuse. For the government 1. To pay attention to this phenomenon, and consider it a very serious business that they have to deal with immediately. They should be aware of the effects of militarization to the civilians and take more peaceful action towards the rebels, minimizing the harm that it can do the civilians, especially the Lumads who are more prone to be victims of this phenomenon. 2. To provide stricter screening and assessment for those who will join the military to ensure disciplines, dignified, honorable and just military men. 3. To engage the military into a more humane treatment towards the civilians, regardless of their faith, race, gender and education by checking on the management of military operations. 4. To take into consideration the wellness of the Lumads particularly during military operations. This includes the issue about their ancestral lands, seeing their current situation. The government should cater programs (land reforms, job opprtunities, seminars, skills training) that may assist the Lumads as individuals and as a tribe for their survival on long-term basis. 5. To set programs regarding equality and fairness, which may promote sensitivity in terms of culture, gender and religion. To set strategies that may help in dealing with people from different culture not only for the Lumads and military but for

78 the general public as well in order to promote a genuine peace building and development. For future studies 1. A similar study may be conducted in another locale with the same condition but with different participants. 2. A study about militarization from the perspective of military men who are directly involved in the operation may be conducted so that they can also explain their side in doing such things.

79 References Adamat, R. (2005). The Filipino Indigenous Peoples' Last Frontier. Iligan: Iligan Institute of Technology. Arche, B. (2000, October 14). Davao Norte preserves cultural heritage of IPs. Retrieved on July 18, 2011 from http://www.mb.com.ph/node/224669/davao-norte-pre Atkinson, R. L., Atkinson, R. C., Smith, E., Bem, D., and Noeln-Hoeksema, S. (1996). Hilgards Introduction to Psychology. 12th ed. Philippines: Harcourt Brace & CompanyAsia PTE Ltd. Bacerich, A. (2002). American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of US Diplomacy. Massachussets: Howard University Press. Bass, J., Azur, M., Poudhal, B., and Balton, P. (2008). Assessment of psychosocial problems and impaired functioning among conflict affected adults in Aceh, Indonesia: Testing of a locally-adapted psychosocial assessment instrument and screening into an intervention program. Retrieved on September 15, 2011 from http://pdf.usaid.gov.pdf_docs/PNADP469.pdf. Bowman, R. (2002). Militarization, Democracy and Development: The Perils of Praetorianism in Latin America. Pennsylvania: State University Press. Brash, R. (2008). Gulf war and Health: Physiologic, psychologic and psychosocial effect of deployment-related stress. National Academy of Sciences , 184-201. Caldicott, H. (2002). The New Nuclear Danger: George W. Bush's Military-Industrial Complex. New York: New Press. Corey, G. (2008). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Pub Co. Crittenden, D. (1996). What Our Mothers Didnt Tell Us. New York: Simon and Schuster Paperbacks. De Leon, H. (2005). Textbook on the Philippine Constitution, 5th ed. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company. Durand, M. and Barlow, D. (2001). Abnormal Psychology, 3rd ed. California: Brooks/Cole Publishing. Encarta Dictionaries. (2008). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation. Francisco, J., Bernardo, A., and Lavina, C. (1979). Papers in Mindanao Ethnography. Marawi: University Research Center. Hall, C., Gardner, L., Campbell, J. (1998). Theories of Personality, 4th ed. Toronto: John

80 Wiley and Sons. Hemley, R. (2007). Invented Eden: The Elusive History of Tasaday. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. House of Commons. (2007). Mining in the Philippines - Concerns and Conflicts. Manila. Ingram, H. (2005). Deserving and Entitled: Social Constructions and Public Policy. New York: University of New York Press. Kadil, B. (2002). History of Moro and Indigenous Peoples in MINSUPALA, 2nd ed. Marawi City: Department of History. Kahn, C. (2008). Conflict, Arms and Militarization: The Dynamics of Darfur's IDP Camp. Geneva: Small Arms Survey. Knight, K., Holcom, M., and Simpson, D. (1994). TCU psychosocial function and motivation scales: Manual in psychometric properties. Psychometrics , 147, 28-54. Lawrence, P. and John, O. (2001). Personality Theory and Research, 8th ed. Toronto: John Wiley and Sons. Lazarus, J. (2002, May 23). Militarization and Indigenous People. Retrieved on February 27, 2012 from Native Americas Journal: http://www.mailarchive.com/nativenews@mlists.net/msg01915.html. Ledesma, C. (2008, November 25). Militarization and its impact on women. Retrieved on February 27, 2012 from http://www.aprnet.org/women-stream/107-workshop-on women-and-war/354-militarization-and-its-impact-on-women. Liebknecht, K. (2009). Methods and effects of militarism. Retrieved on July 25, 2011, from http://wwi.lib.byu.edu.index.php.III. Limpingco, D. and Tria, G. (1990). Personality. Cebu City: Ken Inc. Lutz, C. (2001). Homefront: A Military City and the American 20th Century. New York: State University Press. Militarization and people's development in Cordillera. (2009, August 1). Retrieved on February 27, 2012 from CDPC Board: http://www.indigenousportal.com/self determination/militarization-and-peoples-development-in-the-cordillera philippines.html. Montalvan, A. (2010, February 3). Bukidnon heritage kept alive. Philippine Daily Inquirer , pp. B-7. Olmanns, T. and Emery, R. (2004). Abnormal Psychology, 4th ed. New Jersey: Pearson

81 Prentice Hall. Perry, B. (2008). The Boy Who Was Raised as a Dog. New York: Perseus Books Group. Ro, E. (2010). Conceptualization of psychosocial functioning: Understanding structure and relationships with personality and psychopathology. Retrieved on September 15, 2011, from http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/730. Rodil, B. (1992). Ancestral domain: A central issue in the lumad struggle for self determination in Mindanao. In Mindanao: Land of Unfulfilled Promise (pp. 131 164). Quezon City: New Day Publishers. Rodil, R. (2000). The Lumads are Our People. Pasig City: Media and Peace Reporting. Rodriguez, M. and Rodriguez, L. (2007). Thesis, Dissertation and Research Methods. Marawi City: Mindanao State University. Sarason, I. and Sarason, B. (2005). Abnormal Psychology: The Problem of Maladaptive Behavior, 11th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Sherry, M. (1995). In the Shadow of War. Connecticut: Yale University Press. Skolnick, A. (1986). The Psychology of Human Development. Pacific Grove: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Springer, S., Fife, A., Lawson, W., Hui, J., Jandorf, L., Cohn, P., and Tricchione, G. (2000). Psychosexual effects of enhanced external counterpulsation in angina patients: A second study. Retrieved on July 19, 2011 from http://psy.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/42/2/124. Wiktonowicz, Q. (2003). Economics reform and the military: China, Cuba and Syria in comparative perspective. International Journal of Comparative Sociology , 87, 128. Women and children most vulnerable to military abuses. (2010, May 22). Retrieved on February 27, 2012 from Gabriela Media Release: http://testigo ph.org/mediarelease/women-and-children-most-vulnerable-military-abuses gabriela. Zimmer-Gembeck, M., Siebenbruner, J., and Collins, A. (2001). Diverse aspects of dating: associations with psychosocial functioning from early to middle adolescence. Journal of Adolescence , 24, 313-336.

82 Appendix A SELF-CONSTRUCTED CHECKLIST Name (optional):__________________________________________________________ Sex:___________________________________Age:_____________________________ Religion:__________________________ Tribe: ________________________________ Highest Educational Attainment: _____________________________________________ Part II. Instruction: Please check the box found before the answer of your choice. 1. What livelihood did you lose due to militarization? Hunting of animals Gathering of fruits Farming Small-scale mining Gather firewood

Harvest logs Charcoal-making Fishing Copra, tuba and nipa-making Others (Specify: _________)

2. What restricted you in pursuing your livelihood? We are prevented to visit animals in the pasture We are required to have military escorts They fire on areas where we gather food and hunt animals Others (Specify: ________________) 3. What problems did the school in your area encounter because of militarization? Occupation of schools by the military Illegal and unnecessary searches of military in school Looting in the school Closure of literacy schools due to militarys intervention Others (Specify: ________________) 4. What problems did you encounter in your community due to militarization? Occupation of church, schools and public structures Using the community as human shields against possible attacks from NPA Imposition of food blockades Massacre Others (Specify: _________________) 5. Have you encountered/experienced any of these due to militarization? Abduction Sexual exploitation/prostitution Torture Detainment Sexual molestation

83 Psychological torture Forced surrender Execution Grave threat/harassment Illegal search and seizure Indiscriminate firing/strafing Others (Specify: _________)

6. Did any of the following happened to a family member or a friend due to militarization? Please indicate who. Abduction Forced surrender Torture Execution Sexual molestation Grave threat/harassment Sexual Illegal search and seizure exploitation/prostitution Indiscriminate firing/straffing Detainment Others (Specify: __________) Psychological torture 7. What other problems did you encounter because of militarization? Disruption of cultural rituals due to armed conflict Forced reconstruction of villages Fuels armed feuds among tribes and clans Forced evacuation Others (Specify: _______________) 8. Did any of the following happened to a family member or a friend due to militarization? Please indicate who. Death due to fear Death in course of evacuation Others (Specify: ______________) 9. What is your view about militarization? The military is there to keep us safe from outsiders such as NPA. The military is there to guard the natural resources of our lands. The military is there to help exploit the natural resources of our lands. They are there to recruit us in military. Others (Specify: ____________) 10. What makes you scared about militarization? Physical harm (If check, please indicate what type of harm) o They swig and push us. o They strike and kick us. o They pull our hair. o They slap at our face. o They hostage some of us. o They grab at our clothes. o They torture us. Verbal harm o They speak to us in loud voices.

84 o They shout angrily. o They yell personal insults directed to us. o They curse viciously. o They use foul languages. o They make threats. Possibility of war Sexual assault o Attempted rape o Forcible rape o Sexual harassment Violence o Bombing o Burning of houses o Grave threat/harassment o Massacre o Sexual molestation Others (Specify: _________________)

11. What physical changes did you observe during and after militarization? Excessive alertness for danger Easily startled Fatigue/exhaustion Disturbed sleep General aches and pains Others (Specify: _________________) 12. What are your feelings during and after militarization? Fear Numbness/detachment Depression Guilt Anger/irritability Anxiety and panic Others (Specify: ________________) 13. What is your relationship with your family? (Underline the adjective) I have good/strained relationship with my mother I have good/strained relationship with my father I have good/strained relationship with my siblings Others (Specify: ___________________) 14. What is your relationship with other people in your community? I have many friends in the community I spend time with people in the community I can trust the people in the community

85 I mingle with people of same age as me I participate in rituals held by the community Others (Specify: ______________________) 15. What is your relationship with people outside the community? I cannot trust people who dont belong in our community I am afraid of foreigners going to our place I talk to people outside the community with fear Others (Specify: ________________________) 16. (For those attending literacy school) What is/are the influences of militarization regarding your schooling? I dont like going to school I am less motivated to learn I have trouble concentrating in school I have difficulty following instructions Others (Specify: _____________________) 17. Check if you agree with the statement: It is acceptable to kill in order to live It is acceptable to steal from my fellow tribesmen in order to survive I have to obey what the military says so that I wont be punished I will betray my tribe for the sake of reward Others (Specify: ______________________) 18. What are your behavior(s) you observe that cause conflict? I always pick up fights with others. I openly defend the military to my fellow tribesmen. I openly declare my want to join the military. I butt in a conversation that does not concern me. I challenge anyone into a duel. I always carry a knife or any weapon even with my friends. Others (Specify: _______________________) 19. What other experiences did you observe during and after militarization takes place? There is always an intrusive thought and memory about the event. I can always see visual images of the event. I always have nightmares. I have trouble concentrating. I am always confused. Others (Specify: ___________________________) 20. How do you deal with militarization? I just try to forget that it happened.

86 I share my experiences to my friends and family. I complain to the authorities about the inhumane treatment we receive. I get revenge by attempting to kill any military man or by destroying their camp. Others (Specify: ___________________________) 21. What are your means of coping from the effects of militarization? I do not think about it. I try to help others recover by encouraging them and help them boost their morale. I plan of ways on how to revenge for my family and friends. I encourage myself to move on. Others (Specify: ___________________________) 22. What do you think is the best solution to the problem regarding militarization? Make the government stop militarization. The military must be trained to treat everyone humanely. Do not let the military enter the communal lands of Lumads. Others (Specify: ___________________________)

Thank you for giving time in answering this questionnaire!!!

87 Appendix B INTERVIEW GUIDE 1. Does militarization have an impact in your ways of living today? Aduna bay dako nga epekto ang militarization sa imung kinabuhi karon? 2. After militarization, how do you view yourself as a Lumad? Human sa militarization, unsa man imung panglantaw sa imung kaugalingon isip usa ka Lumad? 3. What can you suggest to the government in what to do about militarization? Unsa imu makatambag sa gobyerno mahitungod sa militarisasyon? 4. What things do you need after militarization took place? Unsa nga mga butang ang imu ginakinahanglan mahuman ang militarisasyon? 5. What other things can you suggest for an intervention plan to be made for you and your people? Unsa pang uban nga mga tabag imung magahin alang sa kalambuan nimu ug sa inyong tribo?

88 88 Appendix C TRANSLATED SELF-CONSTRUCTED CHECKLIST Pangalan:____________________________________ Panuigon: __________________ Tribo: ______________________________________ Relihiyon/Tinuohan: __________ Nahuman sa Pag-eskwela: ____________________________ Palihug markahi ug tsek (/) sa kahon kilid sa napili nimo nga tubag. 1. Unsa nga panginabuhian nimo ang nawala tungod sa militarisasyon? Pagpangaso Pagpamuwak Pag-uma Pagmina/pagbiling Pagpangahoy Troso Pagpanguling Pagpangisda Pagpangopras, tuba ug nipa Laing tubag (sama sa: ________________) 2. Unsay nakapugong/babag nimo sa imong pagpanginabuhi? Di na makatugway Gikinahanglan ang pagpauban sa mga military Adunay pagpabuto sa lugar kung asa kami mangita sa among pagkaon Laing tubag (sama sa: ___________________________) 3. Unsay mga problema sa inyong tunghaan ang miabot tungod sa militarisasyon? Pagpamuyo sa mga sundalo sa eskwelahan Pwersa nga pagsusi sa mga sundalo sa mga eskwelahan Pagpanira sa mga eskwelahan tungod sa presensya sa mga military Laing tubag (sama sa: __________________________) 4. Unsa nga mga kakulian ang inyong nasinati tungod sa militar? Pagpuyo sa mga sundalo didto sa simbahan, eskwelahan ug munisipyo Pagpanago sa mga military sa komunidadsa hinaling ataki sa mga rebelde Walay pagkaon Pagpamatay Laing tubag (sama sa: ________________________) 5. Nakasinati ba mo sa mga problema sama sa: Pagpangawala Pagpangulata Pagmolestiya sa mga kababayen-an Prostitusyon Pagkapreso Pang-daug-daug

89 89 Pagpamatay Pagpanghulga Bisag asa nga pagpabuto Laing tubag (sama sa: __________________) 6. Aduna bay mga panghitabo sa imong pamilya, kaila o higala sa mga sumusunod tungod sa mga militar? Pagpangawala Pagpangulata Pangmolestiya Prostitusyon Pagkapriso Pagpanaug-daug Pwersang pagdakop Pagpamatay Pagpanghulga Pagbuto sa bisan asa Laing tubag (sama sa: ________________________) 7. Unsa pay laing kakulian ang nasinati ninyo tungod sa militar? Pagkawala sa kultura ug mga ritwal tungod sa armadong kakulian Pagtukod ug laing kabalayan Nagdungag pagbangi sa mga tribo ug kaliwat Pagpamalhin Laing tubag (sama sa: ____________________________) 8. Aduna bay mga panghitabo sama sa mga sumusunod tungod sa militarisasyon? Pagkamatay tungod sa kahadlok Pagkamatay sa panahon sa pagpamalhin Laing tubag (sama sa: ____________________________) 9. Unsay imung panglantaw sa militarisasyon? Ang mga sundalo ang nanalibud namo sa mga rebelde Ang mga sundalo ang nanalibud sa among yuta Ang mga sundalo nagdungag sa pang-abuso sa among yuta Ang mga sundalo naa arong ipasulod mi sa military Laing tubag (sama sa: ___________________) 10. Unsay imung ginakahadlukan sa mga military Pisikal Pagpamira ug pagtuklod namo Pagpamunal ug pagpanipa namo Pagpamira sa among buhok Pagsampakung ug pagpanagpa Pagpangliab namo Pagpangulata namo Pagpaningka Pagsinggit Panginsulto

90 90 Pagpamalikas Pagpamastos Pagpanghulga Posibilidad sa gyera Sekswal Planong pagpanglugos Pwersang pagpanglugos Pangbastos Mga pagpasakit Pangbomba Pagsunog sa kabalayan Pagpanghulga Pagpamatay Molestiya/pangbastos Laing tubag (sama sa: ____________________) 11. Unsay pisikal na pagbag-o ang imong nabatanyan sa imong kaugalingon sukad naa ang mga militar? Labihang pagbantay sa kahadlok Pagpangulba Kakapoy Walay tarong na pagkatulog Sakit sa kalawasan Laing tubag (sama sa: __________________) 12. Unsay imong mga nabati sukad sa militarisasyon? Kahadlok Kahiubos Konesnsya Kasuko Kulba Pagkataranta Laing tubag (sama sa: _______________) 13. Unsay imong pakig-uban sa imong pamilya? Linyahi ang imong tubag. Maayo/dili maayo akong pakig-uban sa akong inahan Maayo/dili maayo akong pakig-uban sa akong amahan Maayo/dili maayo akong pakig-uban sa akong mga igsoon 14. Unsay imong pakig-uban sa ubang tawo sa imong palibot? Daghan kog higala sa komunidad Sige kog pakig-uban kanila Nagsalig ko sa mga tawo sa komunidad Mosalmot ko sa mga kalihokan sa komunidad 15. Unsa imong pagtrato sa mga tao nga taga-laing lugar? Dili sila masaligan Mahadlok ko sa presensya sa mga dayo Makigstorya ko nila nga adunay kahadlok

91 Laing tubag (sama sa: __________________) 16. (sa mga nagtungha) Unsay impluwensya sa militarisasyon sa imong pag-eskwela? Di nako muskwela Wa nakoy gana makahibalo Naglisod ko ug skwela Naglisod ko musunod ug sugo Laing tubag (sama sa: ____________________) 17. Pili kong asa ka muuyon: Madawat ang pagpatay aron ka mabuhi Madawat ra nga mangawat sa kaubanan aron mabuhi Kinahanglan ko musunod sa mando sa mga sundalo aron dili kasilutan Akong linlangon among tribu aron makadawat ug premyo Laing tubag (sama sa: ____________________) 18. Unsa ang imong mga batasan nga imong nabantayan nga maoy hinungdan sa problema? Sige ko makitag away Sige kog magdepensa sa military ngadto sa akong kaubanan sa tribu Ako gipahibalo sa tanan nga gusto ko muapil sa mga militar Mag-apil-apil ko sa mga hisgotanan dili mahitungod nako Manghagit ko ug away Sige ko ug dala ug hinagiban bisan uban ko ang akong mga higala Laing tubag (sama sa: __________________) 19. Unsa pa nga mga kasinatian ang imong nabantayan kamulo ug human sa militarisasyon? Naa gayud ang panghuna-huna ug paghinumdom sa mga panghitabo Makita pa naku ang mga panghitabo kung akong dumdumon Naa koy bangungot o dili maayong mga damgo Naglibog ko sa kanunay Laing tubag (sama sa: ______________________) 20. Giunsa nimo pag-atubang ang militarisasyon? Naningkamot kong kalimtan ang panghitabo Akong gipaambit ang akong mga kasinatian sa akong mga parente ug higala Moreklamo ko sa kagamhanan mahitungod sa dili tawhanong pagtrato Manimalos ko pinaagi sa pagsulay ug patay sa usa ka sundalo o pagguba sa ilang kampo Laing tubag (sama sa: _________________________) 21. Unsa imong mga pamaagi sa pagbawi sa mga epektong nahatag sa militarisasyon? Dili nako makahuna-huna bahin ana Naningkamot kong mutabang sa uban sa pagbalik ug pagpalig-on sa ilang pagkatawo Nagplano ko ug mga pamaagi sa pagpanimalos alang sa akong mga kaigsoonan Naningkamot ko nga mupadayon sa kinabuhi

92 Laing tubag (sama sa: _____________________) 22. Unsay imong huna-huna na pinakamaayong tubag sa problema sa militarisasyon? Ipaundang sa kagamhanan ang militarisasyon Tudluan ang mga sundalo sa maayong pagtrato sa katawhan Dili tugotan ang mga military sa pagsulod sa yuta sa mga lumad Laing tubag (sama sa: ____________________)

Daghang salamat sa inyong paggahin ug panahon sa pagtubag sa mga pangutana!!!

93 Appendix D PHOTOGRAPHS DURING DATA GATHERING

The Lumads during extraction of gold residue from the river

The respondents in their house together with their children

94

The respondents together with their children

The researcher on an interview with one of the respondents

95 Curriculum Vitae