Biology

The Circulatory System

Animals need a circulatory system in order to transport food, such as glucose, and oxygen to all cells of the body and to remove waste products, such as carbon dioxide and urea from all cells. Th blood passes through the heart twice during one complete circuit. This is known as a double circulation. Circulation through the lungs is called the pulmonary circulation. Circulation through the rest of the body is called the systemic circulation.

Blood Vessels Blood pumped by the heart travels all around the body in the blood vessels. There are three main types of blood vessels : Arteries- carries blood away from the heart. Very thick walls and small diameter as there is a lot of pressure from the heart. Veins- carries blood towards the heart, looks blue as it is deoxygenated close to the surface of the skin. Capillaries- small vessels which branch off of arteries and veins and sends blood to various places. Diffusion and exchange of nutrients/waste happens here. Structure of the heart The heart is a muscular pump and is made of cardiac muscle. It is divided into 4 chambers. The top two, called the atria are relatively thin walled because they pump blood into the arteries. The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle.

Q1. Explain why the wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle. Because the right ventricle elads to the lungs which cant deal with a lot of blood pressure due to thin capillaries that may burst. The left side of the heart deals with oxygenated blood. The right side of the heart deals with deoxygenated blood. The two bloods DO NOT mix.

Pumping the blood Although the two sides of the heart are separated by the septum, they work together Blood enters the atria from the veins. The walls of the atria contract and send the blood into the arteries. Blood is prevented from flowing in the wrong direction by valves; the bicuspid, tricuspid, and two semilunar valves.

Valves

The bicuspid valve is found between the left atrium and the left ventricle. The tricuspid valve is found between the right atrium and the right ventricle. The semi lunar valves are found between the ventricles and the pulmonary artery and the aorta. Valves keep the blood flowing in one direction only. Tendons prevent the valves from inverting.

The coronary arteries The heart needs a supply of glucose and oxygen for muscle cells to respire and this is supplied by the coronary arteries which cover the surface of the heart. If these arteries become blocked with fatty deposits then glucose and oxygen cannot reach the heart muscle and the person may suffer a heart attack.

Heart beat and pulse rate The heart contracts (beats) approximately 70 times a minute. Each time the heart contracts it sets up a wave of pressure which travels along the main arteries. This is called a pulse wave. During exercise the rate at which the heart beats increases as it pumps more blood to tissues. The speed at which a persons heart rate returns to normal gives an indication of that persons fitness; the fitter the person, the quicker the return to a normal heart rate.

Q2. Explain why the heart beats faster during exercise. More oxygen needs to be sent around the body as more is being used up, and the heart contracts faster to send out blood containing oxygen and glucose. Muscles are respiring faster. Structure, Function and Adaptations of the Heart. Humans possess a double circulatory system. Blood passes through the heart twice for each trip around the body. Blood is first of all pumped to the lungs where it becomes oxygenated and finally it returns to the heart to be pumped around the body. Why are the walls of the atria thinner than the walls of the ventricles? The ventricles have to pump blood around the whole body, while the artia only collect and pass on the blood. What is the main function of the valves? The keep the blood flowing in one direction only. (The right direction) What is the function of the tendons holding the valves in place? They prevent the valves from inverting.

Why do the walls of the aorta need to be thicker than the pulmonary artery? The aorta sends blood under high pressure around the whole body while the pulmonary artery only sends it to the lungs where capillaries burst with too much pressure. The flow of blood through the heart 1. The heart muscles are relaxed 2. The atria fill with blood 3. The muscles of the atria contract 4. The increased pressure in the atria opens the tricuspid and bicuspid valves. 5. Blood is forced into the ventricles 6. The muscles of the ventricles contract 7. The increased blood pressure in the ventricles closes the tricuspid and bicuspid valves an forces the blood past the semi-lunar valves which are forced open. 8. Blood is pumped into the aorta and pulmonary artery 9. The ventricles relax 10. The semi-lunar valves close Hole in the heart babies These have a hole in the septum between the right and left sides of the heart. Therefore oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mixes and less oxygen is pumped around the body. This results in the tiredness, and a lack of energy.

Working of the semi-lunar valves The valves are forced open by the pressure of the blood flowing through. The valves consist of pockets which are pushed flat against the artery walls when the blood flows one way. If the blood tries to flow the other way, the pockets fill up and meet in the middle to stop the flow of blood. They dont have tendons, unlike the bicuspid and tricuspid valves.

The heart and circulation The heart is made up of cardiac muscle. The valves and tendons keep the blood flowing in the right direction The heart strings (tendons) prevent the valves from inverting. The walls of the ventricles are thicker than the walls of the atria because the atria merely collect and pass on the blood while the ventricles have to have the strength to push the blood around the whole body

The left ventricle has the thickest wall because it pushes blood around the whole body . The blood passing through the right side of the heart is deoxygenated because it has transferred the oxygen to the various parts of the body and is being sent to the lungs to be re-oxygenated. Continuation of Heart and Circulation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs The left atrium is the first chamber to receive oxygenated blood from the lungs. The wall of the aorta is thicker than that of the pulmonary aretery because the aorta sends blood at high pressure around the whole body while the pulmonary artery sends blood to the lungs that have capillaries that could burst with too much pressure. The blood in the pulmonary artery differs from the blood in the pulmonary vein by The artery has oxygenated blood while the vein has deoxygenated blood. The vein blood goes into the heart and the blood in the artery comes out of the heart The blood in the artery has a lot of pressure while the blood in the vein has no pressure. The arteries running over the surface of the heart the coronary arteries supply the heart with glucose and oxygen. The problems that a hole in the heart can cause are tiredness and lack of energy.

Arteries Thick layer of muscle and elastic fibres. Lumen through which the blood flows. Carry blood away from the heart to organs and tissues. Blood is at high pressure. Have a pulse because the vessel walls expand and relax as blood spurts from the heart. Have thick walls and a small lumen to withstand the pressure of the blood. Do not have valves; force of the heart beat keeps the blood flowing away from the heart. Arteries divide to form small arterioles. Veins Thin layer of muscle and elastic fibres. Return blood to the heart from organs and tissures. Blood is at low pressure. Body muscles squeeze the veins to help push the blood to the heart. Do not have a pulse Have thin walls and large lumens, reducing resistance to flow of blood returning to the heart. One-way valves inside the veins prevent blood flowing backwards. Veins divide to form smaller venules. Capillaries : Exhange of Material Blood in the artery carries glucose and oxygen under pressure from the heart. The artery branches off into arterioles which eventually lead to the capillaries. The pressure forces plasma out of the blood forming tissue fluid. This fluid carries dissolved glucose and osygen which diffuse into all body cells.This enables the cells to carry out respiration. The waste products from cells (such as carbon dioxide and urea) diffuse into the tissue fluid.

Some tissue fluid returns with waste products to the blood. Extra tissue fluid drains into lymph vessels. These lymph vessels carry lymph to the neck region, where it joins the blood.

Questions. 1. Why must capillaries be permeable? So that substances can diffuse through them. 2. Name 3 ways in which capillaries allow efficient exchange of materials? The capillary walls are narrow therefore slowing down the speed of the white blood cells allowing easy diffusion. The are permeable to let substances diffuse efficiently. They are only one cell thick. The heart and circulation 1. The pulmonary artery enters the lungs. 2. Oxygen is added to the blood in the lungs 3. The aorta carries oxygenated blood all round the body from the heart. 4. The hepatic portal leaves the liver and joins the vena cava. 5. The coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with glucose and oxygen. 6. Valves keep the blood flowing in one direction only. 7. Veins take blood to the heart. 8. Capillaries are permeable 9. Oxygen and glucose diffuse out of the blood and into the body cells. 10. The force of the heart and blood causes high pressure in arteries. 11. Arteries have thick walls to withstand pressure of the blood. 12. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the body cells and into the blood. 13. Veins have larger lumen than arteries. 14. Arteries have thicker walls than veins. 15. Veins contain valves to prevent blood flowing backwards. Capillaries It is only in the capillaries that substances carried by the blood are exchanged. Both arterioles and venules divide into even smaller vessels called capillaries. Capillaries are tiny vessels about 0.001mm in diameter and have walls only one cell thick They join the aterioles to the venules. There is just enough room for red blood cells to pass in single file in the smallest capillaries.

Tissue Fluid Plasma is forced through the one cell thick capillary walls due to the high blood pressure in the aterioles. This liquid is called tissue fluid and carries glucose and oxygen as well as other dissolved substances to cells which are not in direct contact with a capillary.

Tissue fluid then seeps back into capillaries along with dissolved waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide. Small amounts of fluid also drain into lymph vessels. Phagocytes can squeeze between capillary cells and enter the tissue fluid.

Functions of the blood Homeostatis all body cells are bathed by tissue fluid derived from plasma. The composition of the plasma is kept very constant and allows cells to grow in the most favourable conditions. Transport Substances e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat are transported around the body. Defence against infection Blood clotting substances and white blood cells can reach the site of infection or damaged cells. Composition of the blood Blood contains: Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets Plasma

Plasma is a straw coloured liquid and contains: Water (90% by volume) Blood proteins e.g. fibrilogen and antibodies. Food substances e.g. amino acids, glucose, fats, minerals and vitamins. Ions e.g. sodium ions Urea Hormones Carbon Dioxide.

N.B. Plasma also transports heat produced by the liver.

Red blood cells Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow of the limb bones, ribs and vertebrae. They are tiny disc-like cells with no nuclei. They contain haemoglobin. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen in places where there is a high concentration of oxygen e.g. the lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin. Oxyhaemoglobin is unstable and breaks down to release oxygen where the concentration of oxygen is low e.g. in the tissue. Blood which contains lots of oxyhaemoglobin is said to be oxygenated and is red in colour.

Blood with little oxyhaemoglobin is said to be deoxygenated. And is bluish red in colour. Red blood cells live for approximately four months. They are broken down in the liver to bilirubin found in bile and iron which is stored in the liver. 200000 million red blood cells are replaced each day.

Platelets Platelets are formed in the bone marrow. They are small pieces of cell with no nucleas and have an indefinite shape. Their life span is variable. Their function is to clot blood. When platelets are damaged or exposed to air release chemicals which set off the clotting process. Thrombin causes a soluble protein called fibrinogen which is found in blood plasma to be converted into insoluble fibrin. This has thin thread like molecules which lie across a cut and trap red blood cells forming a clot. The clot stops: a) further bleeding b) prevents bacterie entering the wound. Under the clot damaged cells are destroyed by the phagocytes and new tissue forms.

White blood cells These are also made in the bone marrow They are important in defending the body against infection There are two main types; phagocytes and lymphocytes.

Phagocytes They are irregular in shape. They have amoeboid movement They can escape from capillaries and they can squeeze between the cells of the capillaries. They can enter tissues and collect at the site of an infection. They can engulf (ingest) and then digest harmful bacteria and other foreign material. They prevent the spread of infection.

Lymphocytes There are two types of lymphocytes. B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. B-lymphocytes On the surface of all cells there are chemical substances called antigens.

Bacteria and viruses also have antigens on their surface. Toxins and foreign proteins can also act as antigens. B-lymphocytes produce proteins called antibodies when they come into contact with a particular antigen. The antibodies can attack and destroy the antigens. They may do so by attaching to the surface of a bacterium and making it easy for phagocytes to engulf and digest them . They may clump bacteria or neutralise toxins or they may break down the bacterial cell wall. Antibodies are specific. Antibodies which will attack a typhoid bacterium will not affect a salmonella bacterium. They work a lock and key type mechanism.

Continuation of B-lymphocytes

Once an antibody has been made in the blood it may either: o Remain in the blood for a very long time or o The B-lymphocytes can make the antibodies again very quickly.

T-lymphocytes There are several types of T-lymphocytes. Some activate the B-lymphocytes and the phagocytes; Others attack and destroy foreign cells e.g. transplanted cells, cancer cells, or body cells invaded by viruses. Antibodies and Immunity 1. Viruses invade the blood 2. Viruses multiply 3. Lymphocytes. These produce antibodies to attack invading antigens. 4. Antibodies fit exactly on to the virus (lock and key mechanism). 5. Antibodies attack invading viruses and destroy them. 6. Antibodies remain in our blood making us immune to the virus. Vaccination Dead of inactive pathogens are introduced into the body. B-lymphocytes divide and produce o Plasma cells which produce on antibodies o Memory cells which remain in the body for a long time. Structure and function of blood cells Blood cells are made in the bone marrow. Red blood cells are smaller than white blood cells and there are more of them. Red blood cells are packed with a substance called haemoglobin.

In the lungs, oxygen diffuses into red blood cells and combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin. In this way oxygen is carried round the body to the tissues. Here oxygen is released and oxyhaemoglobin turns back into haemoglobin. Red blood cells also carry small amounts of carbon dioxide. White blood cells are variable in shape and always contain a nucleas. They help the body to fight infection. Some produce antibodies while others can change shape to engulf bacteria which they then destroy Platelets are tiny fragments of cells which are involved in the clotting of the blood. Microbiology

Types of micro-organisms : 1. 2. 3. 4. Bacteria Viruses Fungi Protozoa

Microorganisms

Microorganisms are living organisms whose structure can only be seen with a microscope Microorganisms include: o Fungi o Viruses o Bacteria o Protozoa Microorganisms are found everywhere. Some microorganisms are harmful since they cause disease. Some microorganisms are beneficial: o They are useful in preservation of food o They can help prevent disease. Some produce anti biotics o They can be used to make cheese and yoghurt. o Some are very important in recycling dead organic matter. Bacteria and fungi are most important for this.

Fungi Can be divided into:

a. Yeasts e.g. Saccharomyces used in brewing, wine making and baking. b. Moulds e.g. Penicillium used to make penicillin (an antibiotic) Mucor often found in old bread Other moulds are used to make cheese e.g. blue Stilton.

c. Mushrooms and Toadstools These have large fruiting bodies (produce spores) which are used as food. Some are very poisonous e.g. Fly Agaric Some fungi cause disease e.g. athletes foot and ringworm. Viruses

Viruses need special microscopes in order to see them as they are so small. All the parasites i.e. need other cells in order to multiply. Can be used in genetic engineering to make useful products. Many cause disease: Influenza virus Chicken pox virus Small pox Mumps Rabies Polio HIV virus which causes AIDS. Protoctista (Protozoa)

Single celled organisms. Mostly free living (e.g. amoeba) but some cause disease (e.g. Plasmodium which causes Malaria)

How do bacteria feed?

Bacteria feed mainly on ready made food. They obtain this from living parasites or dead saprophytes animals or plants. They release digestive enzymes through their body and absorb the digested food back into the cell Some can make their own food by photo-synthesis (chemosynthesis)

Useful bacteria

Helps digest food Fermentation turning wine to vinegar Pickles from cucumber Silage from corn

Making cheese Glycerin, citric acid, lactic acid and dairy products.

Disease from bacteria

Cholera Typhoid Tetanus Salmonella Whooping cough Tuberculosis (TB)

Viruses properties

Very small Dont feed Have a protein coat for protection Invade and destroy cells Need living cells to reproduce

Reproduction of viruses

They can only reproduce inside the cells of a living organism The virus attaches itself to the surface of the wall. It injects DNA into the cell giving it new instructions The cell now makes hundreds of copies of the virus. The cell then dies, releasing the virus which can go to invade other cells.

Microorganisms 2

Bacteria

Bacteria are everywhere; in the air, soil water, in and on animals and plants. They are tiny in size and vast in number. They are so small that it would take 2000 to cover the head of a pin. There may be more than 30,000 million in a cm3 of fresh milk. Yet it is estimated that their total mass is at least 20x greater than the total mass of all other animals.

There are many types of bacteria. Most are harmless and many are essential to the survival of life. Bacteria, which cause disease in people, are called pathogenic.

Some species of bacteria produce a thick and very resistant spore wall. This protects the cell inside from very high temperatures and even from disinfectants, which kill off normal bacteria.

Reproduction

Bacteria reproduced at an amazing rate. Under good conditions one fully grown cell can divide into two new cells every twenty minutes. This can produce 5 million new cells in only 7 hours.

Viruses

Viruses are even smaller than bacteria and are too small to be seen under a microscope such as we use. They are parasites which rely on other living cells for survival.

Once inside the hosts body, viruses make their way to particular organs, mostly via the blood stream.

The rabies virus, however, uses the nerves to travel from the skin to its organ, the brain.

Inside the cell the viruses take over the cell machinery to produce the building blocks that make more viruses, rather than the material which the cell itself needs.

As the viruses break up the body cells, the materials released probably affect the body in the same way as the poisons produced by bacteria.

Fungi

Very few fungi cause disease in people. Most fungi consist of living threads like pieces of cotton, called hyphae. These form a web over the food, the produce chemicals to digest it before it is absorbed back into the hyphae.

Athletes foot is a common fungal infection. Candida or thrush is another. This is caused by a yeast type fungus which usually lives harmlessly in the mouth. Some times when the body is in a low state it invades the moist lining of the mouth where it causes an irritating discharge.

Sterile (aseptic) technique

The aim of sterile technique is to minimize the risk of introducing unwanted organisms on to the plates both during plating and afterwards.

1. Hands should be washed before handling plates 2. Desks should be swabbed with 70% alcohol. 3. Pupils should work within close (30cm) range of a roaring blue flame. The so called sterile zone. 4. Plates should be opened up for the shortest time possible. 5. Any instrument used to touch the agar must be sterilized before and after use. 6. Hands should be washed after handling plates. 7. Plates must be taped after incubation. Incubation

The plates will be incubated at 25C. It is essential that the plates are labeled on the bottom, on the jelly side. If the lid is lost, we are not left with unidentified bacteria.

Disposal

Microbes cannot be released into the atmosphere since they are potentially hazardous. Nor can agar jelly be reused. The plates are heated under pressure to a high temperature (in an autoclave), cooled, stripped of their tape and then emptied and washed. The bacteria are killed and the plates can then be reused. Plastic petri dishes are simply thrown away

Questions on preparation of agar plates

A microbe is another name for microorganism usually pathogenic bacteria.

A bacterial colony is defined as a cluster of bacteria growing on a surface.

Agar is a substance used in a sterilized petri dish to grow bacteria and other microorganisms. Nutrient agar is agar that has been modified specifically to speed up the growth of microbes. A petri dish is a flat dish normally used to grow microbes and to view them.

An incubator stores petri dishes at a suitable temperature to grow microbes.

To grow and reproduce, bacteria must have oxygen, nutrients and space in which to grow. An autoclave is a device used to sterilize equipment using high temperature.

It is useful to be able to melt agar because microbes suspended in the liquid agar are easier to test and view.

Continuation of questions on preparation of agar plates.

Petri dishes are transparent so that when microbes grow they are easy to see without the risk of opening the lid. Petri dishes are fitted with an overlapping lid so that oxygen can travel in for the microbes to respire and grow.

When agar is put into a petri dish, unwanted microbes are prevented from entering by: o Opening the dish as little as possible o Sterilizing the dish o Having a flame nearby to push the air upwards. Petri dishes when not being used are stored up side down so that any condensation forming on the lid doesnt fall on to the agar surface. They are also stored in a refrigerator so that any microbe growth will be slowed down in the cold temperature.

Fungi

Similar to plants but cant photo-synthesize Not all microscopic

Have fine threads called hyphae which grow into a mass called mycelium

Cells contain cytoplasm, often many nuclei and vacuoles.

E.g. yeasts, mushrooms and moulds.

Aseptic Techniques

Work near a lighted Bunsen burner updraft keeps microbes away from the working area. Benches should be swabbed with ethanol to sterlize surface and kill all microbes.

All apparatus should be sterilized by heating to a flame or by autoclaving.

All plates should be fully labeled

All plates should be incubated at 25C to prevent growth of pathogens.

How to fungi feed?

Fungi feed on ready made food. Some feed on dead material saprophytes Others feed on living organisms parasites

They feed in the same way as bacteria by releasing enzymes to digest the food outside the body and absorb the nutrients.

How to fungi reproduce?

Fungi reproduce asexually. That means that they produce offspring from themselves that is genetically indentical. They produce spores like specs of dust

The spores are carried by the wind or insects.

When they land, they burst open and threads grow out.

Useful Fungi

Some fungi can be useful, particularly when making bread and beer.

In this case yeast (the fungi, e.g. Sacchromyces) is allowed to respire anaerobically.

Yeast in bread and beer production

Antibiotics e.g. penicillin and sephalosporin.

Other drugs

Many organic acids e.g. citric acid, used in coke, is produced to buy an aspergillus.

Steroids and hormones

Certain stinky cheeses e.g. blue cheese, Roquefort, camembert

Harmful Fungi

Fungi grow on food mould, e.g. pin mould on bread Athletes foot fungus can grow between toes, soles of feet and on toenails. It likes warm moist areas, it spreads easily in swimming pools.

Protozoans

Single-celled organisms which have their DNA in a nucleas.

Some have chloroplasts, like plants, to photo-synthesize. E.g. Euglena

Some take in and digest solid food e.g. amoeba

Mostly free living but some cause disease, e.g. plasmodium which causes malaria.

Testing solid surfaces for microorganisms

1) Safety precautions taken for this investigation were: safety goggles and lab coats were worn, Bunsen burners were lit to cause the air to rise, the agar plates and surfaces were sterile and plates were fully labeled. 2) On the control surface, no microbes were found. On the surface of a shoe, fungi and bacteria was found in large amounts. On the surface of the floor, a little fungi was found. On the surface of the unsterilized desk, yeast was found. 3) The surface with the most microbes was my shoe, due to the fact that I walk everywhere and collect many microbes on the sole, which are rarely killed by sterilization.

4) The agar plate was placed in an incubator at 25C so that microbes had a suitable temperature in which to grow, but not too warm that pathogens start to grow. 5) The agar plate was turned upside down before being placed in the incubator so that any water from condensation fell on the lid instead of the agar which would have spread the microbes around. 6) Instead of placing tape all the way around the petri dish, it was only placed at each end so that oxygen could be passed to the microbes to grow. Also if no oxygen could pass through anaerobic pathogens would grow. 7) The control area indicated how sterile the petri dish was and also an area to compare various surfaces with. 8) The plates should not be opened when observing because should there have been any growth of pathogens, they could have spread and been a danger. 9) In conclusion, under the right conditions, various microbes can develop and grow from different surfaces. But when sterilized, all of these are killed and nothing can reproduce and grow.

Bacteria

Virus

Salmonella Meningitis Typhoid

Fungi

Influenza Polio

Athletes foot Thrush

Protozoa

Malaria Common colds

Food preservation

Food needs to be preserved for a number of reasons

It may be attacked by its own enzymes, e.g. over ripe food. It may be oxidized by air, e.g. rancid butter.

It may be decomposed by bacteria and fungi, e.g. sour milk or rotten meat.

All these processes can make food taste and smell unpleasant and can be harmful if eaten.

Microorganisms require warmth and moisture for growth and to reproduce. Most grow best at a neutral ph. Very high temperatures kill microorganisms. Low temperatures stop multiplication and slow or stop microbial growth, but do not kill the microorganisms.

Preserving Milk

There are three ways from preventing milk from going sour. Pasteurization is perhaps the best known method by which all the disease causing bacteria are killed together with about 90% of the bacteria that cause milk to go sour. Milk that we drink it pasteurized by what is known as the flash method of pasteurization: the milk is heated quickly to 72C, maintained at that temperature for 15 seconds, and then cooled rapidly. The higher the temperature used, the more effective is the treatment, but too much heat can change the taste and nutrional value of the milk.

The cause and spread of disease.

Non-infectious diseases

These are not passed from person to person.

Cancer Auto immune diseases, e.g. arthritis degenerative.

Asthma (environmental disease)

Eczema

Diabetes

Dietary disease, e.g. cholesterol

Genetic disease, e.g. cystic fibrosis Nutritional vitamin deficiency diseases, e.g. scurvy

Infectious diseases

These can be passed from person to person.

Methods of transmission

The air in droplets In dust

Direct contact

In faeces

By animals

Infected food and water.

Protection against infectious diseases.

The skin acts as a barrier and stops entry of microorganisms, provided the skin isnt cut or damaged.

Disease

Disease is the condition when something goes wrong with the normal working body. As a result we become ill.

How diseases spread

Direct contact

Touching infected person spreads microbes causing disease, e.g. o Athletes foot o Ringworm o Boils Body fluid contact through sexual intercourse, e.g. o AIDS o Gonorrhoea o Syphilis Blood contact from transfusions or infected needles, e.g. o AIDS o Hepatitis

By animals

Mosquitos transmit malaria Dogs and foxes spread rabies Flies spread gastro-enteritis Rats spread Weils disease and the plague.

In droplets of water

Coughs and sneezes spread diseases Bacteria spread in water droplets from one person to another Most bacteria spread in crowded damp rooms Viruses spread both in damp and dry air Diseases spread in this way: o Colds o Influenza o Tuberculosis o Pnuemonia

Whooping cough

In food and water

Faeces from infected person enters water supply Infected water is used as drink or to wash food Infected food enters next victim Diseases spread in this way: o Dysentry o Cholera o Typhoid fever

Protection

Protection against entry of pathogens.

Sweat glands and sebaceous glands produce substances which can kill bacteria. Tears contain lysozyme which destroys bacterial cell walls. Acid in the stomach destroys bacteria. Moist lining of nasal passages, tracheae and bronchi traps bacteria.

The immune system

If microorganisms are able to gain entry to the body certain white blood cells can engulf and digest the pathogens whilst other white blood cells can produce antibodies which can destroy them.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics only work against bacteria, they do so by disrupting the production of the cell wall or by interfering with the production of bacterial proteins.

They do not work against viruses, since viruses do not contain cytoplasm or have a cell wall.

Antibiotics which kill bacteria are said to be bacteriocidal. Some antibiotics do not kill the bacteria but simply stop their growth. These antibiotics are said to be baclereostatic.

Examples of antibiotics are streptomycin and penicillin (which was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928).

Specific antibiotics are ones which work against one type of bacterium only.

Broad spectrum antibiotics are effective against a number of different types of bacteria.

Some rules for avoiding food poisoning.

General Hygiene 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Wash your hands before prepating, serving or eating food. Use clean utensils Keep working surfaces clean. Use clean cloths. Keep lids on bins Keep pets out of the kitchen Keep nails short and clean Keep hair neat and tidy Sneeze and cough into a handkerchief.

Preparing Food 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Buy from hygiene conscious shops. Heat food to a high temperature and keep hot until thoroughly cooked. Do not keep food lukewarm for a long periods Reheat cooked food quickly and thoroughly. Do not reheat more than once. Wash fresh food thoroughly and dry before use. Thaw out frozen food before cooking For tinned food, follow directions on tin.

Storing Food 1) 2) 3) 4) Cover food and store in cool, clean, dry conditions. Always cover food against flies. Keep raw meat and cooked meat separate. To keep cooked food cool quickly and refrigerated. For frozen food, follow recommended time for storage before cooking. Do not re-freeze foodstuffs after thawing. 5) Store tinned food in a cool, dry place. Do not use damaged tins. Take food out of tin after it is opened. Never store in an open tin. Steriliation

Sterilization is the destruction of all microbial life.

This can be done in many ways such as heating something to a very high temperature in an autoclave. It can also be done by chemicals, which kill microorganisms, such as disinfectants and antiseptics. Disinfectants kill microbes on inanimate surfaces. Antiseptics kill microbes too, but can be used safely on the skin.

Food Poisoning

Food poisoning occurs when food is contaminated with harmful bacteria such as E. coli or salmonella and it is then ingested. The syptoms of food poisoning are: headache, diarrhoea, vomiting and in some extreme cases dehydration. Bacteria from food poisoning can pass out through your faeces and not washing your hand after using the toilet can spread pathogens infecting others around you. Salmonella is carried in the guts of many cattle, fish and poultry. It is carried by either uncooked food or cross contaminated food.