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DEN4001

Engineering Materials in Design

Dr Steve Dunn
s.c.dunn@qmul.ac.uk

Dr Haixue Yan
h.x.yan@qmul.ac.uk SEMS

SEMS

Composites essential in aviation, automotive and health care...

Have you met a composite today?


1. Yes 2. No
50% 50%

Composite
Combination of two or more individual materials

Design goal: obtain a more desirable combination of properties (principle of combined action)
e.g., low density and high strength

Which of these is NOT a composite?


14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14%

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Concrete Hip replacement Suspension arm from racing car Tooth filling Bone Car tyre Reinforced concrete

What is important?

Pivotal Questions: - What are composite materials? - How are they made?

Composites historical to now

Bricks dating from antiquity are fiber-reinforced composites with straw fibers aligned in a clay matrix Rebar-reinforced concrete used in modern bridges and other construction applications represent a medium technology application Carbon fiber-reinforced composites used in military and aerospace applications represent the cutting edge Ceramic composites in health care and bioengineering applications

Composites

Terminology/Classification
Composite:

-- Multiphase material that is artificially made.


Phase types:

-- Matrix - is continuous -- Dispersed - is discontinuous and surrounded by matrix

In a car tyre the matrix is the..


1. Elastomer 2. Carbon black
50% 50%

Terminology/Classification
Matrix phase:

-- Purposes are to:


- transfer stress to dispersed phase - protect dispersed phase from environment

-- Types:

MMC, CMC, PMC ceramic

0.5 mm

metal
Dispersed phase:

polymer

-- Purpose:

MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist. CMC: increase KIc PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.

0.5 mm

-- Types: particle, fiber, structural

Classification of Composites

Classification: Particle-Reinforced (i)


Particle-reinforced Examples: - Spheroidite matrix: ferrite (a) steel
(ductile)

Fiber-reinforced

Structural
particles: cementite (Fe C) 3 (brittle)

60 mm

- WC/Co cemented carbide

matrix: cobalt (ductile, tough) : 600 mm

particles: WC (brittle, hard)

- Automobile matrix: tire rubber rubber

(compliant)
0.75 mm

particles: carbon black (stiff)

Classification: Particle-Reinforced (ii)


Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Concrete gravel + sand + cement + water - Why sand and gravel? Sand fills voids between gravel particles Reinforced concrete Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh - increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Prestressed concrete - Rebar/remesh placed under tension during setting of concrete - Release of tension after setting places concrete in a state of compression - To fracture concrete, applied tensile stress must exceed this compressive stress
Posttensioning tighten nuts to place concrete under compression threaded rod nut

Classification: Particle-Reinforced (iii)


Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:

-- two rule of mixture extremes:


upper limit: Ec = Vm Em + Vp Ep
E(GPa) 350 Data: Cu matrix 30 0 w/tungsten 250 particles 20 0 150 0 20 40 60 80

lower limit: 1 Vm Vp = + Ec Em Ep
10 0 vol% tungsten

Adapted from Fig. 16.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 16.3 is from R.H. Krock, ASTM Proc, Vol. 63, 1963.)

(Cu) Application to other properties:

(W)

-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace Es in equations with ses. -- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace Es in equations with ks.

Classification: Particle-Reinforced (iii)


Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:

-- two rule of mixture extremes:


upper limit: Ec = Vm Em + Vp Ep
E(GPa) 350 Data: Cu matrix 30 0 w/tungsten 250 particles 20 0 150 0 20 40 60 80

lower limit: 1 Vm Vp = + Ec Em Ep
10 0 vol% tungsten

Adapted from Fig. 16.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 16.3 is from R.H. Krock, ASTM Proc, Vol. 63, 1963.)

(Cu) Application to other properties:

(W)

-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace Es in equations with ses. -- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace Es in equations with ks.

Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (ii)


Particle-reinforced
Fiber Types

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Whiskers - thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratios graphite, silicon nitride, silicon carbide high crystal perfection extremely strong, strongest known very expensive and difficult to disperse Fibers polycrystalline or amorphous generally polymers or ceramics Ex: alumina, aramid, E-glass, boron, UHMWPE Wires metals steel, molybdenum, tungsten

Longitudinal direction

Fiber Alignment
Adapted from Fig. 16.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Transverse direction

aligned continuous

aligned random discontinuous


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Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (iii)


Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Aligned Continuous fibers Examples:
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo) matrix: a (Mo) (ductile)
by eutectic solidification.

Structural

-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers


formed by glass slurry Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.

(a)

fracture surface
.

2 mm

fibers: g (Ni3Al) (brittle)

(b)

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Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (iv)


Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Discontinuous fibers, random in 2 dimensions Example: Carbon-Carbon
-- fabrication process: - carbon fibers embedded in polymer resin matrix, - polymer resin pyrolyzed at up to 2500C. -- uses: disk brakes, gas turbine exhaust flaps, missile nose cones.

(b)

Structural
C fibers: very stiff very strong

C matrix: less stiff view onto plane less strong 500 mm fibers lie in plane

(a)

Other possibilities:
-- Discontinuous, random 3D -- Discontinuous, aligned
Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,

20

Classification: Fiber-Reinforced (v)


Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber ultimate tensile strength

sf d fiber length 2tc

fiber diameter shear strength of fiber-matrix interface

Ex: For fiberglass, common fiber length > 15 mm needed For longer fibers, stress transference from matrix is more efficient
Short, thick fibers:

sd fiber length f 2tc

Long, thin fibers:

sd fiber length f 2tc

Low fiber efficiency

High fiber efficiency


21

Composites fibre pull out

The previous analysis assumes high-quality bonding between the fibre and matrix
When the bonding is less strong, the bonds between the fibre and matrix break, resulting in fiber pull out The load cannot be transferred and the matrix behaves as if it were not reinforced at all

Composites amount of fibre

The amount of fibre impacts both performance and cost


More fibre leads to stronger composites, but the cost of fibre is usually much greater than the cost of the matrix Above 80% fibre, there is not enough matrix material to completely surround and bond with the fibre to transfer the load Most fibre reinforced composites contain between 35-50% fibre by volume

Composites impact of orientation

Fibres aligned along a single axis in almost perfect alignment


Composite is much stronger in the longitudinal direction than the transverse

Composites chopped fibres

The random orientation of small chopped fibres provides essentially isotropic properties in all directions Because the fibres are smaller and only a fraction are oriented in any specific direction, they are much less strong than uniaxial composites

Composites mats

Two- and three-dimensional woven mats allow for high strength in more than one direction The more complicated weave pattern results in far more expensive composites

Composites manufacture

Commercial fiber-reinforced composites are produced through a variety of techniques including: Resin Formulation Pultrusion Wet-Filament Winding Resin Transfer Molding Prepregging

Composites resin formulation

The simplest production strategy Bits of chopped fiber and poured or blown into the matrix material (often already in the desired mould) Curing agents, accelerators, diluents, fillers, and pigments are added as well

The matrix material hardens into the shape of the mold

Composites pultrusion

Composites pultrusion

Large numbers of single strands are wound in parallel to form a roving Many rovings are connected into a device called a creel that lets fibers to be pulled together Fibers are coated with matrix material and are cured in a heated die then cut into shape

Composites wet filament winding

Composites wet filament winding

Continuous fibres from rovings are pulled through a resin impregnation bath then wound into the desired shape When enough wet filaments are wound around the part, it is taken to a curing oven to complete a composite of the desired shape

Composites resin transfer moulding

Composites resin transfer moulding

Woven fibre mats are placed into a space between the top and bottom mold Resin is injected through the top cavity under sufficient pressure to ensure that it penetrates and surrounds the mat The molds are cured using heat and pressure to create a composite part in the shape of the mold

Composites pre-pegging

Composites pre-pegging

Fibres are passed through an impregnation bath that coats them with small quantities of resin They are then passed through a furnace and heated slightly to ensure that the resin sticks to the fibre The resulting coated fibres (prepreg) can be used later to form composites

Composites selection of fibre material

Most important properties are specific strength, cost, and ability to bond with the matrix Specific strength is tensile strength divided by density Ceramic fibers tend to be strong and stiff, but dense Glass fibers offer chemical resistance and blend of properties but are easily broken during processing Metals are strong but are also heavy High performance polymers are strong and light, but have trouble withstanding compressive forces

Composites selection of fibre material

Composites selection of resin material

Polyester Resins - most common and economical resin Isophthalic Polyester Resins used when water resistance is needed Epoxy Resins more expensive but provide improved mechanical properties and exceptional environmental resistance Vinyl Ester Resins compromise between the economic advantages of polyester and the properties of epoxy Phenolic Resins Poor mechanical properties but excellent fire resistance Polyimide Resins expensive and used only for high-end applications such as missiles and military aircraft

Composites alternative matrix materials

Metal Matrix Composites (often using aluminum) offer: High strength Excellent environmental resistance (including the fact that they do not burn) Greater thermal conductivity and abrasion resistance Ceramic Matrix Composites offer: Increased fracture toughness Ability to withstand extremely high temperatures Corrosion resistance

Composites particulate materials

Are less strong than fiber-reinforced but far less expensive and much easier to manufacture Contain a large number of randomly oriented particles called aggregate that help the composite withstand compressive loads Tend to be isotropic and are free from orientation issues Include the most important commercial composite concrete (a blend of gravel and Portland Cement)

Composites - concrete

Technically, a generic term but now used almost exclusively for Portland Cement-based concrete First use dates back to 1756 More than six billion tons produced each year Contains Portland Cement, aggregate, water (to induce hydration reactions), and admixtures (additives designed to alter specific properties)

Composites - laminar

Consists of alternating layers of two-dimensional materials with an anisotropic orientation that are connected together by layers of matrix materials

Most common commercial laminar composite is Plywood, layers of wood veneers bonded together by adhesives
Plywood is more resistant to shrinking and warping than regular wood because of crossbanding, in which the grain of each layer is 90 offset from the previous layer

Composites laminar, other commercial

Snow Skis originally produced from layers of fiberglass and wood, but now made from a complex blend of layers of sintered polyethylene, steel, rubber, carbon, fiberglass, and wool)

Tire Rubber 28% carbon black in a polyisobutylene matrix

Composites sandwich type structures

Used to increase strength with little weight (often in aerospace applications) Strong titanium or aluminum face sheets are separated by a low density material in the honeycomb structure shown on the right In simple applications, the honeycomb can be made of cardboard, but highperformance polymers are used for higher-end applications

Who is interested in Engineering?


50% 50%

1. Yes 2. No

Who is interested in high tech or innovative Engineering?


50% 50%

1. Yes 2. No

Who has followed up on the space shuttle failure?


25% 25% 25% 25%

1. 2. 3. 4.

Yes No It is not important to me Why would I do that

Summary....

What are the important things from today....

You decide...

Composites

Much like metal alloys, composites blend two or more material together to form a new material with different properties than either parent
Unlike alloys, each parent material in a composite continues to exist in a distinct phase Four classes of composites: Fiber-reinforced Particulate Laminar Hybrid

Fibre reinforced - Composites

Consist of two phases: Fibres and Matrix Fibres: Strong and stiff Designed to withstand the tensile load Carbon, glass, steel, high-performance polymers, glass, titanium and tungsten are common fiber types Matrix Surrounds and orients the fiber Protects fibers from environment and transfers load Polyester and epoxy resins are common matrix materials

Composites properties of fibre reinforced

Strong fibres are selected for tensile loads


The ability of the matrix to transfer load to the fibres is an essential factor in composite properties The ability to transfer load is a function of the bonding between the fibre and matrix, which is impacted by: Size of the fibre Orientation of the fibre Surface chemistry of the fibre Amount of voids present Level of curing

Composites anisotropy

Composite properties are very different in the direction in which the fibres are aligned (the longitudinal direction) than they are in the direction perpendicular to the fibers (the transverse direction)
Aligned fibres all contribute to handling a longitudinal load, but contribute almost nothing to handling a transverse load Composite with randomly oriented fibers are isotropic, but the majority of fibres provide little benefit to any specific load direction

Composites length and diameter

Fibres can be any length from a few millimeters to several kilometers in the case of continuous monofilaments
Long fibres support loads more efficiently than shorter fibres because there are fewer ends Typical diameters for reinforcing fibres range from 7 to 150 mm (human hair ~ 80 mm) Thinner fibres tend to be stronger because their reduced surface area makes them less susceptible to surface defects

Composites aspect ratio

Aspect Ratio is the ratio of fibre length to diameter (l/d)


Large aspect ratios result in stronger composites, but they are more difficult to orient and are often limited by the size of the composite itself Designers define a critical length (lc) above which the fibre behaves roughly as if it were infinitely long lc = sfd/2ti where sf is the tensile strength of the fibre, d is the fibre diameter, and ti is an empirical constant called the wet out that relates to the quality of bonding between the fibre and matrix

Composites rules of mixtures

For many properties, a simple mixing rule based on volume fractions (f) applies.
In such cases ff + fm + fv = 1 where ff is the volume fraction of fibers fm is the volume fraction of matrix fv is the volume fraction on voids

Composites some properties apply well

Density: rc = rfff + rmfm


Thermal conductivity: kc = kfff + kmfm

Electrical conductivity: sc = sfff + smfm

Composites behaviour under stress

If the quality of bonding between the fibre and matrix is sufficient, they elongate at the same rate under stress and experience the same strain (an isostrain condition) The strain behavior is often more complex because the fibres were selected because they have a much higher yield strength than the matrix When the yield strength of the matrix is exceeded, it begins to experience plastic deformation while the fibres remain in elastic stretching Load is passed to the fibres and the composite does not fail at stresses that would destroy the matrix

Questions

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