Katie Soble 1 Comprehension Strategies Literature Review

Comprehension Strategies Literature Review

There are two components to successful reading: decoding the text and comprehending the text. The first component is necessary to recognize how textual marks (letters) represent words which contain meaning. While difficultly decoding text creates a definite barrier to comprehension, there are also many other barriers to successful comprehension. Durkin defines comprehension as intentional thinking during which meaning is constructed through interactions between text and reader (1993) (Wendling 97). This idea is supported by many researchers who emphasize the need for a dialogue between the reader and text in order to develop a deeper understanding of the text. They emphasize the necessity of engaging background knowledge and employing many strategies to promote interaction with the words being read. Traditional teaching instruction can foster passive, unmotivated attitudes in students while they read, and for those who struggle with comprehension intentionally thinking while decoding it can lead to what Zwiers terms metacognitive atrophy in reading (175). This refers to students who do not recognize they are struggling or know how to solve comprehension difficulties when encountered on their own. Without being taught comprehension strategies, and learning to assess their own comprehension abilities, students remain dependent in part because of their passive reading (Beers 74). Students depend on teachers to ask the important questions of a text and identify the key information or correct interpretations; this can prevent students from actively forming their own interpretations (Olson 124). Additionally, often the text the marks are given precedence over the idea and thought the writer is trying to express (Sara 18) and Wendlings research indicates that some students, particularly older students, can appear to read fluently without comprehending. Often these students have barriers other than decoding: trouble relating information to background knowledge, making inferences, or applying strategies, or having low vocabularies (99). Teachers who determine fluency based on ability to decode can pass over students who sound like they can read, but are only completing half the process. Low vocabularies are a particular challenge for some dependent readers. Marzano cites it as a particular problem for disadvantaged children who lack opportunities to build background knowledge (7), access to resources, and are exposed to a fraction of language growing up compared to children of working and professional class families (10). He sees words as labels for entire packets of knowledge, which would mean that the more words a child knows, the more background knowledge he or she would be able to access (33). Wendling explains that the comprehension problems related to gaps in vocabulary and

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knowledge results in students who give up too easily and do not monitor their reading or understanding (99). Without knowing when and how students are struggling, they will be unable to employ the correct strategies to help themselves overcome their challenges. One proven method to improve word knowledge is, in fact, by reading more; it is a reciprocal process whereby improved word knowledge aids comprehension, which in turn increases word knowledge (Wendling 80, Marzano 37). The general approaches to improving reading comprehension recommended by many researchers depend on the distinction between reading skills and strategies. Olson distinguishes the two by defining skills as an unconscious ability while strategies are deliberate efforts to make meaning, which can, she affirms, become skills with practice and repetition (125). Beers similarly notes that achieving meaning is often seen as a product of reading rather than a process, but she argues that comprehension is dynamic; therefore, it is both a process and a product (45). The brain learns through analyzing information, self-reflection and selfcorrection (Tokuhama-Espinosa 144), as such all the research consulted emphasized the necessity for practice. Learning to use reading strategies is a scaffolded process where the teacher models the strategy, then allows for guided practice by the student in groups or pairs during which time feedback is crucial, and finally allows for independent practice, frequently and for suitable lengths of time (Harvey & Goodvis 21, 32; Zwiers 17; Beers 41-44; Wendling 102). These general strategies can and should be adapted into pre-reading, during reading, and post-reading activities, as this creates a balanced reading experience which improves comprehension by being prepared for the reading, engaged while reading, and able to reflect on and interpret the text after reading. Tokuhamma-Espinosa also asserts that connecting new information to prior knowledge helps to facilitate learning (211). Making connections helps with making inferences by relating what is read to how people live, behave and learn in certain contexts (Zwiers 68); this is how good readers are able to read between the lines they can make an inference about a situation based on how it relates to how it should be. In his book, Zwiers concisely outlines common strategies promoted by many other leading literacy researchers, but he calls them habits. In this way he is emphasizing that these strategies should become unconscious abilities something that students just do. He also argues that students already use these habits in their daily lives, and they just need to be transferred into the academic setting (7). Zwiers, Beers and Harvey & Goodvis all cite several common strategies which are consistent throughout all of the literature: predicting, questioning, clarifying, making inferences, summarizing, visualizing, and self-

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monitoring (See APPENDIX A). According to Harvey & Goodvis, research shows that explicit instruction of these strategies improves students understanding, and teaching multiple strategies improves students success as it provides the flexibility to choose the strategy that works the best with a given text (23). Zwiers and Beers promote think alouds when teaching strategies in minilessons of about 5-15 minutes long (Zwiers 16; Beers 43, 58). In this way, the teacher is able to show students the invisible thinking that goes on in a good readers mind when he or she is reading. There are many resources and activities readily accessible which integrate the teaching of reading strategies with content instruction. Through explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies, students become active and independent readers who, through self-monitoring, are able to address any reading difficulties they encounter. With consistent repetition, practice and feedback, student can transform those strategies into skills they will carry with them into their futures. APPENDIX A The Strategies Defined Predicting: Good readers make educated guesses before and during reading (Zwiers 99). This strategy is effective with narrative texts in regards to predicting plot development, but can also be used with expository texts in conjunction with analyzing the text structure and elements (ex: graphics, headings, etc.). This strategy helps keep the reader engaged with the text over time. Questioning: Students asking and generating their own questions about a text has been proven to improve their understanding of a text (Wendling 110). It increases their personal investment in the text and in finding the answers for those questions (Zwiers 122). Open-ended questions lead to deeper thinking and better retention of information. Clarifying: Students need to learn how to construct word meanings through context and knowledge of word structures. There are often clues in the text that can helps students identify the meaning of a word such as a synonym or antonym, a cause and effect relationship, or even an explanation. Sometimes a reader can use clues from much earlier in the text, or from graphics near the word, or even from the words grammatical role (Zwiers 140-5). Making Inferences: Making inferences is a process of extending the information from the text with the readers own experience to create meaning beyond what is explicitly stated in the text (Zwiers 99). This strategy includes being able to make generalizations or drawing conclusions not explicitly stated (Beers 41).

Katie Soble 4 Comprehension Strategies Literature Review

Summarizing: According to Zwiers, summarizing is the process of reducing a section of text to a smaller chunk of important information (31). This involves deleting unnecessary and redundant information, simplifying long lists or generalizing specifics, and developing a main idea (Wendling 110) Visualizing: The benefit of readers visualizing what they are reading is that it promotes active engagement and deep thinking (Wendling 108). The mental organization involved in visualization helps the reader retain the information (Zwiers 68). Visualization can be as simple as imagining the text as images, or as complex as creating visuals (drawings, models, etc.) to represent what is read. Self-Monitoring: Students need to be taught explicitly how to monitor themselves while they are reading (Wendling 111). Many struggling readers will either skip over sections when they are confused, or give up altogether. They need to learn to recognize when they are struggling, apply an appropriate strategy and evaluate its effectiveness. They also need to monitor and control their attention to the text, commitment, attitude and motivation (Zwiers 173).

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Bibliography
Allen, Janet. The Yellow Brick Road. Portland: Stenhouse Publishers, 2000. Beers, Kylene. When Kids Cant Read; What Teachers Can Do. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2003. Harvey, Stephanie and Anne Goodvis. Strategies that Work. Markham: Pembroke Publishers Ltd., 2007. Marzano, Robert J. Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2004. Olson, Carol Booth. The Readin/Writing Connection. Toronto: Pearson, 2011. Moss, Barbara and Virginia S. Loh. 35 Strategies for Guiding Readers through Informational Texts. New York: The Guildford Press, 2010. Sara, Amanda. The Literacy Toolkit. Bethel, CT: Crown House Publishing Ltd., 2009. Tokuhama-Espinosa, Tracey. Mind, Brain, And Education Science. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2011. Wendling, Barbara J. and Nancy Mather. Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventions. New Jersey: Wiley, 2009. Zwiers, Jeff. Building Reading Comprehension Habits in Grades 6-12. Newark: International Reading Association, Inc., 2010.