Bushmeat and food security in the Congo Basin: linkages between wildlife and people's future

by John E Fa, Dominic Currie, Jessica Meeuwig Biological Sciences Entomology Papers
Environmental Conservation (2003) Volume: 30, Issue: 1, Pages: 71-78

ISSN: 14694387 DOI: 10.1017/S0376892903000067

Available from www.journals.cambridge.org or Abstract

Tropical moist forests in Africa are concentrated in the Congo Basin. A variety of animals in these forests, in particular mammals, are hunted for their meat, termed bushmeat. This paper investigates current and future trends of bushmeat protein, and non-bushmeat protein supply, for inhabitants of the main Congo Basin countries. Since most bushmeat is derived from forest mammals, published extraction (E) and production (P) estimates of mammal populations were used to calculate the per person protein supplied by these. Current bushmeat protein supply may range from 30 g person(-1) day(-1) in the Democratic Republic of Congo, to 180 g person(-1) day(-1) in Gabon. Future bushmeat protein supplies were predicted for the next 50 years by employing current E:P ratios, and controlling for known deforestation and population growth rates. At current exploitation rates, bushmeat protein supply would drop 81% in all countries in less than 50 years; only three countries would be able to maintain a protein supply above the recommended daily requirement of 52 g person(-1) day(-1). However, if bushmeat harvests were reduced to a sustainable level, all countries except Gabon would be dramatically affected by the loss of wild protein supply. The dependence on bushmeat protein is emphasized by the fact that four out of the five countries studied do not produce sufficient amounts of non-bushmeat protein to feed their populations. These findings imply that a significant number of forest mammals could become extinct relatively soon, and that protein malnutrition is likely to increase dramatically if food security in the region is not promptly resolved.

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Report a Violation Online What is RAPP? How Can I Help? The Costs of Poaching and Polluting

The Costs of Poaching and Polluting

What are the Costs of Pollution? Whether its the domestic and municipal consumption of goods; manufacturing; industry; construction; or agriculture, nearly everything we do generates some type of waste and many of these waste products require careful storage, treatment, transport and disposal. While pollution from large-scale and catastrophic events gains media and public interest, the cumulative impacts of many smaller, more diffuse actions can be just as serious. Pollution-related investigation Illegal waste disposal of all types, even small business and household-related wastes, can be detrimental to the environment, our economy and, above all, human health. The water we drink, the air we breathe and the foods we eat all come from the environment and the quick-fix solution to someone elses waste disposal problem can haunt us for years to come. What is Poaching? Poaching is the illegal collection or killing of fish, wildlife or native plants. Some common examples include:

taking more fish and game than the law allows; hunting or fishing in a closed area or during a closed season; using prohibited gear or equipment; or the unlawful collection of fish and wildlife, or their parts, for the purpose of trafficking.

Is Poaching a Serious Problem in British Columbia? Some studies estimate that poachers kill as many fish and wildlife as are taken legally. As a result, poachers place natural populations at risk and ruin lawful recreational opportunities for us all. Unfortunately, poachers take more than just game animals. They also kill members of threatened, endangered and non-game species. Even if the wildlife and fish taken by poachers is half the number cited, the problem is serious. Who Are Poachers? Given British Columbias diverse fish and wildlife resources, poaching is carried out by different individuals for different reasons. Generally, poachers are most likely to kill for profit.
Eagle poaching for the purpose of trafficking.

There are eager national and international markets of collectors and consumers who pay outrageous sums for rare trophies and wildlife parts. Whether they operate alone, or as part of organized crime, trophy and commercial poachers think that game laws only matter if they get caught. They kill with no regard for fish and wildlife, habitat or the rights of other resource users. While poaching for commercial gain is a significant problem, the taking of one or a few extra fish or animals, for reasons other than profit, is also a serious issue. While these individuals believe their bending or breaking of the rules has little impact on the overall health of the resource, they choose to ignore the total impact of all such acts.

Yours to enjoy and protect

British Columbias natural environment, including its diverse fish and wildlife, is a priceless heritage that benefits us all. However, if we and our children are to continue to enjoy these benefits, our environment requires careful management and protection. Consider the following facts about our remarkable province:

B.C. is a vast and rugged landscape. It is Canada's third largest province and comprises 9.5 per cent of the country's total land area. The province is nearly four times the size of Great Britain, 2.5 times larger than Japan, and larger than any American state except Alaska. We live in the most biologically rich province or territory in Canada and many fish and wildlife populations in B.C. have global significance. For example, the province has approximately 75 per cent of the world's stone sheep, 60 per cent of the mountain goats, 50 per cent of the blue grouse, at least half of the trumpeter swans and 25 per cent of the grizzly bears and bald eagles. British Columbia has a sizeable and growing population of over 4.2 million people. Between 2001 and 2031 this figure will likely increase by over 36 per cent to nearly 5.5 Courtesy of B.C. Parks million. Currently, with over 360,000 businesses in the province, our population engages in a wide range of economic and recreational activities that impact the environment.

As the pressures on British Columbias natural environment increase, so grows the responsibility and challenge to protect and maintain it. Make a difference - report a violation online or call toll free 1-877-952-7277 (RAPP). Cellular users can dial #7277 on the TELUS Mobility Network.

Definition
Poaching is the illegal hunting, killing or capturing of animals. This can occur in a variety of ways. Poaching can refer to the failure to comply with regulations for legal harvest, resulting in the illegal taking of wildlife that would otherwise be allowable. Examples include: Taking without a license or permit, use of a prohibited weapon or trap, taking outside of the designated time of day or year, and taking of a prohibited sex or life stage. Poaching can also refer to the taking of animals from a gazzetted wildlife sanctuary, such as a national park, game reserve, or zoo. Most countries enforce various sanctions on the hunting of wild animals, and international controls, such as bans, restrictions and monitored trade, are all aimed at controlling poaching. However, it is important to note that hunting, under specific regulations, is in fact often permitted in designated game preserves.

Reasons for poaching

Figure 1. An African lion in Queen Elizabeth National Park. Such animals are hunted because of their meat and also for religious reasons. (Source: Photograph by Magelah Peter G. 2007)

Humans and their ancestors have hunted for over 400,000 years. Historically, hunting has played an important role in leadership, community formation, language development, and tool use. While primitive humans relied largely upon hunting for food, the agricultural revolution (approximately 10,000 years ago) reduced the need for survival hunting in most parts of the world. Hunting has continued, however, for several reasons, and poaching remains a possibility wherever hunting is an important part of the economy or culture. Animal products, such as hide, ivory, horn, teeth and bone, are sold to dealers who make clothes, jewelry and other materials from them. In some African and Latin American societies, animals are poached for game meat. In Congo, for example, wild monkey meat is sold in the open market, and in many parts of North America, white-tailed deer is hunted for food.

Figure 2. King Oyo of Tooro kingdom, Uganda. His seat is covered with leopard skin and his dress is made from a mixture of cloth and backcloth made from the back tree. (Source: Photograph New vision photo)

Some animals have religious value and are used as totems and in witchcraft. For example, among the Banyoro, Baganda and Batooro of West and Central Uganda, the king traditionally sits on a leopard skin. Many tribes in Congo consider leopard skin a symbol of magic, and many witch doctors in the region use these skins to show their powers. Many animals are killed for ceremonial purposes, such as cleansing a bad omen, asking gods for rain, etc. Animals are also believed to be a source of local herbs and have medicinal value. For example, it is believed by some Lendu in Eastern Congo that the lions liver cures skin diseases, and it is also used as a poison. Mbuti pygmies of Western Uganda and Eastern Congo are said to use snake poison on their fighting arrows. Animals in the developing world are also hunted as vermin by communities that leave near forests and game parks. The aim is to kill the animals and stop them from encroaching on farms. Hunting for sport is also practiced in various nations. Though most of it is controlled, illegal sport hunting is common in developing countries. Many sport hunters keep the animals as trophies. No matter the reason why an animal is killed, all types of hunting or poaching have led to extinction of species, and if uncontrolled many more animals will become extinct.

Methods of poaching
Snare wire

These are cable wires of different lengths which are tied on trees to trap animals. The snare is put in such a position that it traps the animal around the neck. The wire strangles the animal as it struggles to free itself. Snares are used by poachers in national parks in Kenya and Tanzania.

Spears and dogs

Figure 3. Hunters with a net wrapped on a stick and a spear on their way to hunting in Masindi District, Western Uganda. (Source: Photograph by Magelah Peter G. 2007)

A more traditional method involves chasing and spearing animals with the assistance of dogs. The dogs disorient the animal and in some cases actually subdue it. A dog may have a bell tied around its necks, which startles the quarry from its hiding place.
Trap nets

The net is spread at one end of an area, and the poachers, sometimes with the assistance of dogs, chase the animals towards it. The animals get trapped in the net, and the poachers spear them.
Pitfalls

Pits are dug to trap large animals such as elephants, buffaloes and zebras. The pits are dug across the path of the animals. The pits are normally covered with grass and trees to disguise them. The animals are normally pushed towards the pit. This is done in two ways: some hunters chase the animals, while others provoke the animals into chasing them. Because the animals are heavier than the plants covering the pit, they will fall in while crossing the pit. It is here that the hunters will come and kill the animal; most of these animals are killed for their ivory, teeth and other products. Normally the hunter takes a very small part of the animal, which is then sold to dealers.

Arrows and bows

Figure 4. Snare-like trap used to trap smaller animals in the Rwenzori region. (Source: Photograph by Magelah Peter G. 2007)

These are normally made out of local forest products. Some hunters such as the Mbuti pygmies of Congo are said to put poison on their arrow tips.
Other traps

Figure 5. Horseshoe-like trap used to trap smaller animals in the Rwenzori region. The trap holds the animal by its leg. (Source: Photograph by Magelah Peter G. 2007)

Poachers use many other traps; most are made with local materials. An example is a snare-like trap used to trap small animals mainly used by communities in the Rwenzori area (Figure 4). The other commonly used trap in the area is a horseshoe-like trap made from iron (Figure 5). The trap is placed on the ground and the animal gets trapped when it steps on it. Many people have been inadvertently injured by poachers' traps. The majority of the casualties are women and children who normally go into the forests to collect firewood, food, and other forest products. Stepping on a trap like the one in Figure 5 can lead to broken legs and even death.

Poaching, extinction and disease

While poaching has various effects, its most direct impact is extinction, either globally or within a given locality. Poaching has also been associated with the spread of disease, both in animals and humans. In Congo, for example, it is believed that the Ebola virus was transmitted to people who fed on monkeys and other primates, who then transmitted the disease to other human beings. In Uganda, the outbreak of Anthrax in early 2000 was associated with people eating or transporting infected animals from Queen Elizabeth National Park.

Case study: Ugandas wildlife reserves

Table 1. Selected animal populations in Uganda, 1960-2003. 198283 199596 19992003 Status in Uganda Population low, but slowly increasing Extinct in Uganda Extinct in Uganda Population increasing slowly Population low, possibly still decreasing Population increasing slowly Population decreasing

Species

1960s

Elephant

30,000 2,000

1,900

2,400

Black rhino

400

150?

White rhino

300

20?

Hippopotamus 26,000 13,000 4,500

5,300

Burchells zebra

10,000 5,500

3,200

2,800

Hartebeest

25,000 18,000 2,600

3,400

Topi

15,000 6,000

600

450

Uganda is rich in wildlife resources. Population Wildlife occur in both protected areas low, may and on ungazetted private lands. There Impala * 19,000 6,000 3,000 now be are four types of wildlife protected increasing areas, and they are classified slowly according to the degree of protection accorded. Uganda has ten national parks, ten wildlife reserves, seven Population Waterbuck 10,000 8,000 3,500 6,000 wildlife sanctuaries and 13 increasing community wildlife areas. The national parks occupy about 11,150 Population square kilometers (km2) or 4.6% of Uganda kob 70,000 40,000 30,000 44,000 increasing the country; wildlife reserves occupy 2 about 8760 km or 3.6%, consisting primarily of grassland with patches of Source: Game Department reports and aerial surveys as dry woodlands and scrubland; and indicated in this report. These are species for which reliable wildlife sanctuaries cover 850 km2 or previous estimates are available, from which to determine 0.35% of the country and are made up trends. Numbers are approximate. of areas of different sizes designed for specific conservation purposes. Several of the sanctuaries have been gazetted to afford particular protection to single species of national or global importance. Community wildlife areas, originally known as controlled hunting areas, occupy about 27,600 km2 or 11.4% of Uganda. Illegal hunting, wars and poaching have reduced most of Ugandas wildlife to near extinction. The majority of the animals are hunted down for the various reasons noted above. As a result of civil wars in the region, many animals have migrated to neighboring countries. At times, these animals stray to settled areas and are killed. Table 1 provides a summary of selected animal populations in Uganda from 1960 to 2003.

Further Reading

Government of Uganda, Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife and Antiquities, 1996. A Draft Organizational Policy Outline. Frome, Michael, 1998. National Parks or Theme Parks? 50th annual banquet of Olympic Park Associates. Seattle, Washington, November 7, 1998. Lamprey, R.H. and F. Michelmore, 1996. Survey of the Wildlife Protected Areas of Uganda. Norgrove, Linda and David Hulme, 2006. Parking Resistance and Resisting the Park: Weapons of the Weak. Confronting Conservation at Mount Elgon, Uganda. University of Manchester. Rwetsiba, Aggrey, 2005. Wildlife population trends in Uganda, 1960 2005. Monitoring and Research Co-ordinator, December 2005. Walker, H. Thayer, 2004. Fight to keep Kenya's wildlife off dinner tables: Poachers are snaring animals in national parks. San Francisco Chronicle. Friday, August 20, 2004.

Citation
Magelah Peter (Lead Author);Sylvio G. Codella, Yahya Eid Ph.D. (Topic Editor) "Poaching". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information

Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth October 5, 2007; Last revised Date May 12, 2011; Retrieved May 12, 2012 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Poaching?topic=49477>

The Author

Magelah Peter Gwayaka is a social science graduate from Makerere University Kampala (Uganda), where he specialized in sociology and psychology. He also holds a diploma in Law from the Law Development Center Kampala (Uganda). In 2008 he acquired a degree in Law, from Makerere University Kampala and in 2009 he did a post graduate in law from Law Development Centre. Since his first degree in 2001, he has been involved in numerous research projects, mainly in the areas of environmental manag ... (Full Bio)

Poaching of Endangered Animals

We would have seen numerous documentaries on how animals are caught mercilessly and are chopped to obtain products from them. Didn't you feel pity for the poor harmless creatures that are killed for man's own gruel? They are killed for food, for clothes, ivory, wool, cosmetics, ornaments, fat etc. recently even I saw a documentary on animal poaching and species. It is really a superbly taken video of a few men who shoot down long spike syringes filled with sleeping dose, while hovering above in a helicopter on a group of polar bears- which are actually a family with mother, father and two children. The parents are struck with the sleeping dose syringe and immediately fall down to sleep. Meanwhile the children clamber over the mother and father puzzled by their sudden collapse. The helicopter lands over the snow and separate the children from parents. The emotional thing that made all the viewers' hearts melt with pity was that the young polar bears refused to leave hold of their parents and clung on to them constantly. Such poor creatures are killed at a vast rate everyday for their fur and wool which will be discarded once it worn out. One of the few helpless animals which are often the victims of

poaching are the rhinos. Though if considered by its size it may be huge and powerful but it is actually meek as a cat when it is caught in the trap made by the poachers. The poachers would first make a deep pit and cover it with strips of mud, bamboo and grass so it camouflages with the ground. It is important for the poachers to learn about the animal and its habits by observing it for a few days. The rhinos always take the same route and drop their dung at the same place. So the poachers dig the pit according to the animal's track. When the animal is trapped, the poachers arrive to the spot and make strong lassos by passing thick strong ropes around the rhino's body. One poacher will lower himself down the pit onto the animal's and hack off its horn with a strong heavy broad bladed knife. The poachers' job is over and they depart, while the rhino stands in the pit, blood flowing from its snout. Soon it is eaten by the scavengers. The exact method by which different animals are poached is given in the book "The Kaziranga Trail' which is written by Arup Dutta. Reading it will make you succumb to tears, as the way by which the animals are killed by the cold-blooded poachers is incredibly ruthless. One of the world's most active organization in saving wildlife and endangered species and climate change etc is the WWF. The original expansion of WWF when it was founded in 1961 was World Wildlife Fund. But as the organization grew and became famous, its expansion changed though its initials remain the same. The new expansion for WWF is- "World Wide Fund for Nature" (except in North America where the old name is retained). The main aims and policies of the WWF are to share our world with the other species living in it too, as not only humans have the living right but that other species have it too. It promotes awareness by highlighting the point that- we humans should not be the cause of their extinction and that we also should learn to live comfortably with the resources available to us without wasting scarce ones. Yes, this is the aim of all other environmental organizations all around the world too. The wildlife can be conserved from extinction and further endangerment by perpetuation (Artificial Breeding of species by setting artificial habitat and living conditions.) of rare species of plants and animals. Wildlife can be preserved and saved from extinction by building sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves etc. An animal sanctuary is a facility where animals are brought to live and be protected for the rest of their lives. It is protected area where no tribes or unauthorized people or people without permission to visit the sanctuary are allowed. A national park is a protected area where no humans or tribals are allowed without authorization of forest department. Visitors must be accompanied by forest officials if they want to look around. Researchers may conduct research without killing of any animal and are allowed in ONLY with permission. A biosphere reserve is a very large stretch of highly guarded area, which is divided into 3 regions or zones--- The Core zone, The Buffer zone and The Outer zone. NOBODY is allowed in the Core zone not even forest officials or researches. It is a very pristine area, just resembling a forest. As a matter-of-fact, it IS a forest. In the buffer zone only researchers and forest officials are allowed and the visitors are allowed with permission.

Whereas in the outer zone, the tribals are allowed to live and cultivate their land. Deforestation is strictly prohibited. Sorry, have I bored you too much? If so, let us have some fun and read some interesting facts about our earth's wildlife.

Polar bears are left handed! A crocodile often swallows stones to stay underwater! A bird KAGU barks like dog! A giraffe can see its back without turning its back! A camel can see with its eyes closed. A bird- cuckoo never builds nest! Bats always turn left when exiting a cave. They are the only mammals that can fly. An average beaver can cut down 200 trees a year! Egg laying mammals are the Anteater and the Duckbilled platypus. The bird with the largest wingspan in the Albatross which has wingspan between 3 - 3.5 meters from one wingtip to the other! The largest living insects are the Goliath Beetles, weighing about 100 Gms and the Titan beetle which is about 15 cms long. Peacocks raise their feathers to attract peahens for the purpose of mating!!!! Sometimes it is also said that when the peacocks raise their feathers, it will rain.

Such a wonderful nature. It is really obvious that the Wildlife Kingdom is one of the most fascinating fields of science to explore! The above 12 facts not even form one percent of the total facts of the Wildlife kingdom itself. One of the unpenetratable places in the earth where the man has yet never set out to explore is the Amazon Forest. The Amazon Rainforest is located in the upper section of Brazil south of the Equator. It is a very thick and dense forest and contains 6% of the worlds' species which have not yet been discovered by man. It is a habitat to numerous and dangerous species. It gets rainfall only in certain months of a year. Now I would like to present my prize winning letter-To: The People of the World 13, Asia, World Universe From: The Biggest Mammal Mariana Trench Pacific Ocean SUBJECT: Save the Whale!

Poaching of Endangered Animals

World: I, the biggest mammal, plead you Though I am so large and huge in size, I do no harm. But you are as tiny as an ant, but do so much harm that you kill and use each and every part of my body for your necessaries and necessities. You are indeed clever and witty However not in one aspect; Now-a-days I and my friends can be counted in fingers. Very few of us are existing. Long before early men arrived, when I and my friends were young, we used to come out to the shore and play, enjoy the cool breeze, rain and sunlight. We really used to have no fear to come out, as we had no enemies, neither in land nor in water. All the animals and the birds were friendly with each other. One day as usual when we were out for playing, we saw a strange

creature walking. He could no less be differentiated from the ape and monkey. After a few years, we saw a 'glowing smoke producing thing' running over the forest tree tops, faster than a cheetah- FIRE. This was the man's first weapon and invention to kill us animals. This was the start of man's cruelty towards the kind 'Mother nature'. We had a friend the leopard - Leo. He was a kind and nice fellow. But just after a few years after the arrival of the early men, my dear friend Leo was killed. Man makes use of each and every thing available as a weapon-even mere stones. The killing of Leo was indeed the first depression that entered our lives. As soon as man arrived, he grew a seed to a plant of evil, which let to the branches of ego, jealousy and sorrow to the leaves of murder, killing, cruelty, revenge and this is truly endless. You have caused so much depression to us by killing my parents, relatives and friends ruthlessly. But just think have I ever thought of a single revenge or conspiracy towards you in spite of all this damage? Have I? NO! But yet you kill me mercilessly, use my fat, skin and bones, flesh till nothing is left. Please do think of my welfare WHAT have I done to you to deserve this pain? Any harm? Trouble? Do you now realize what you are doing is injustice and unmerciful? Before concluding, I would like to give you a request. Think yourself in my position and then imagine how painful would it be for mecasting spikes, knives and pokers all over my body; piercing me and killing me in such a manner? IS IT NOT FAIR? Though you have launched various campaigns, organizations of activities, programs etcall of you really do this to get trophies and to add certificates to your collection. It doesn't help me in any manner. Please have mercy and save this poor creature from the next step-Extinction. All lies on your hands