ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

ARCH 282 - Part 2 Spring Semester Inst. F I t Franoise Summers i S Inst. A. Berrin Cakmakl (Zeytun)

Reference Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia Encyclopedia.

THE ENVIRONMENT
Environment, thin layer of life and life-supports called the biosphere, including the Earths air, soil, water, and living organisms. Constituents of the Environment The atmosphere that shelters the Earth from excessive amounts of ultraviolet radiation and enables life to exist is a gaseous mixture of nitrogen oxygen nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapour, other elements and compounds, and dust particles.
Heated by the Sun and by radiant energy from the Earth, the atmosphere circulates about the planet and modifies temperature differences. Of the Earths water, 97 per cent makes up the oceans, 2 per cent is ice, and 1 per cent is the fresh water in rivers, lakes, groundwater, and atmospheric and soil moisture. The soil is the thin mantle of material that supports terrestrial life. It is the product of climate, climate parent material such as glacial till and sedimentary rocks and vegetation rocks, vegetation.

Dependent on all these are the Earths living organisms, including human beings. Plants use water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to convert raw materials into carbohydrates through photosynthesis; animal life, in turn, is dependent on plants, in a sequence of interconnected relationships known as the food web. "Environment," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENT
the circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded d d 2. (a) the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (as climate, soil, and living things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival (b) the aggregate of social and cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual or community y 3. the position or characteristic position of a linguistic element in a sequence 4. a computer interface from which various tasks can be performed <a a programming > 1. environmental \- v-r(n)-men-tl - v(-)r(n)-\ adjective en vi ron men tal \-v-r(n)- men-t l, -v(-)r(n)-\ environmentally \-tl-\ adverb
Source: http://www.britannica.com/bps/dictionary?query=environment

ENVIRONMENT
An environment is what surrounds a thing or an item. The environment is the surrounding. It could be a physical element - physical environment, that includes the built environment, natural environment - air conditions, water, land, atmosphere etc It could be human environment - people surrounding the item or thing. This is also known as the social environment and includes elements like the spiritual environment, emotional environment, home, family etc.
Answers.com - Wiki answers http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_definition_of_an_environment

EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTS The biophysical environment can vary in scale from microscopic to global in extent. They can also be subdivided according to their attributes. Some examples: the marine environment, the atmospheric environment the terrestrial environment

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT The physical environment consists of physical features that occur naturally. Major components of the physical environment are: 1. Water rivers, seas, oceans 2. Natural Vegetation trees, shrubs, trees shrubs grass 3 3. Landform and rocks a do a d oc s mountains, valleys 4. Weather and climate
http://classroomclipart.com/clipart-view/Clipart/School/environment_12sch_jpg.htm

AN ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Energy exchange between a terrestrial reptile and the environment. gy g p

Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/66191/biosphere

ENVIRONMENT DETERMINING FORM AND SURVIVAL

Environment: the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival.

Estimated number of known living species The majority of species. species are still unknowni.e., y yet to be described by y taxonomists.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/189127/environment http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/66191/biosphere

THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The biophysical environment is the biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism, or population, and includes particularly the factors that have an influence in their survival survival, development and evolution. The naked term environment can make reference to different f ff concepts, but it is often used as a short form for the biophysical environment. There is an infinite quantity of environments, because we always consider an additional living organism, that has its y g g , environment, never the less when we use the expression environment" we are talking about the global environment, usually as referred to humanity humanity.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)

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THE EARTHS BIOSPHERE The earths biosphere p contains numerous complex ecosystems that collectively contain all of ll i l i ll f the living organisms of the planet. planet Unique perspectives of the earth help suggest th th h l t the immensity and complexity of the planet s biosphere planets biosphere.
NASA/Science Source/Photo Researchers, I NASA/S i S /Ph t R h Inc. "Earth's Biosphere," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

THE BIOSPHERE
Biosphere, the earth's relatively thin zone of air, soil, and water that is capable of supporting life, ranging from about 10 km into the atmosphere to the deepest ocean floor. Life in this zone depends on the sun's energy and on the circulation of heat and essential nutrients. The biosphere remained sufficiently stable for hundreds of millions of years to sustain the evolution of today's life forms. Large-scale di i i L l divisions of th f the biosphere into regions of different growth patterns are called plant formations, biomes formations or biomes.
"Biosphere," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

CONSTITUENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
Constituents The scope of the biophysical environment is all that contained in the p p y biosphere, which is that part of the Earth in which all life occurs. Ecosystems, of which there are numerous types and are a defined part of the biosphere, collectively make up the whole of the biosphere. Within an ecosystem there are habitats in which an organism (including human beings) exists. At its most natural state, an environment would lack any effects of human activity, although the activity scale of this activity is such that all areas of the Earth have had at least some influence by humans. At the other end of the scale is the built environment and in some cases it has the biotic component that is virtually absent.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS Ecology, study of t e relationship o p a ts a d a co ogy, o the e at o s p of plants and animals to as their physical and biological environment.
The physical environment includes light and heat or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil, water, and atmosphere.

The biological environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as other plants and animals.
"Ecology," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

STUDY FIELDS
Because of the diverse approaches required to study organisms in their environment, ecology draws upon such fields as , gy p climatology hydrology oceanography physics chemistry geology soil analysis. To t d the l ti T study th relationships b t hi between organisms, ecology also i i l l involves such l h disparate sciences as animal behaviour taxonomy physiology mathematics. mathematics
"Ecology," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

THE EARTHS ENVIRONMENTAL SPHERES

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/66191/biosphere

THE ATMOSPHERE OF THE EARTH

The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).

This spectacular image of sunset on the Indian Ocean was taken by astronauts aboard th I t b d the International ti l Space Station

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE Structure of the atmosphere Principal layers: Exosphere Thermosphere Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere

Layers of the atmosphere (not to scale)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere

THE HYDROSPHERE

A hydrosphere (from Greek - hudr, "water"[1] and - sphaira, " h [ i physical geography d h i "sphere in h i l h describes the combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet. planet The movement of water around, over, and through the Earth is called the water cycle, a key process of the hydrosphere
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrosphere

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE Energy from the sun, in the form of heat and light (insolation), causes evaporation from all wet surfaces including oceans, rivers, lakes, soil and the leaves of plants. Water vapor is further released as transpiration from vegetation and from humans and other animals. Aquifer draw down or over drafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total amount of water in the hydrosphere that is subject to transpiration and evaporation thereby causing accretion in water vapor and cloud cover which are the primary absorbers of infrared radiation in the Earth's atmosphere Earth s atmosphere.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrosphere

THE WATER CYCLE DIAGRAM

The water cycle a key process of the hydrosphere cycle,

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrosphere

WATER CYCLE

CARBON AND OXYGEN IN THE ECOSYSTEM

All living organisms are made of carbon compounds. Some plants and algae have retained the ability to synthesize these organic compounds using the suns sun s energy. This process, called photosynthesis, uses atmospheric carbon dioxide and water as building blocks. Organisms that have lost the ability to photosynthesize obtain their carbon indirectly from plants that are able to indirectly, photosynthesize. A by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen, necessary to almost all plants and animals to maintain life. Organisms that breathe in oxygen exhale ca bo d o de carbon dioxide. Through respiration, and through the decomposition of their oug esp a o , a d oug e deco pos o o e bodies after they die, these organisms return carbon to the atmosphere.
"Carbon and Oxygen in the Ecosystem," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia

THE CARBON CYCLE

All living organisms are made of carbon compounds. Some plants and algae have p p g retained the ability to synthesize these organic compounds using the suns energy. This process, called photosynthesis, uses atmospheric carbon dioxide and water as building blocks. Organisms that have lost the ability to photosynthesize obtain their carbon indirectly, from plants that are able to photosynthesize. A by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen, necessary to almost all plants and animals to maintain life. Organisms that breathe in oxygen exhale carbon dioxide. Through respiration, and through the decomposition of their bodies after they die, these organisms return carbon to the atmosphere.
"Carbon and Oxygen in the Ecosystem," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia

THE CARBON CYCLE ILLUSTRATED

Microsoft Illustration "Carbon Cycle," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

THE CARBON CYCLE

Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how much carbon is stored in various reservoirs, in billions of tons ("GtC" stands for gigatons of carbon ( GtC and figures are circa 2004). The dark blue numbers indicate how much carbon moves between reservoirs each year. The sediments, as defined in this diagram, do not include the ~70 million GtC of carbonate rock and kerogen Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cycle

CARBON CYCLE DIAGRAM

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cycle

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Ecosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with ; , the wider environment; mineral nutrients, on the other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals, microbes and the soil. Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological nitrogen fixation is deposited through precipitation dust fixation, precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as fertilizer. Since most terrestrial ecosystems are nitrogen-limited, nitrogen cycling is an important control on ecosystem production. d ti
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg

NITROGEN CYCLE

NITROGEN CYCLE ILLUSTRATED

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg

NIROGEN CYCLE: HUMAN AND NATURAL ACTIVITIES

Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec ked/topic/66191/biosphere

ECOSYSTEMS An ecosystem is a biological system consisting of all the living organisms or biotic components in a particular area and the nonliving or abiotic component with which the organisms interact such interact, as air, mineral soil, water and sunlight. Key processes in ecosystems: capture of light energy and carbon through photosynthesis th h h t th i transfer of carbon and energy through food webs release of nutrients and carbon through decomposition g p
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem#cite_note-Chapin197-22

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEMS An ecosystem consists of a biological community together with its abiotic environment, interacting as a system. Network interactions Net ork of interactions: among organisms between organisms and their environment linked together through nutrient cycle and energy flow Essential abiotic components of an ecosystem: Energy Water nitrogen minerals Source:

ECOSYSTEMS
A more useful way of looking at the terrestrial and aquatic landscapes is to view them as ecosystems, a word coined i 1935 b th B iti h plant ecologist d i d in by the British l t l i t Sir Arthur George Tansley to stress the concept of each locale or habitat as an integrated whole. A system is a collection of interdependent parts that function as a unit and involve inputs and outputs. The major parts of an ecosystem are the producers (green plants), the consumers (herbivores and carnivores), the decomposers (fungi and bacteria), and the non-living or abiotic component consisting of dead organic matter and non living, abiotic, component, nutrients in the soil and water. Inputs into the ecosystem are solar energy, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and other elements and compounds. it d th l t d d Outputs from the ecosystem include heat of respiration, water, oxygen, carbon , j g gy dioxide, and nutrient losses. The major driving force is solar energy.
"Ecology," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

A SIMPLIFIED ECOSYSTEM

This illustration presents a simplified ecosystem, or a community of interacting living and non-living organisms. Producers, consumers, decomposers, and abiotic matter form an integrated, functioning whole driven by the suns energy integrated sun s energy.
"Ecosystem," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia

ECOSYSTEMS AND THE ENERGY CYCLE

The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants a d o o e a ot e , a y eed g o p a ts and on one-another, animals p ay a a s play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystems

ENERGY AND NUTRIENT CYCLE

ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS

Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/66191/biosphere

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

Biogeochemical cycle: energy and nutrients in the biosphere

Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/66191/biosphere

THE CARBON CYCLE

Carbon, used by all living organisms, continuously circulates in the earths ecosystem. ecosystem In the atmosphere, it exists as the gas carbon dioxide, which is used by plants in the process of photosynthesis. Animals acquire the carbon stored in plant tissue when they eat and exhale carbon dioxide as a by-product of metabolism. Although some carbon is removed from circulation temporarily as coal, petroleum, fossil fuels, gas, and limestone deposits, respiration and photosynthesis balance to keep the amount of atmospheric carbon relatively stable. Industrialization, however, has contributed additional carbon dioxide to the environment. environment
"Carbon Cycle," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

THE CARBON CYCLE IN ECOLOGY

Carbon Cycle: In ecology, the cycle of carbon usage by which energy flows through the earth's ecosystem. The basic cycle begins when photosynthesizing plants use carbon dioxide (CO2) found in the atmosphere or dissolved in water. Some of this carbon is incorporated in plant tissue as carbohydrates, fats, and protein; the rest is returned to the atmosphere or water by respiration respiration. Carbon is thus passed on to herbivores that eat the plants and thereby use, rearrange, rearrange and degrade the carbon compounds compounds. Much of it is given off as CO2 in respiration, as a by-product of metabolism, but some is stored in animal tissue and is passed on to carnivores feeding on the p g herbivores. Ultimately, all the carbon compounds are broken down by decomposition, and y p y p the carbon is released as CO2 to be used again by plants.
Carbon Cycle (ecology)," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

AIR-WATER EXCHANGES

On a global scale the carbon cycle involves an exchange of CO2 between two great reservoirs: the atmosphere and the earth's waters. Atmospheric CO2 enters water by diffusion across the air-water surface. If the CO2 concentration in the water is less than that in the atmosphere, it diffuses into water but if the CO2 concentration is greater in the water than in the water, atmosphere, CO2 enters the atmosphere. g p q y Additional exchanges take place within aquatic ecosystems. Excess carbon may combine with water to form carbonates and bicarbonates. Carbonates may precipitate out and become deposited in bottom sediments. Some carbon is incorporated in the f S forest-vegetation biomass ( (living matter) ) and may remain out of circulation for hundreds of years. Incomplete decomposition of organic matter in wet areas results in the accumulation of peat. S h accumulation d i t Such l ti during th C b if the Carboniferous period created great i d t d t stores of fossil fuels: coal, oil, and gas.
"Carbon Cycle (ecology)," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

TOTAL CARBON POOL

The total carbon pool is distributed among organic and inorganic forms. 1. 2. 3. Fossil carbon 22% Oceans (mostly bicarbonate and carbonate ions) 71 Dead organic matter and phytoplankton 3%.

y (forests are the main reservoir) 3% ) 4. Terrestrial ecosystems ( 5. The atmosphere (circulated, and used in photosynthesis) 1%
"Carbon Cycle (ecology) " Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia (ecology)," Encyclopedia.

POLLUTION
Smoke Billowing from Industrial Smokestacks S k t k Carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and other types of contaminants pouring from industrial smokestacks contribute to worldwide atmospheric pollution. pollution Carbon dioxide contributes significantly to global warming, while sulphur dioxide is the principal cause of acid rain in eastern and northern Europe and northeastern North America. Other environmental problems stemming from smokestack emissions include respiratory diseases, poisoned lakes and streams, and damaged forests , g and crops.
Kim Westerskov/Oxford Scientific Films "Smoke Billowing from Industrial Smokestacks," Smoke Smokestacks Microsoft Encarta

AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAIN

Rainwater was once the purest form of water available but now is often contaminated by pollutants in the air. Air pollution has been increasing since the Industrial Revolution but only recently h tl have side effects such as acid rain b id ff t h id i become severe and widespread enough t evoke d id d h to k international concern.
Microsoft Illustration "Air Pollution and Acid Rain," Microsoft

ADDITIONS TO THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmospheric CO2 acts as a shield over the earth. It is penetrated by short-wave radiation from outer space but blocks the escape of long-wave radiation. Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have risen because of the burning of fossil fuels, the clearing of forests, g , and other such practices. As air pollution has increased the quantities of CO2 added to the atmosphere, the shield thickens and more heat is retained, increasing global temperatures in a process known as the greenhouse effect. Although such increases have not yet been great enough to cancel out natural climatic variability, projected increases in CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels suggest that global temperatures could rise some 2 to 6 C (about 4 to 11 F) by b early i th 21 t century. Thi i l in the 21st t This increase would b significant enough t alter ld be i ifi t h to lt global climates and thereby affect human welfare.
"Carbon Cycle (ecology)," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia.

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The atmosphere is essentially transparent to incoming solar radiation. After striking the Earth's surface, the wavelength of this radiation increases as it loses energy. The gases we discussed are opaque to this lower energy radiation, and therefore trap it as heat, thereby increasing the atmospheric temperature. As these gases increase, due to natural causes and human activity, they enhance the greenhouse effect, and may raise t ff t d i temperatures even more. If th climate warms, th vegetation t the li t the t ti belts will tend to move northward, changing global ecological and biome patterns. Other effects may be discerned in precipitation patterns, sea level changes, and more. more Armed with the data that relate CO2 increase to temperature rise, models allow prediction of the global distribution of changing temperatures if the total amount of carbon dioxide in the air were to double or quadruple from today's values (arbitrarily set at 275 F). The 4x case could be truly catastrophic, leading to worldwide deserts unless the added heat in the atmosphere also notably increase vegetation growth (to tropical forms).
http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Sect16/Sect16_2.html

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The greenhouse effect results from the trapping of solar radiation that reflects from the Earths Earth s surface by these (and other) gases. http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Sect16/Sect16_2.html

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The greenhouse effect : a warming of the Earths Earth s surface and troposphere (the lowest layer of the atmosphere), caused by the presence of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and certain other gases in the air. Of these gases air gases, known as greenhouse gases, water vapour has the largest effect. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/245233/greenhouse-effect

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The atmosphere allows most of the visible light from the Sun to pass through and reach the Earths surface. As the Earths surface is heated by sunlight, it radiates part of this energy back toward space as infrared radiation. This radiation, unlike visible li h tends to b absorbed b the greenhouse gases i the atmosphere, i ibl light, d be b b d by h h in h h raising its temperature. The heated atmosphere in turn radiates infrared radiation back toward the Earths surface. (Despite its name, the greenhouse effect is different f diff t from th warming i a greenhouse, where panes of glass t the i in h h f l transmit visible it i ibl sunlight but hold heat inside the building by trapping warmed air.)
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/245233/greenhouse-effect g

http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/greenhouse/

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effect

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

OZONE LAYER
Ozone Layer: A region of the atmosphere from 19 to 48 km above the earth's surface. The ozone forms there by the action of sunlight on oxygen. Ozone concentrations in the ozone layer: as much as 10 parts per million. Concentrations this great at ground level are dangerous to human health; but because the ozone layer protects life on earth from the full force of the sun's cancer-causing ultraviolet radiation, it is critically important. Scientists discovered, in the 1970s, that certain chemicals (chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs - compounds of fluorine) used p ) as refrigerants and in aerosol spray cans are responsible for the destruction of ozone molecules. Other chemicals, such as bromine halocarbons, and nitrous oxides from fertilizers, may also attack the ozone layer.
Source: "Ozone Layer," Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia

THE OZONE LAYER

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer