Early Childhood Education Journal, Vol. 33, No. 4, February 2006 ( 2006) DOI: 10.

1007/s10643-005-0047-x

All in the Family: Connecting Home and School with Family Literacy
Patricia A. Crawford1,2 and Vicky Zygouris-Coe1

Family literacy has come of age during the past quarter of a century. This article provides a brief review of family literacy history and components. Pedagogical implications for teachers of primary grade students are considered, and suggestions given for increasing homeschool literacy involvement through the following types of initiatives: sharing information, increasing access to materials, and implementing strategies that invite family involvement.
KEY WORDS: family literacy; primary grades; literacy instruction; homeschool relationships; pedagogy.

INTRODUCTION In the now classic lm version of The Color Purple (Spielberg, 1985), there is a memorable scene featuring Celie and Nettie, two young sisters living in the impoverished early twentieth century south. Already bent under the burdens of poverty, loss, and responsibility beyond their years, the sisters nd solace only in one another. When a separation looms, they immediately develop a goal and plan of action. Both girls must learn to read and write so they can maintain contact. Since only Nettie has access to formal education, she declares that she will ...just have to go to school and learn for the both of us. She immediately embarks on a whole plan of joyful, home-based pedagogy in her eorts to educate Celie; passing on lessons, labeling household items, playing word games, introducing books, and relating literacy learning to daily life experiences. The scene, one of the only light-hearted ones in the entire movie, provides some powerful reminders: literacy learning is

often rooted in the home experience; family members are typically eager to help one another learn; many families view literacy learning as a potential means of improving their overall life circumstances. In short, the lm clip presents a glimpse of the complex weave of issues and concepts that surround the topic of family literacy. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS In general, family literacy is a concept that encompasses the ways that people learn and use literacy in their home and community lives (McGee & Morrow, 2005). Coined by Taylor (1983) in her study of the ways in which parents impact and assist the literacy learning of their children, the term family literacy is less than a quarter of a century old. In spite of this, the concept of family literacy has roots that extend far into the past, as well as a reach that stretches to touch both present and future trends in education. Historically, literacy educators regard for the contributions of family and community members has been somewhat ckle. In the distant past, many children were denied the right to attend school and the burden of providing rudimentary reading instruction fell on parents, extended family, and community members. However, by the mid-1900s, education in 261
1082-3301/06/0200-0261/0 2006 Springer ScienceBusiness Media, Inc.

College of Education, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA. 2 Correspondence should be directed to Patricia A. Crawford, College of Education, University of Central Florida, 161250, Orlando, FL 32816, USA; e-mail: pcrawfor@mail.ucf.edu

262 general, and literacy instruction in particular, came to be viewed as something best-suited for the domain of experts who could develop and present instructional material in a systematic, scientically based manner (Mathews, 1966; Shannon, 1989, 1990; Smith, 1934/ 1986; Wasik & Herrmann, 2004). This view was coupled with the readiness philosophy; a belief grounded in maturational and developmental theories, which asserted that children should not formally be taught to read until they were developmentally ready to do so (Durkin, 1966; Gesell, 1925; Moorphett & Washburne, 1931). This union resulted in many parents taking a hands-o approach to their childrens literacy learning and in some cases, the devaluing and discouraging of family involvement by school personnel. Research conducted in the later part of the twentieth century provided a dierent perspective on literacy learning, as well as on the relationship of families to their childrens development in this area. Marie Clays (1966) groundbreaking study of the reading behaviors of New Zealand children indicated that young learners could not be neatly divided into groups of readers and pre-readers, but rather that children were on an emergent continuum of literacy learning. Clay believed that children learned much about literacy in their home environments and that they came to school ready to apply this knowledge of reading and writing. The growing body of research on emergent literacy, along with studies related to the importance of parental involvement in learning, led to the development of many early childhood programs designed to support the literacy learning of children across home and school environments. By the time that Taylor (1983) coined the term family literacy, a host of scholarly work already indicated that the impact of families on literacy learning was considerable (Bissex, 1980; Butler, 1975; Crago & Crago, 1983; Heath, 1983). Since that time, a host of research studies have supported these ndings (Jacobs, 2004; Neuman, Caperelli & Kee, 1998; Purcell-Gates, 1996; Schockley, 1993; Schockley, Machalove & Allen, 1995). Although the term family literacy has been used profusely, arguments abound regarding the nature of this concept. Many scholars view family literacy as a straightforward term that describes any number of pedagogical practices related to homebased literacy learning. In its descriptive form, the term honors parents as their childrens rst teachers and refers to the many ways in which they, along with siblings and extended family members, have the potential to impact the literacy learning of children.

Crawford and Zygouris-Coe The United States Congress, on the other hand, has dened family literacy programs as those that involve the three separate, but highly connected constituencies of family, school, and community; family literacy services are dened as those provided to participants on a voluntary basis that are of sufcient intensity in terms of hours, and of sucient duration, to make sustainable changes in a family (such as eliminating or reducing welfare dependency) and that integrate all of the following activities:
Interactive literacy activities between parents and their children. Equiping parents to partner with their children in learning. Parent literacy training that leads to economic self-suciency. Appropriate instruction for children of parents receiving parent literacy services (H.R. 1385, passed by the House in 1997).

Thus, in order to receive federal funding for family literacy, programs must meet the specic criteria of providing adult education, childhood education, parent and child together time, and parent education. The goal is to not just assist the child, but to also contribute to the literacy learning and economic options of the family and community. Although these perspectives have been accepted by many researchers and practitioners, some critical theorists have taken positions that stand in opposition to both the general and federal denitions of family literacy. They argue that the term family literacy was intended to be descriptive rather than prescriptive and that too many programs have operated from a decit model that seeks to apply a onesize-ts-all response to a host of complex social and learning situations; that program criteria, structures and spokespeople frequently devalue the varied social systems in the families and communities that those very programs are designed to help (Auerbach, 1995). Therefore, they suggest that child and family advocates should resist being pigeon-holed into a rigid denition of family literacy (Purcell-Gates, 2000; Rogers, 2002; Taylor, 1997). IMPLICATIONS FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS In order for homeschool relationships to be improved, schools will need to reject the family decit model and move toward a view that includes parent participation and collaboration. Parents need to become an integral part of the curriculum and not just be limited to volunteering and attending schoolsponsored events. For most teachers of children in the primary grades, family literacy is less a matter of

All in the Family federal mandates and more a matter of both philosophy and pedagogy. Although primary teachers may benet from grant monies and community-based programs, most teachers experiences with family literacy have to do with making tangible, authentic connections between the childs home and school environments. Philosophically, teachers must rst believe that the home life of children matters and that there is much to be gained from working with families to help children meet academic goals and develop a lifelong love of literacy. For teachers who have embraced these beliefs, the challenge then becomes one of welcoming families into the school and helping them to be involved with the educational process in meaningful ways. From a practical perspective, primary teachers can initiate a number of strategies to bridge the homeschool gap, and enhance the literacy learning of their students, and in some cases that of their parents and siblings as well. These initiatives might involve strategies in which important information is shared with parents, program structures that make literacy materials accessible to all children, and activities that provide interactive learning experiences to be enjoyed at home. INITIATIVES THAT ALLOW FOR THE SHARING OF INFORMATION In the best of situations, the sharing of information in family literacy programs occurs as part of a two-way dialogue instead of a one-way monologue (Auerbach, 1995; McGee & Morrow, 2005). For primary teachers this means that parents are kept informed of school policies, classroom expectations, and opportunities for enhanced learning. It also means that parent input will be solicited and welcomed in a variety of ways. Home visits, school-based meetings, and dialogue newsletters are three possible strategies to address this need. Home Visits Home visitation is one of the most eective means for connecting with new students and their families. The visit to a childs home and community environment gives teachers a close-up view of the interests, values, and social mores that are important to members of the classroom community. Home visits may also help parents who would otherwise feel uncomfortable approaching the teacher to gain condence with something akin to a home court advantage, by enabling them to discuss school-related issues on the

263 more familiar terrain of their home environment. Home visits also ensure at least one face-to-face meeting with parents and relieve some families of the burdens of nding the transportation and childcare arrangements that are necessary for a school visit. In some cases, logistic, safety, and policy issues make it dicult for teachers to make home visits to prospective students. In these circumstances, a phone call can meet many of the same objectives by helping parent and teacher to connect in an informal conversation, and by giving parents an opportunity to share any concerns or information that will assist their childs transition to a new classroom or school year. Meetings School-based meetings can also provide a forum in which parents and teachers can meet to share information about learning, curriculum, and the needs of students. These types of meetings can come in the form of introductory back-to-school nights, regularly scheduled informational meetings, or ongoing support groups designed to help scaold children and families with specialized needs or concerns. Ideally, these meetings allow family members, as well as teachers, to share information, ideas, and specialized skills in a non-threatening environment (McGee & Morrow, 2005). For many families, however, attendance at meetings provides a real challenge because of conicts with work schedules and the need to make childcare arrangements. In these situations, school personnel can help to facilitate and boost attendance by varying meeting times to accommodate a broad range of schedules and providing appropriate on-site childcare. By providing food at meetings, school personnel can add an element of welcoming hospitality and in some cases, an additional incentive for attendance. Newsletters Class newsletters provide a tangible communication connection between home and school (Morningstar, 1999). This forum not only allows teachers to share key logistical information with parents related to school events, but also provides a venue through which classroom happenings, curriculum highlights, and individual student achievements can be celebrated. Teachers may also feature rotating samples of student writing and artwork. Many teachers have found it helpful to add elements of

264 personalization and interactivity to their newsletters (Dragan, 2003). This can be accomplished by asking parents to return a signed copy of the newsletter after they have read it, and by allowing space for short write-in comments from both the teacher and family members. While some primary grade teachers have developed elaborate formats for their class newsletters, many practitioners nd this to be a daunting and time-consuming task. Since the most important purpose of the newsletter is to make a regular home school connection, teachers may nd it helpful to pare down the work involved in producing the newsletter to a more manageable task. The use of preconstructed publishing templates and brief entries can streamline the process, making it more manageable and also more likely that the newsletter will be produced on a regular, predictable basis. INITIATIVES THAT MAKE MATERIALS AVAILABLE Materials play a key role in inviting family participation in literacy events. Quality electronic resources can be a great aid to parents who wish to learn familyfriendly literacy strategies (see Table I for suggested websites). Likewise, mere access to quality books can have a signicant impact on childrens attitudes and achievement in literacy learning. By their very nature, some books invite engagement from participants beyond the child reader. For example, the books in the You Read to Me, Ill Read to You series see (Hoberman, 2004 as an example) are designed to support families who read together. Each

Crawford and Zygouris-Coe book includes short, stand-alone selections that are broken into specic parts so that parent and child can take turns reading to one another. Although this is a unique format, many other texts and book programs can be utilized to achieve the same result of bringing families together around the literacy act. Family literacy text sets, take home book programs, and literacy learning kits all have the potential to make quality reading materials and models of literacy learning more available to children and their families. Family Literacy Text Sets In recent years, many picture books have been published that explore family literacy themes. These books feature literacy interactions that span home and community settings. In addition to inviting visuals and engaging storylines, they provide concrete models of ways in which family and community members can help support literacy learning. These texts also reinforce the message that reading is far more than a classroom aair. (For a list of suggested picture books, please see Table II) Although these books can be sent home with students, they might also be shared as read-alouds at meetings with parents. The provocative storylines, presented in compact picture book formats, can serve as mini case studies or as springboards for discussion related to the topic of family literacy. Take Home Book Programs Many teachers have found it helpful to organize their classroom libraries in ways that make it easy

Table I. Helpful Websites Related to Family Literacy National Center for Family Literacy http://www.famlit.org/ The mission of the National Center for Family Literacy is to help parents and children achieve their greatest potential together through quality literacy programs. Reading tips and resources for parents are contained on this site. Between the Lions http://pbskids.org/lions/ This site is home of the award winning PBS program, Between the Lions: Get Wild About Reading. Links are available to interactive games, online stories, and tips for parents. 100 HomeSchool Literacy Activities for First Grade www.ed.gov/pubs/CompactforReading/table1.html This site provides reading and literacy skill activities which parents can use to support their rst grade student. 100 HomeSchool Literacy Activities for Second Grade www.ed.gov/pubs/CompactforReading/table2.html This site provides reading and literacy skill activities which parents can use to support their second grade student. Succeed to Read www.succeedtoread.com Links provide support for parents who wish to help their children learn literacy skills such as rhyming, putting sounds together to make words, and choosing good books.

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Table II. Picture Books that Explore Family Literacy Themes

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Bradby, M. (1995). More than anything else. Illustrated by C. Soentpiet. New York: Scholastic. A ctionalized account of young Booker T. Washington and his desire to learn to read. Depicts the sacricial eorts of his family and the help of a community member who acts as teacher. Bunting, E. (1989). The Wednesday Surprise. Illustrated by D. Carrick. New York: Clarion. Each Wednesday night Grandma comes to watch Anna. Something special is happening during these evenings; someone is learning to read. Presents an excellent reminder that family literacy comes in many forms and crosses generational lines. Casely, J. (1994). Dear Annie. Illustrated by the author. New York: HarperTrophy. Grandpa and Annie have been penpals since the day she was born. Presented in the form of intergenerational correspondence, this book depicts Annie as an emergent writer who ourishes within a supportive family context. dePaola, T. (1981/2005). Now one foot, now the other. Illustrated by the author. New York: Putnam. When Bobby was a baby his grandfather helped him to learn to walk and talk. After his grandfathers stroke, Bobby becomes the teacher. An updated version of this classic shows that language learning is truly a family aair. Heide, F.P. & Gilliland, J.H. (1990). The day of Ahmeds secret. Illustrated by T. Lewin. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepherd. A young Egyptian boy has a special secret to tell his familyHe can write his own name! Presents literacy learning as a treasured facet of a multi-dimensional life lived with family and community. Hest, A. (2004). Mr. George Baker. Illustrated by J.J. Muth. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick. First grader Harry and 100 year-old George are brought together in their enthusiasm for learning to read. Intergenerational and community literacies are well represented. Littlesugar, A. (2001). Freedom School, Yes! Illustrated by F. Cooper. New York: Philomel. The Mississippi Freedom Schools and their impact on the community are seen through the eyes of one little girl. Includes historical information about this community literacy project. Polacco, P. (1996). The great Triple Creek dam mystery. Illustrated by the author. New York: Philomel. A cautionary tale of what happens when a whole community chooses television over booksand how one librarian turns the hearts of children back to reading. Polacco, P. (1993). The bee tree. Illustrated by the author. New York: Philomel. Wells, R. (1998). Read to your bunny. Illustrated by the author. New York: Scholastic. This lyrical text celebrates the benets of read alouds and the joyful role the family plays as the child s rst teacher. Wells, R. (1999). Intergenerational family tale that provides a reminder about the sweetness of learning and the joy that comes from pursuing knowledge.

and ecient for students to take books home to share with their family on a regular basis (Barbour, 1998/ 1999; Dragan, 2001). These initiatives typically involve students choosing a book to read from a variety of developmentally appropriate selections. Some programs have been organized around the book-in-a-bag model, in which the selection is placed in a sealable plastic bag along with some very simple tips for parents about reading aloud and enjoying books with their child. To increase the potential for interactivity, the bags often contain very short pictorial surveys that the parent and child can ll out to express their thoughts about the extent to which they enjoyed the book (a little, a lot, or not at all) and whether the book seemed to be a good t in terms of readability (too easy, too hard, or just right). Literacy Learning Kits Another way to enhance parentteacher communication and involvement is to create literacy learning kits that students can take home for a period of time. Although similar to take home book programs, these initiatives are designed to put a wider range of learning materials in childrens hands and to increase the levels of interaction between parent and child. Families who speak English as a second

language will appreciate and may benet more from literacy learning kits that feature interesting, culturally relevant titles and suggest enhancement activities that are presented in English, as well as in the familys native language (Dever & Burts, 2002). To add an air of excitement and ease issues related to the organization and transportation of literacy learning materials, Richgels and Wold (1998) suggest using backpacks. In their Three for the Road program, backpacks contained a text set with three books of varying levels (i.e., a read-by-myself book, a readwith-me book, and a read-to-me book), along with accompanying support materials such as parent letters, response journals, puppets, and writing and drawing tools. Programs such as these invite parent and child to joyfully engage in literacy events together.

INITIATIVES THAT FACILITATE CONTINUITY BETWEEN HOME AND SCHOOL One common goal of family literacy initiatives is to create a seamless weave of learning between home and school. Thus, activities that extend between these two constituencies hold a lot of potential for teachers in the primary grades. Journaling, photo, and cooking projects all oer the opportunity to bridge home and school learning through meaningful activities.

266 Journaling The benets of journaling have been well documented. Whether they take the form of personal diaries, ongoing chronicles of activities, or academic learning logs, journals provide the opportunity for reective thought, deeper learning, and increased selfexpression. These same benets of personal journaling can be extended to the family through guided experiences with dialogue journals (Morningstar, 1999). Writing projects that invite parents, students, and teachers to share their thoughts bring a multiplicity of voices into the classroom and help to strengthen the homeschool bond (Barillas, 2001). Photo Projects The power of photo projects lies in the old adage that a picture can say a thousand words. For example, photos taken of class activities can provide parents with better insights about classroom activities. Meanwhile photos from home can provide teachers and fellow students with a glimpse of the routines, activities, and relationships that are important to classmates outside of the school environments (Spielman, 2000). Some teachers have written grants that provide disposable cameras and resulting development charges for each child in the class. Depending on the nature of the project, photos might focus on learning at home or school, or on projects related to particular parts of the curriculum. In order to extend learning and make the project more meaningful, photos can be categorized and captioned, and then used in the development of bulletin boards, displays, or class created books. Cooking Food has always been a means of bringing people from dierent backgrounds together. Many educators have developed programs that involve food to bridge parents, communities, and schools, and in turn help develop better cultural understanding and increased communication between parents and teachers and among school families (Griswold & Ullman, 1997; Shanahan, Mulhern, & RodriguezBrown, 1995). There are a number of parents who, though they struggle with their own reading skills, are able to cook well and would be willing to share this skill with others. Both home and school-based cooking activities provide the opportunity for sharing cultural specic recipes, practicing reading skills, using oral language, and the practical exploration of

Crawford and Zygouris-Coe math and science concepts such as measurement, temperature, and changes of state.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS In the end, the concept of family literacy is as simple as schools and families working together for the best education of children, and as complex as integrating the multi-faceted academic and social systems that impact literacy learning in our society. The richness and complexity of family literacy programs provide the building blocks for early literacy learning and oer primary teachers avenues for valuing family contributions, forging homeschool connections, and transforming schools into family friendly learning environments. Family literacy programs are vehicles for educators and families to come together for the purpose of better understanding, supporting, and joyfully celebrating the literacy development of the children in their lives.

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Auerbach, E. R. (1995). From decit to strength: Changing perspectives on family literacy. In G. Weinstein Shr, & E. Quintero (Eds.), Immigrant learners and their families: Literacy to connect the generations. McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Language. Barbour, A. C. (1998/1999). Home literacy bags promote family involvement. Childhood Education, 75, 7175. Barillas, M. (2001). Literacy at home: Honoring parent voices through writing. The Reading Teacher, 54, 302308. Bissex, G. (1980). GNYS AT WRK: A child learns to write and read. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Butler, D. (1975). Cushla and her books. Boston: The Hornbook. Clay, M. M. (1966). Emergent reading behaviour. University of Auckland Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Crago, M., & Crago, H. (1983). Prelude to literacy: A pre-school childs encounter with picture and story. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Dever, M. T., & Burts, D. C. (2002). Using family literacy bags to enhance family involvement. Dimensions of Early Childhood Education, 30, 1620. Dragan, P. (2003). Everything you need to know to teach rst grade. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Dragan, P. (2001). Literacy from day one. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Durkin, D. (1966). Children who read early. New York: Teachers College Press. Gesell, A. (1925). The mental growth of the preschool child. New York: Macmillan. Griswold, K., & Ullman, C. M. (1997). Not A one-way street: The power of reciprocity in family literacy programs. The Bronx: City University of NY, Herbert H. Lehman College Institute for Literacy Studies. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 413 420). Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life and work in communities and classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Hoberman, M. A. (2004). You read to me, Ill read to you: Very short fairy tales to read together. New York: Tingley. Illustrated by M. Emberley. Jacobs, K. (2004). Parent and child together time. In B. H. Wasik (Ed.), Handbook of family literacy (pp. 193212). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Mathews, M. M. (1966). Teaching to read: Historically considered. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. McGee, L. M., & Morrow, L. M. (2005). Teaching literacy in kindergarten. New York: Guilford. Morningstar, J. W. (1999). Home response journals: Parents as informed contributors in the understanding of their childs literacy development. The Reading Teacher, 52, 690697. Morphett, M., & Washburne, C. (1931). When should children begin to read? Elementary School Journal, 31, 496503. Neuman, S., Caperelli, B. J., & Kee, C. (1998). Literacy learning, a family matter. The Reading Teacher, 52, 244252. Purcell-Gates, V. (1996). Stories, coupons, and the TV Guide: Relationships between home literacy experiences and emergent literacy knowledge. Reading Research Quarterly, 31, 406428. Purcell-Gates, V. (2000). Family literacy: A research review. Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp. 853870). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Richgels, D. J. (1998). Literacy on the road: Backpacking partnerships between school and home. The Reading Teacher, 52, 1829. Rogers, R. (2002). Between contexts: A critical discourse analysis of family literacy, discursive practices, and literate subjectivities. Reading Research Quarterly, 37, 248277.

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