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Blackbody Simulation: The blackbody simulation is basically shows the blackbody radiation curve graph at different temperatures.

The graph is energy density (yaxis, how much energy the blackbody radiates) vs Wavelength(xaxis, different wavelengths at which the blackbody radiates energy.) From the curve it can be seen that blackbodies emit energy at every wavelength (the xaxis is the asymptote.) The curve also shows the wavelength at which the blackbody emits the most energy (peak wavelength). All these things change if the temperature is changed. If you increase temp, peak wavelength gets shorter(shifts towards UV from infra red, it goes from red to purple.). Increasing the temp also increases the total energy emitted by the blackbody NOTE: the area under the curve gives how much TOTAL energy is emitted! Photoelectric Simulation:
The photoelectric simulation is showing the effect of different wavelengths of light on different types of metals in terms of releasing electrons. From the simulation it can be noted that different metals require different wavelengths of photons for the electrons to be released. If the photons are emitted at the threshold frequency then current is produced. Increasing the intensity will result in an increase in current provided that the photons are being emitted at the threshold frequency. Sodium: Threshold wavelength ~538 NM Threshold Frequency ~6*10^15Hz

Photoelectric Graph: The photoelectric graph Ekmax v.s Fincident photons Ekmax= hf + (-w)/y=mx+b Ekmax is maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons hf is the energy of the incident photon W is the work function (minimum energy required to remove electron from metal surface)

Note: The gradient is used to find Plancks constant.

Faradays Electromagnetic Lab: The bar magnet basically shows that North Pole attracts South Pole and vice-versa. It also shows that the magnetic field goes from North Pole to South Pole and that increasing the strength of the magnet increases the strength of its magnetic field. Pick up coil shows that when a magnet enters a coil current is induced at that instance. Whilst the magnet is inside the coil no current is produced. When the magnet is removed from the coil current is again produced, this time in the opposite direction. This is all due to the change in magnetic flux. Note: Increasing both the loop area and number of loops allows more flux to be passed through hence more current is generated. However the more coils there are the harder it gets to remove the magnet (eddy currents.) The electromagnet shows that when a coil is attached to a power supply a magnetic field is created around it (the magnetic field is created in accordance to the right hand grip rule.) Changing the polarity of the power supply changes the direction of the

magnetic field thus if the power supply is an AC power supply magnetic field will constantly be changing. The transformer shows an electromagnet and a secondary coil connected to a galvanometer/light bulb. When using a DC power supply for the electromagnet; when the electromagnet enters the secondary coil a current is induced in the secondary coil, when the electromagnet is stationary in the secondary coil no current is produced in the secondary coil, when the electromagnet is being withdrawn from the secondary coil, current is induced in the secondary coil in the opposite direction. Note: If the polarity of the electromagnet is changed whilst inside/very close to the secondary coil current is generated in the secondary coil (change of magnetic flux.) Therefore if an AC power supply is attached to the electromagnet current will constantly be induced in the secondary coil. Increasing both the loop area and number of loops allows more flux to be passed through hence more current is generated. However the more coils there are the harder it gets to remove the magnet (eddy currents.) The generator shows a bar magnet on a turbine next to a coil which is connect to a light bulb/galvanometer. When the tap is turned on the bar magnet starts spinning, this results in a change of magnetic flux around the coil hence constantly inducing a current in the coil. By increasing the rpm on the turbine the magnet flux changes at a faster rate hence inducing more current. Decreasing the turbine strength means that the turbine moves slower and hence less current is induced. Note: Since the turbine is moving 360 current is induced in both directions. Increasing both the loop area and number of loops allows more flux to be passed through hence more current is generated. However the more coils there are the harder it gets for the magnet to move (eddy currents.)

The Motor Effect:


Aim: To observe the direction of force on a current carrying conductor in an external magnetic field. Apparatus : Variable DC power supply Variable Resistor Connecting Wires Retort Stand Clamp Two pieces of card board Switch Horseshoe magnet Two drawing pins Aluminium Strip

Method: 1. Pin the foil strip between the pieces of card. Rest one card on the bench-top and support the other with the clamp and retort stand. 2. Set up apparatus as show in diagram 3. Position the horseshoe magnet so that the aluminium strip is between the poles (note the position of the poles and the direction of the current through the strip when the switch is turned off) 4. Set the DC power supply to lowest voltage and turn on. 5. Briefly close the switch and record the movement of the foil. 6. Switch the magnets so that the poles are opposite to how they were originally (causing the magnetic field to be in the opposite direction) and turn on the switch. 7. Repeat step 5. Analysis: 1. Did the strip experience a force when a current flowed? Yes 2. The aluminium foil moved in accordance to the right-hand push rule.

Force Between Two Parallel Current-Carrying Conductors:


Aim: To observe the direction of forces between two parallel current-carrying conductors. Apparatus: Variable DC power supply Variable Resistor Connecting Wires Retort Stand Clamp Two pieces of card board Switch Four drawing pins Two Aluminium strips

Method: 1. Pin each foil strip between the pieces of card so that they are parallel when the top card is supported by the retort stand and clamp. 2. Set up apparatus as shown in the diagram (a) to produce currents in each foil flowing in opposite directions. 3. Set the power pack on its lowest voltage and turn it on. 4. Briefly close the switch and record the observations 5. Set up apparatus as shown in the diagram (a) to produce currents in each foil flowing in the same direction. 6. Repeat step 5

Analysis: When the current was travelling through each aluminium foil in the opposite direction the aluminium foils repelled each other. However when the current travelling through each aluminium foil was in the same direction the aluminium foils was attracted to each other.

Model DC Motor:
Aim: To build a model DC motor Apparatus: DC power supply Two magnets Thin insulated copper wire Two cylindrical corks, one thin and the other thick Aluminium foil Double sided aluminium Adhesive tape 5 bamboo skewers Rectangular polystyrene block

Method: 1. Push one of the skewers through the centre of both the corks as seen in the diagram 2. Stick two pieces of the double sided adhesive tape onto the thin cork leaving a gap (they will be the split ring commutators) 3. Wrap the copper wire around the thick cork approximately 50 times as shown in diagram (making two ends of the wire). 4. Stick each end of the wire to the foil strip (commutator) 5. Make sure that the centre of the commutator (between the strips) lies in line with the centre of the coil windings. 6. Push the skewers into the polystyrene block as shown in diagram. 7. Position the two magnets on the opposite sides of the coils as shown in the diagram. 8. Connect the wires to the DC power supply and allow each wire to touch on of the foil strips. 9. Turn on the power supply. 10. Give the motor a small turn. 11. Record results.

Analysis: 1. Describe the effect of varying the spacing of the magnets on the speed of rotation of the amature. When the magnets are moved further away from the coil the armature slows down as the magnetic field will become weaker, when the magnets are move closer to the coil the armature increases in speed as the magnetic field becomes stronger. 2. Describe two methods for reversing the direction the amarture. a. By swapping the magnets around (changing their polarity.) b. Changing the direction of current. 3. Identify the role of the coil and the magnet.

a. The magnets acted as the stator. The magnets create the magnetic field which will interact with the current. b. The coil conducted electricity which allows current to pass through the magnet field.

Inducing Current in a Coiled Conductor:


Aim: (a) To study ways of inducing a current in a coiled conductor. (b) To study factors affecting the size of the induced current. Apparatus: Galvonometer Two coils (with different number of turns) Iron core that fits in the coil Connecting wires.

Theory: This experiment will reproduce some of Faradays experiments. Modern galvanometers are much more sensitive than what was available to Faraday. Method: 1. Connect the coil with the fewest number of turns to the galvanometer. Push the north end of the magnet into the coil. Record what happens. 2. Hold the magnet stationary near the coil. Record what happens. 3. Withdraw the N pole from the coil. Record what happens. 4. Repeat steps 1-3 at different speeds. Record what happens each time. 5. Hold the magnet stationary and move the coil in different directions. Move the coil so that first one end and then the other approach the magnet. 6. Place the iron core in the coil and touch it with the N pole. Remove the magnet. Record what happens. Analysis: 1) Relate your results to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. The induced emf in a circuit is equal in magnitude to the rate at which the magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with time. (i) When the north pole is brought near to the coil the galvanometer momentarily moves to the right (showing that at current was induced.) (ii) While the magnet is stationary near the coil no current is induced. (iii) As the magnet gets pulled away from the coil a current is induced in the opposite direction to (i). (iv) A slow moving magnet induces a small current whereas a fast moving magnet induces a larger current. (v) By placing an iron core in the coil, the magnetic field strength of the electromagnet increases drastically and thus an increase in current.

Linking Coils:
Aim: To see if the magnetic field of a current-carrying coil can induce a current in another coil. Apparatus: Galvanometer. Two coils (each with different number of turns in the wire.) One coil should be able to fit into the other. An iron core that fits into the smaller coil. A 10ohm resistor Power Supply Connecting Wires

Theory: A current flowing in a coil will create a magnetic field that threads the second coil. When there is a change in the magnetic field threading in the second coil, emf will be produced in that coil. Method: 1. 2. 3. 4. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram, set the power supply to 2v Close the switch, observe and record the readings on the galvanometer. Open the switch, observe and record the readings on the galvanometer. Put an iron core in the smaller coil and repeat steps 2 & 3.

Analysis: Relate your results to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. The induced emf in a circuit is equal in magnitude to the rate at which the magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with time. The change in magnetic field caused from one coil (when the switch is turned on/off) induces a current in the other coil hence showing Faradays law to be true. Questions: 1) When was current induced in the secondary coil? a) When the switch on the primary coil was turned on/off. 2) What happened when a steady current was flowing in the primary coil? a) There was no current induced in the secondary coil and the galvanometer went to 0. 3) What effect did the iron core have on the induced current? a) The magnetic field created increased in strength significantly hence increasing the reading on the galvanometer.

Discharge Tubes:
Aim: To observe the effect that different gas pressures have on an electric discharge passed through a discharge tube. Apparatus: Power Pack Two plug, plug lead One set of discharge tubes Induction coil Two plug clip leads

Theory: The high voltage produced by the induction coil is applied across the terminals inside the discharge tubes. The cathode becomes highly negative and releases a ray (cathode ray/electrons.) The electrons pass through the gas in the tube and excite the electrons in the atom of the gas (air.) The pressure of gas determines the density of the atoms and therefore the nature of the collisions that take place between the electrons and the atoms. Therefore, different discharge effects can be noted under different pressures. Method: 1) Attach the induction coil to the power pack using the two plug-plug leads. Adjust the points on the induction coil to obtain a continuous spark from the coil. Switch off the power pack. 2) Set the power pack at 6 volts and turn it on. 3) Attach the negative terminal of the induction coil to the cathode of the discharge tube marked with the highest pressure (40mmHg) and attach the positive terminal to the other end as shown in the diagram. 4) Record pattern seen in discharge tube. 5) Repeat steps 1-4, each time changing the discharge tube to one with a different pressure. Pressures are : 40mmHg, 10mmHg, 6mmHg, 3mmHg.

Questions: 1) What effects were common throughout all the tubes? a) A luminous light is created in all of them at anode. 2) Explain the occurence of different striations in different discharge tubes. a) At low pressure, electrons accelerate faster speeds until colliding with gas particles, hence why there are less striations. Thus with higher pressure there are more striations.

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