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Tribology International 41 (2008) 1723 www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

Method for measuring transient friction coefcients for rubber wiper blades on glass surface
Yusaku Fujii
Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Gunma University, 1-5-1 Tenjin-cho, Kiryu 376-8515, Japan Received 13 April 2006; received in revised form 8 April 2007; accepted 9 April 2007 Available online 8 June 2007

Abstract A method for measuring the coefcient of friction between sliding solid bodies has been developed. In the proposed method, both frictional and normal forces are measured as inertial forces acting on masses. Two pneumatic linear bearings, one placed horizontally and the other vertically, are used to realize a linear motion with a sufciently small friction acting on the masses, i.e., the moving parts of the linear bearings. The inertial force acting on each mass is calculated from the velocity of the mass; this velocity is determined with a high accuracy by measuring the Doppler shift frequency of a laser light beam that is reected off the mass using an optical interferometer. The performance of the proposed method is demonstrated by measuring the coefcient of friction between a car wiper blade and a glass surface. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Frictional force; Normal force; Gravitational force; Material testing; Inertial mass; Inertial force

1. Introduction In general, friction is one of the key factors determining machine efciency and performance. Moreover, reducing the friction of mechanical parts has a highly benecial effect on the environment through the reduction of energy loss and increase in machine lifetime. The coefcient of friction, which is the ratio of frictional force to normal force, is widely used as a key parameter to determine the frictional characteristics of materials [1]. However, it is sometimes considerably difcult to properly evaluate and understand the phenomenon of friction in dynamic, nonsteady-state systems. In many practical situations, like the motion of a wiper blade on a glass surface, the motions and loading conditions within machines are not steady state; thus, investigators attempting to simulate these conditions are faced with the problem of dynamically calibrating both the frictional and normal forces. Thus far, no dynamic calibration technique for force transducers has been established. These facts imply that it is rather difcult to

determine the uncertainty involved in the evaluations of both the measured force and the time of measurement. Force, which is one of the most basic mechanical quantities, is dened as the product of mass and acceleration F Ma, (1)

E-mail address: fujii@el.gunma-u.ac.jp. 0301-679X/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2007.04.003

where F is the force acting on an object, M is the mass of the object, and a is the acceleration of the objects center of gravity. This denition implies that a well-dened acceleration is required to generate force and calibrate force transducers accurately. Acceleration due to gravity, g, is convenient and usually used for generating or measuring constant force. Constant force can be accurately compared using a conventional balance with a knife-edge or hinge. Presently, no working methods are available for calibrating force transducers under dynamic conditions; in fact, only static methods, in which transducers are calibrated by static weighting under static conditions, are widely available. Therefore, it is very difcult to determine the uncertainty involved in measuring a varying or dynamic force using force transducers.

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In strain-gauge-type force transducers, which are most popular and widely used, the strain gauges is glued onto an elastic metal-body to measure its deformation due to the applied force. The adhesion condition of the elastic body and the strain gauges could affect the above-mentioned characteristics under dynamic force situations. Moreover, the characteristics of the elastic body on which the strain gauges are placed could also differ under static or dynamic conditions. Piezoelectric force transducers typically possess high resonance frequencies and are widely believed to be suitable for measuring dynamic forces. The basic structure of the transducer, in which a piezoelectric sensor element is pressurized using a pre-stressing bolt, could behave differently under static or dynamic conditions. Even under static conditions, the structure, in which a piezoelectric sensor element and a pre-stressing bolt are placed in parallel such that the input force is divided into two parts in a certain ratio, is believed to be a major cause of nonlinear behavior [2]. Presently, the resonance frequency of a transducer is the only parameter that is available for determining its dynamic characteristics. It is usually believed that the force transducers with higher resonance frequencies can measure dynamic forces with lesser uncertainty. However, this belief does not have a strong logical basis. Although the methods for dynamic calibration of force transducers are not yet well established, several researchers have attempted to establish such a method. One such method was proposed by the author and is currently under development [36]. This method was rst proposed [3] as an impulseresponse evaluation method for force transducers. A mass is collided with a force transducer and the impulse, i.e., the time integration of the impact force, is measured with a high accuracy as the change in the momentum of the mass. To realize linear motion with sufciently small friction acting on the mass, a pneumatic linear bearing [7] is used and the velocity of the mass, i.e., the moving part of the bearing, is measured using an optical interferometer. This method was subsequently improved upon [4] as a method for determining the instantaneous value of the impact force of an impulse. In this case, the instantaneous value of impact force is measured as the inertial force acting on the mass by measuring its instantaneous acceleration. This method has also been modied and improved for calibrating force transducers under oscillation [5] and step [6] forces. Bruns et al. have also developed a similar method [8]. The other method, which was proposed and developed by Kumme, uses the inertial force of an attached mass generated by a shaker [9]. In this method, single-frequency dynamic force is generated and applied to a force transducer. This method is effective for evaluating the characteristics of force transducers under the conditions in which calibration is conducted, such as continuous vibration at a single frequency. Park et al. have used this

method for the dynamic investigation of multi-component forcemoment sensors [10,11]. With regard to the currently available methods for measuring dynamic force, dynamic force calibration methods for force transducers under certain typical types of dynamic forces, such as impact force, oscillation force, and step force have been proposed and developed. However, a method for applying the results of such dynamic calibration to the actual wave prole of the varying force to be measured has not yet been established. By modifying the methods stated above using a levitated object and an optical interferometer, the author has also proposed methods for evaluating material strength [12], friction of pneumatic linear bearings [13], frictional force acting between sliding solid bodies [14], and a method for generating and measuring micro-Newton-level forces [15]. In the method for evaluating material friction [14], frictional force is directly measured as inertial force. However, a force transducer is still required to measure the normal force and friction coefcient. In this study, a novel method for directly measuring both the frictional and normal forces acting between sliding solid bodies has been proposed by modifying the methods stated above. Using the proposed method, the friction coefcient of sliding solid bodies is determined accurately based on the denition of force without using force transducers. To demonstrate the performance of the proposed method, the friction coefcient between a car wiper blade and glass surface is measured accurately. 2. Experimental setup Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup for evaluating the friction coefcient acting between materials. Fig. 2 shows a photograph of the test section. In this experiment, the frictional and normal forces acting between a car wiper blade and glass surface are measured using two interferometersInterferometer-1 and Interferometer-2 measuring the frictional force FF and normal force FN, respectively. A pneumatic linear bearing with a horizontal sliding direction, Bearing-1, is used in Interferometer-1 and a smaller pneumatic linear bearing with a vertical sliding direction, Bearing-2, is used in Interferometer-2. The glass plate (thickness: 1 mm, width: 30 mm, and length: 150 mm) is attached to Mass-1, which is the moving part of Bearing-1. The total mass of Mass-1 is approximately 4.9654 kg. The wiper blade, (width: 12 mm) is attached to Mass-2, which is the moving part of Bearing-2. The total mass of Mass-2 is approximately 0.02397 kg. The frictional force acting between the wiper blade and glass plate is measured directly as the inertial force of Mass-1. The normal force acting between the wiper blade and glass plate is directly measured as the sum of the inertial and gravitational forces of Mass-2. According to the law of inertia, if other forces such as the frictional force inside the bearing can be ignored, the

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Fig. 1. Experimental setup. Code: CC, cube corner prism; PBS, polarizing beam splitter; NPBS, non-polarizing beam splitter; GTP, GlanThompson prism; PD, photo diode; and LD, laser diode.

as follows: v1 lair f Doppler1 , 2 (2) (3)

f Doppler1 f beat1 f rest ,

Fig. 2. Phtotograph of test section.

where lair is the wavelength of the signal beam under the experimental conditions; fbeat-1 the beat frequency measured by Interferometer-1, i.e., the frequency difference between the signal and reference beams; and frest the rest frequency, which is fbeat-1 when Mass-1 is at a standstill. The direction of the velocity, acceleration, and force acting on Mass-1 in the coordinate system (shown in Fig. 1) is towards the right. Similarly, the normal force acting on the wiper blade from the glass surface, FN, can be expressed as follows: F N M 2 a2 M 2 g, (4)

frictional force exerted by the glass surface on the wiper blade is equal to the inertial force of Mass-1; Finertial M1a1, where M1 and a1 are the mass and acceleration of Mass-1, respectively. Under this condition, the frictional force acting on the glass surface from the wiper blade, FF, is the product of the mass and acceleration of Mass-1: FF M1a1. Acceleration a1 is calculated from the velocity of the mass. The velocity is calculated from the measured value of the Doppler shift frequency (fDoppler-1) of the signal beam of a laser interferometer, this can be expressed

where M2, a2, and g are the mass of Mass-2, acceleration of Mass-2, and acceleration due to gravity, respectively. The rst (M2a2) and second (M2g) terms on the right-hand side represent the uctuating and constant parts, respectively, of the normal force acting between the wiper blade and glass surface. Acceleration a2 is calculated from the measured frequencies fbeat-2 and frest in the manner described above, where fbeat-2 is the beat frequency measured using Interferometer-2. The direction of the coordinate system for the velocity, acceleration, and force acting on Mass-2 is towards the top in Fig. 1.

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At the beginning of the sliding experiment, an initial velocity in the left direction is manually imparted to Mass1, as shown in Fig. 1. A Zeeman-type two-frequency HeNe laser is used as the light source. The beat frequencies fbeat-1 and fbeat-2 are measured using Interferometer-1 and Interferometer-2, respectively. They vary around the rest frequency frest (approximately 2.72 MHz) depending on the velocity of movement. This rest frequency frest is measured using the electric signal of a photodiode inside the HeNe laser. Three electric frequency counters (model: R5363; manufactured by Advantest Corp., Japan) continuously measure and record fbeat-1, fbeat-2, and frest 3000 times with a sampling interval of T 4000/f and store the values in their memories. The counters continuously measure the interval time of every 4000 periods without pause of measurement. The sampling period of the counter is approximately 1.5 ms at a frequency of 2.72 MHz. Bearing-1 (Air-Slide TAAG10A-02; manufactured by NTN Co., Ltd., Japan) is attached to an adjustable tilting stage. According to the design specications, the maximum additional mass that can be attached to the moving part is approximately 30 kg, the stroke of the movement is approximately 100 mm, and the nominal

thickness of the air lm is approximately 8 mm. The frictional characteristics are determined in detail by the developed method [13]. Bearing-2 (GLS08A50/25-2571: manufactured by NSK Co., Ltd., Japan) is attached vertically to a bas. According to the design specications, the maximum additional mass that can be attached to the moving part is approximately 1 kg, the stroke of the movement is approximately 25 mm, and the nominal thickness of the air lm is approximately 10 mm. A reference frequency of 10 MHz generated using a crystal oscillator in an oil bath is supplied to the three electric counters (R5363). The measurements conducted using the three electric counters are triggered by a sharp trigger signal generated using a digital to analog converter. This signal is initiated using a light switcha combination of a laser diode and photodiode. As shown in Fig. 2, the tip of the car wiper blade bends due to frictional force. Some parts of the tip, such as the neck, shoulder, and lip parts, are also shown in Fig. 2. In the experiment, one set of measurements is conducted. In these measurements, the moving part is manually imparted an initial velocity and it travels in the left

Fig. 3. Data processing procedure for Interferometer-1: calculation of velocity, position, acceleration, and force from frequency.

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direction. Then, the lip of the wiper sticks to the glass surface due to the dynamic frictional force within 1 s. After that, damped oscillation resulting from the elastic strain energy stored in the wiper blade is observed. 3. Results Fig. 3 shows the data processing procedure for calculating the velocity, position, acceleration, and frictional force from the frequency measured by Interferometer-1. During the measurement, only the beat frequency fbeat-1 and rest frequency frest are measured to determine the frictional force acting between the wiper blade and glass surface. The Doppler shift frequency is measured as the difference between the beat and rest frequencies. Subsequently, the velocity, position, acceleration, and frictional force of the mass are calculated from this frequency. In the sliding region, from t 0.00 s to t 0.89 s, the velocity v1 decreases from 0.069 to 0.000 m s1 and the position changes from x1 0.0 mm to x1 30.4 mm. After that, at t40.89 s, transversal vibration is observed. If we assume that the condition that the lip of the wiper blade sticks to the glass surface, position x1 on the glass surface coincides with the point where the wiper blade sticks to the glass surface.

Fig. 4 shows the data processing procedure for calculating the velocity, position, acceleration, and normal force from the frequency recorded by Interferometer-2. Fig. 4 shows the same set of measurements as that in Fig. 3. During the measurement, only the beat frequency fbeat-2 and the rest frequency frest are measured to determine the uctuating part of the normal force acting between the wiper blade and glass surface. The Doppler shift frequency is measured as the difference between the beat and rest frequencies. Subsequently, the velocity, position, acceleration, and normal force of the mass are calculated from this frequency. In the transversal vibration region at t40.89 s, the normal force FN is almost constant, although the change in the vertical position x2 is relatively large. As the period of the vertical vibration is large, it can be hypothesized that the inertial force M2a2 is negligible and the normal force FN is almost the same as the gravity acting on Mass-2 M2g. Fig. 5 shows the changes in the frictional (FF) and normal (FN) forces during the measurement. This gure shows the same set of measurements as that in Figs. 3 and 4. A relatively signicant correlation between the frictional and normal forces is estimated in the sliding region.

Fig. 4. Data processing procedure for Interferometer-2: calculation of velocity, position, acceleration, and force from frequency.

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Fig. 5. Change in friction and normal force against position of Mass-1.

Fig. 6 shows the change in the frictional (FF) and normal (FN) forces around the stopping region. This gure shows the same set of measurements as that in Figs. 35. A signicant correlation between frictional and normal forces is estimated in the sliding region. On the other hand, in the transversal vibration region at t40.89 s, the relationship between the frictional force and position indicates the viscoelasticity of the wiper blade being tested for an almost constant normal force. In the transversal vibration region, FF is considered a static frictional force. It can also be considered as the restoring force of the wiper blade against the lateral deection. Fig. 7 shows the change in the friction coefcient m ( FF/FN) against the position (x1) and velocity (v1) of Mass-1. This gure shows the same set of measurements as that in Figs. 36. A relatively large uctuation in the frictional coefcient is observed in the sliding region. 4. Discussion The frictional and normal forces acting between sliding solid bodies can be accurately measured by using the proposed method based on the denition of force, i.e., force is the product of mass and acceleration. Consequently, the friction coefcient between sliding solid bodies can be determined accurately. In the proposed method, normal force, velocity, and displacement are dened and measured at the base of the wiper blade. Since the inertial mass of the wiper blade is negligible compared to Mass-2, the normal force acting at the contact region between the tip of the wiper blade and glass surface is equivalent to the measured normal force FN.

Fig. 6. Change in friction and normal force around stopping region.

Fig. 7. Change in friction coefcient against position and velocity.

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In the proposed method, frictional force FF is dened and measured as the total force acting on Mass-1; it can be dynamic or static frictional force. In case wherein FF is the static frictional force, it is equivalent to the restoration force of the wiper in the horizontal direction. In the region shown in Fig. 5, the frictional force is considered to be the dynamic frictional force between the lip of the wiper and the glass surface. During the sliding motion, the top of the wiper blade comprising the lip and shoulder bends at the neck due to the frictional force. After the lip of the wiper sticks to the glass surface due to the dynamic frictional force, complicated transversal vibration is clearly observed. In this experiment, the relative velocity between the lip of the wiper and the glass plate is not measured, although the relative velocity between the base of the wiper blade and the glass plate, v1, is measured. Therefore, it is difcult to evaluate whether the contact condition between the lip of the wiper and the glass surface is the slip or stick condition. A high-speed digital video camera is effective in evaluating the slip and stick conditions for a material with signicant deformability, such as the wiper blade examined in this paper. In this paper, the metal parts are assumed to be rigid objects. According to a rough estimation, the elastic vibration of the metal parts should be very high and such high-frequency vibration is not observed in this experiment. Therefore, the assumption stated above is considered valid in the experiment. To verify the validity of this assumption and/or to correct the effect of the elastic vibration of the metal parts precisely, a numerical simulation method such as a nite element method would be useful. 5. Conclusions A method for measuring the coefcient of friction between sliding solid bodies without using a force transducer has been developed. In the proposed method, both frictional and normal forces are measured as the inertial forces acting on masses. One mass is supported horizontally using a pneumatic linear bearing and its frictional force is measured as the inertial force using an

optical interferometer. The other mass is supported vertically using another pneumatic linear bearing and its normal force is measured as the sum of its inertial and gravitational forces using another optical interferometer. The performance of the proposed method has been demonstrated by measuring the coefcient of friction between a car wiper blade and a glass surface. Acknowledgment This study was partially supported by a research-aid fund of the Japan Space Forum. References
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