Higher Education Quarterly, 09515224 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2273.2011.00505.x Volume 66, No.

1, January 2012, pp 2446

Culture Shock and Higher Education Performance: Implications for Teaching

hequ_505 24..46

Philip Kelly, John Moores University, Liverpool, p.kelly1@ljmu.ac.uk, and Yvonne Moogan, Kaplan Business School, London, yvonne.moogan@kaplan.co.uk

Abstract The globalisation of higher education brings together learners and teachers from differing systems, creating a heterogeneous and diverse environment.Yet many higher education institutions typically rely on foreign students themselves to adapt to their new higher education environments.An investigation was undertaken as to whether traditional approaches are effective and efcient in meeting the needs of the internationally mobile student. Using data from the last ten years (1999 to 2009) from a post-1992 University in the North West of England an analysis of over 15,000 postgraduate assessments found a signicant performance difference between home country students and international mobile students. Results found that home country students perform signicantly better than international students, although the latter perform better in examinations than in coursework. However, there is a substantive improvement during the dissertation stage for both groups. Possible reasons for such variations in performance are explored.

Introduction There has been a substantial growth in the number of internationally mobile students (IMS) due to the internationalisation and globalisation of tertiary education. Many institutions, particularly those with business schools, have recruited increasingly large numbers of overseas students in their attempts to become more international. There were 417,000 international students studying in the UK in 2008 alone (UKCISA). As Altbach (1991, p. 305) claimed, foreign students are among the most important and visible elements of this internationalisation.There are two key arguments for this: the rst is nancial and the second concerns
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providing students with a multicultural and global learning experience. Such internationalism is an inspiring experience for students and staff but it creates language and cultural problems that must be solved if they are to gain the benet of diversity (Fortuijn, 2002) for internationalism should not simply be about increasing foreign student numbers (Deutschman, 1991). Governments have been trying to increase diversity within higher education for it is viewed as more healthy learning leading to increased student choice and participation (Teixeira and Amaral, 2001; Gurin et al., 2002; Steir, 2003; Huismann et al., 2007; Rose and Bylander, 2007; Ryan and Hellmundt, 2008) and with an emphasis on supporting and developing lifelong learners (Antonio, 2001; Blackstone, 2001; Briguglio, 2007; Dam-Mieras et al., 2008; Siegal, 2008). By internationalising the curriculum, universities have the potential to prepare students more effectively for a global culture (Tait, 2010, p. 262). As global mobility increases, the diversity of learners (cultural background, language, age, experience, country of domicile) presents challenges to the learner, educator and higher education institution. Where students have their own identities and languages, the lecturers face additional challenges in the classroom (Slee, 2010). Raising awareness with staff to address international issues can be demanding (Caruana and Ploner, 2010). Such challenges are also exacerbated as resources in the UK higher education sector are limited and international students face a transition (process of changing from one state to another) between their own culture and their new culture (Kelly, 2009). Traditional institutions expect the IMS to t into their educational system but international students do nd it difcult to adjust since they may be ignorant of the implicit social rules that regulate interaction in the host country, leading to ineffective interaction in the host country (Chapdelaine and Alexitch, 2004). In addition international students often wish to widen their experience, yet they are seen as minority members who can be excluded because English may not be their rst or second language (Allen and Higgins, 1994; De Vita, 2000; Ledwith and Seymour, 2001; WoodwardKron, 2007; Tran, 2008) and language is the vehicle of culture (Hofstede, 1986). For example, Brown (2010) found essay examination results to be affected by language. Language and writing skills often have to be learnt when international students are new to the UK and this can take time. Research is limited with regards to the experience of foreign students in overseas universities, with little theoretical work evident on cross-cultural adult learning that can improve the success rates of underrepresented student cohorts (Chavez, 2007) and in particular reference to performance during the transition period. Given that the primary
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goal of most international students in studying abroad is to gain a qualication, there is remarkably little published research on academic outcomes, such as pass or failure rates and the grades of the degree obtained (Morrison et al., 2005, p. 327). Research is also lacking in the area of student feedback and about feeling marginalised or disadvantaged (Bruch et al., 2007) with just a little evidence about the experience IMS have whilst studying in the UK ( Jones, 2005). Finally, absent from the literature is information regarding the duration of the transitional shock with its performance outcomes throughout this period and the time it takes for overseas students to be relatively comfortable within their new environment. Although Lin and Yi (1997) discusses Asian international students adaptation within the USA, referring to the prearrival adjustment stage, the initial adjustment stage, the on-going adjustment stage and the return home, there is no data to conrm these periods of time, to support their duration or offer strategies for help. Hence this is where the gap exists. With internationalisation, the higher education institution has to change at all levels and adapt accordingly (Hermans, 2005). Consequently, in the interests of equality and given the internationalisation of the curriculum, there is a duty to ascertain that course designs are not biased towards any type of student but in particular that the IMS are not prejudiced. Although IMS are keen to study in the UK, programmes must be t for global purposes for whilst it would be relatively easy to simply lower standards or change the way we teach and assess, we must recognise that students select the host country education system for what it is.Thus, higher education institutions need to strike a balance between making degrees British (national) and global so that output for the IMS is maximised and maintained. The programme of study must consider such issues as how the curriculum is designed and how the assessment strategy is established so making it fair for all. For example, Johnston (2010) debates how centric assessment policy often acts as a disadvantage to the ethnic minority students and higher education institutions should promote cultural knowledge and context.This means that assessment criteria should be varied to reect different student backgrounds and embrace such cultural diversity. This paper will review the literature on globalisation with reference to the transition period considering the challenges faced by the IMS and the higher education institution. It will continue with a discussion of the educational strategies (as proposed from the authors) for the multicultural classroom. Next the research methods are documented. The paper concludes with an analysis of the results and based on these ndings
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suggestions for course design are presented. This rst paper, however, is a basis for future research as the authors plan to investigate some of the ndings here in more depth and the time periods concerned. Consequently, caution needs to be exercised with the results and supporting comments. The student transition period When IMS visit a new country they must adapt to their new higher education system. The transition period is a time when assumptions and differences (barriers) in the home education system are impacting upon the education process. Students face the natural difculties posed by a new environment causing a period of disorientation, insecurity and incomprehension that may last for weeks, months or even longer. Differences experienced by a new student may result in shock and this may have many consequences for them. Oberg (1960, p. 177) rst commented on this when dening culture shock as the anxiety resulting from the loss of familiar signs and symbols when a person enters a new culture, familiar cues disappear and no matter how broad minded or full of goodwill one may be, a series of props have been knocked from under. Shocks may be experienced in relation to the national culture difference and the differences between home and visited country education systems. Education system distance represents the gap between assumptions within a host country education system (beliefs about what constitutes knowledge, how it should be learned, taught and assessed) and those of the international mobile students home country.Thus, for some IMS, the difculties may be less or greater. International students will arrive with various expectations (Harris, 1995; Hall et al., 2009). Zakaria (2000) refers to frustration and confusion caused by uninterpretable cues. However, IMS also face difculties with the study skills necessary to complete a masters programme such as the aptitude to critique the literature, communicate interactively and the methodological skills of gathering assignment data. In addition IMS have a double cultural clash as they are forced to t in with the culture of the associated classroom as well as with the Western lifestyle (Bell, 2000). Tseng and Newton (2002) recognise four key adjustment issues for international mobile students; general living adjustment (accommodation issues and payment of living expenses), academic adjustment (language problems and ignorance of the education system), socio-cultural adjustment (experiencing culture shock, discrimination and conict of home and host standards) and personal psychological adjustment (homesickness, alienation and loss of identity; see also Bowl, 2001, p. 142). Olaniran
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(1996) refers to language and age as the two social difculties facing IMS, noting that the younger a student is, the easier it is to adapt. The language problem is of greater signicance since support is not only needed with how to speak English but has to include the support of critical writing, reections upon learning and communicative interactions with academics and peers. Although IMS may be relatively experienced, their learning culture is often different from that of the UK. According to Stiasny (2008) it is essential for academics to examine our methods of teaching with innovative pedagogies (and perhaps an international pedagogy) that are relevant to the needs of home and international students, for the challenge is to explore whether IMS are being included or excluded or discriminated against and disadvantaged. There is often a disparity between international mobile students learning expectations and those anticipated by the higher education staff delivering those programmes with this being particularly so during the transition period when everything is new to everyone. There will be gaps in understanding that may be due to the teachers perceptions of overseas students such as them being unable to participate in discussions and wanting to work with similar students from similar backgrounds (Ryan, 2008) or it may be due to tutors not reecting upon student activities within an interactive learning environment so that a deep learning environment can be created (Gerstman and Rex, 2001). In addition international students may be associated with surface learning techniques such as rote learning and their inability to solve problems independently, feeling threatened by new learning environments, especially where there are large volumes of research information and materials requiring analysis. Tait (2010, p. 264) denes surface learning as when; students target only the essentials of a course and use rote memorisation to remember facts rather than understanding important concepts. In addition IMS are frequently guilty of unintentional plagiarism and the lecturer cannot assume that referencing skills have been developed previously (Barrett and Cox, 2005). IMS may not challenge the tutor but simply accept what they are told rather than question their knowledge as they are probably still adapting. In contrast, home students, especially those with work experience, tend to debate more with tutors, be more familiar with reective learning and with working in teams. This gives cause for concern on postgraduate programmes for only high quality, deep learning approaches are likely to lead to high quality learning outcomes desired of higher education students (Cope and Staehr, 2005, p. 194), which are in turn inuenced by the quality of teaching (Trigwell et al., 1999). Such deep approaches are associated with an intrinsic interest in what is being
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learned coming from a need to develop subject competence (Tait, 2010). Consequently the duration of the transition period is paramount for if the higher education institution does not appreciate that a transition period exists, IMS are disadvantaged before they even begin. IMS cannot learn effectively until the education systems are aligned so that acclimatisation can occur and common ground established. In recognition of education system distance and difference and the resultant shock to students, higher education institutions may chose and adopt different strategies for teaching IMS. Under the traditional higher education institution approach, the student is viewed as the problem and must adapt and take on board their new educational system meaning that the institution does not change but continues as normal; it is assumed that the IMS will integrate effectively within their new environment. Research (Tomalin, 2007; Richardson, 2008) argues that higher education institutions have a responsibility to bridge the nancial and political decisions of widening participation and internationalisation with adequate resources, whereby all ethnic groups receive guidance and support to have an equal chance of succeeding. Strategy two is the traditional awareness strategy whereby the higher education institution is aware of student issues and tries to support IMS during the period of adaptation. Under this strategy, the higher education institution remains unchanged but gives more help to the IMS. The third strategy is that of the innovative institution that questions its own assumptions and makes changes to itself in order to close the gap or at least reduce the transition period possibly developing an international (global) pedagogy. For example, learners have to be given greater support and ensure that the curriculum with assessment is adapted accordingly such that a culturally responsive and not culturally indifferent curriculum is designed (Slee, 2010). Finally, a fourth strategy may be described when the higher education institution and the IMS adapt together with both perceiving a shared problem. This may be described as the collaborative approach. Here both parties modied their assumptions and behaviour accordingly. For example, Broekmann and Pendlebury (2002) noted that the last twenty years of postgraduate study in South Africa have been difcult, with academic development moving away from viewing students as the problem, to seeing the higher education institution as the issue and solving this problem through developing a good relationship between the two. A consequence of the rst two strategies is academic disadvantage; the IMS must recognise and adapt to the host higher education institution pedagogical style. IMS are therefore disadvantaged until they assimilate
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sufcient understanding to adapt to their new higher education system. The disadvantage disappears when students become intellectually at home due to the mastering of the host higher education institutions implicit, culture bound, rules. The contemporary literature does not however provide detailed knowledge about this disadvantage, since the consequences for teaching, learning and assessment are unknown for IMS. In particular, there is no rich quantitative data about the magnitude of any disadvantage. Consequently, strategy selection by higher education institutions is not adequately informed through theory. For example, assessment issues need to focus on validity, feedback and fairness from informed policy rather than from conscientious individual academics since assessment is frequently inuenced by tradition and external constraints (Meyer et al., 2010). Key questions remain unanswered such as the duration of the transition period and the associated difculties IMS may have in attaining programme learning outcomes.To overcome this ignorance we need to better understand the transition period and its implications. Empirical study A key aim of this quantitative study is to improve our understanding of the IMS transition period and to explore possible causes of and practical responses to performance differentials relating to the IMS and home country students engaged in tertiary (postgraduate level studies). The key independent variables of this study include student diversity characteristics (international, age and gender) and aspects of the education system (teaching and assessment methods) and the dependent variables (performance outcomes); intermediary variables include the duration and complexity of the transition period. Much of the data can, therefore, be collected from student record systems. For this study, data was collected from the Oracle Student System database of information that integrates admissions, enrolment, assessment, progression and awards data for all students. This was then imported into a custom-built database used to manipulate and categorise and then export data for analysis in SPSS. Data comprised of 2,159 Master of Business Administration (MBA) students enrolled at Liverpool Business School and registered during the last ten years (from 1999 to 2009). The MBA comprises two MBA programmes that share more than 60% commonality. There is an Executive MBA that attracts predominantly part-time mature home country students and an International MBA that attracts predominantly young students who are frequently international. This latter programme
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is run for full-time students only. The entry requirements for the Executive MBA are different in that potential students need to have a minimum of three years substantial managerial work experience, whereas with the International MBA although this is not required, general work experience is favourably considered. Despite differing student entry points, both programmes include at least two identical modules in the second semester (strategic management and research methods), which are assessed via the same examination and course work respectively, with the option modules for the International MBA also being core modules on the Executive MBA. In addition the dissertation module is identical on both programmes. The dissertation takes place in the third semester and the pass mark for all modules is 40%. The size of the taught modules on the Executive MBA are all 15 credits whereas the credit size of the taught modules on the International MBA comprise a combination of 30 credit and 15 credit sizes. On the International MBA 30 credit modules are delivered in semester one whereas 15 credit modules are delivered in semester two. As some 15 credit modules (options) are the same on both programmes they are delivered by the same staff. In total nearly 15,000 assessment items were completed by this sample and analysed by programme (Executive or International MBA). The rationale for incorporating both programmes in the study was to increase the sample size of the home country students, for these are predominantly enrolled on the Executive MBA, whereas UK students enrolled on the International MBA are relatively small. Both programmes have the same learning environment, similar or the same modules with identical dissertation requirements, although the Executive MBA students bring different skills to the classroom. Consequently, other situational variables, not investigated here, might account for the variances in performance revealed. Ideally, a single multicultural cohort should be used for this type of investigation. However, this would not have provided sufcient data for meaningful analysis. The assessment types include coursework or examination or hybrid. Furthermore, coursework may include group work or individual work, essay (written) or presentation (verbal). The sample comprised 78% international mobile students and 75% were males. When considering assessment at the module level, the sample contained module marks from course work only strategies (n = 3,609), modules including examination (n = 2,560) and modules assessed through a hybrid of written and oral work (n = 1,345). Although this quantitative research is robust and substantial it is just a starting point to investigate student
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performance differentials and further research particularly in a qualitative direction is needed. Results Evidence of academic disadvantage and transition shock may be evident in the performance of students in their initial assessments. If assumptions of a short transition period are correct it might be expected that some impact in the rst semester with little or no thereafter. The mean percentage assessment score during semester one for IMS (M = 45.1 and SD = 12) was signicantly less than the home country students (M = 55.1 and SD = 11.3) with semester two and three scores also being signicantly different at the P = 0.000 level although with a slightly smaller differential. There are three interesting observations: rst, the IMS do not improve from semester one to semester two (but neither do the home country students); second, over the taught components of the masters degree, the IMS do not close the gap with the home country students; and third, both home country students and IMS improve in semester three, where the IMS close the gap. The gap between semester one and two should decrease if the IMS have adapted to the host education system and one assumes that there is no assessor bias. This may suggest that the transition period continues beyond the end of the rst semester and into the second semester (and longer) whilst the IMS are still adapting. The largest increase in mean scores (especially for IMS) occurred in semester three when the independent learning (dissertation) took place and the differential for IMS/ home country students narrowed to less than seven points. This may be due to more frequent and timely feedback whereby students use different skill sets in undertaking their own research and liaise with their supervisors independently throughout. However, the lack of improvement (between the rst two semesters) is worrying for the educator as is the signicantly large difference between IMS and home country students performance. As could have been predicted, the IMS preferred examinations to coursework during the taught component of the programme (although there is a marked improvement for the dissertation) and the gap with the home country students was much less for examination-based assessments. The mean examination scores for IMS (M = 50.1 and SD = 12.1) were signicantly lower from the home country students scores (M = 54.4 and SD = 13.7) and two-tail test = -4.742 and P = 0.000, although the gap is less than with coursework means. For example, the mean coursework scores for IMS (M = 47.4 and SD = 14.8) was thirteen points lower than the home country students
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scores (M = 60 and SD = 15.6). IMS seem to prefer examinations rather than coursework (which may be due to their prior higher education background where rote learning is more common) as a means of achieving a successful outcome. There are many variables affecting diversity such as age and gender. For instance, investigating age and gender performance, the authors created a sample that placed students in four age categories (Fig. 1). When splitting the whole group according to age, the largest differential performance was between those 22 years old or under (M = 45, SD = 11.4) and those over 30 years old (M = 53.6, SD = 11.4),

Figure 1 Age 1: students aged 22 years old or under. Age 4: students over 30 years old.
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t (711) = -9.863, P = 0.000 (two tailed). The semester two and three mean scores were also signicantly different at the P = 0.000 level and in the same direction. The mean age categories were signicantly different for semester one, two and three scores, with a signicant difference with regard to the semester two and three exit velocity, especially amongst the more mature students (category four). In summary, age impacts upon performance with the results indicating performance improving as age increases. This is because international mobile student cohorts are often populated by younger and less mature students who may not be as widely read or equipped with the higher education skills necessary especially at the start of the programme. Aside from age, a reection of experience and maturity, the authors investigated gender and performance. In semester one, females performed better (M = 50.6 and SD = 11.5) than males (M = 45.9 and SD = 12.4) and semester two and three (dissertation period) average results were also signicantly better but males seemingly improve at a greater rate throughout the programme than females, with the gap closing by semester three to a two-point differential. Perhaps females are more apt at juggling several modules (particularly during the taught component of the programme) and can multi-task more effectively than males? Another explanation could be that males prefer to concentrate on one piece of work in depth (such as the dissertation), which is more relevant to them and become more tightly focused on this type of independent study. Of those international students (n = 95) with previous experience of studying in the host higher education environment (M = 54.8, SD = 11.1), semester one scores were 8 points higher than for those students new (n = 1843) to that system of higher education in the host country (the UK in this case) (M = 46.5, SD = 12.3), which increased to 12 points in semester two but decreased to less than a two-point difference in semester three (Fig. 2). The largest improvement in performance is from semester two to semester three for new students and a slight improvement from semester one to semester three for previous students despite the slight decline towards the end. The students who have previously studied in the UK seem to gain advantage in semester two which may be due to settling in faster and or being better equipped to interpret communications from the tutor due to already knowing the rules. Next, credit size (a reection of contact hours and relationship time) and teaching style were considered, as they can impact upon the education and transition period. First, over ve thousand student module assessments (individual and group course works, presentations and
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Figure 2 Previous: international students with previous experience of studying in the host Higher Education environment. New: students new to that system of Higher Education in the host country (the UK in this case).

examinations) were analysed according to credit size. The 30-credit module sizes show less variance so highlighting there is less potential to score very low or very high (extreme values) in comparison to 15-credit modules (which had a higher standard deviation). The International MBA, which tends to attract overseas students, contains two 30-credit modules whereas the Executive MBA offers only 15-credit modules on its programme. Relationships with tutors and peers are more possible during larger module sizes for more teaching is involved with extra time for group activity, presentations and timely feedback. A 30-credit
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module facilitates continual communication where expectations can be reinforced and the student-tutor relationship enhanced over a longer period of contact class time. Second, an investigation into the effect of teaching style in the belief it would show a preference for a teacher-centric classroom was undertaken, for delivery of the module may be inuential in affecting student results. With the director of the MBA programmes observing each module tutor in the classroom, a selection of one from ve different teaching style codes, reecting the degree of control given to students over teaching and learning was recorded (Code 2 indicates a teachercentric classroom whilst Code 5 indicates a student-centric classroom). When analysing international student performance on coursework (7459 assessments analysed), it was found that students performed signicantly better when educated in a student-centric environment (M = 51.32, SD = 14.65) rather than from a teacher-centric environment (M = 48.54, SD = 14.31), t(7457) = -8.305, P = 0.000 (two tailed). The teaching style can determine the learning context since the key issue is the way the student approaches their learning and small class sizes with a high number of tutor input hours may facilitate a more productive learning climate. In summary, various factors such as student diversity characteristics (IMS, age, gender, education experience), the teaching context and perception of the assessment task will impact upon the student learning and performance. The performance difference in semester three closes suggesting that the transition period may span the taught component of a Masters level programme (typically two semesters (one academic year)). The existence of this transition period seems to be corroborated by the performance of IMS who have previously studied in the host country environment. There are powerful arguments in favour of differing the approach to teaching and learning in the multicultural classroom. The ndings are signicant for the higher education institution and for an impetus for change. As Smith and Schonfeld (2000, p. 22) state; the imperative of diversity amid changing demographics has the potential to challenge some of the underlying assumptions of our higher education institutions. The next section will discuss such implications. The transition period There is often much criticism when internationalisation of higher education institutions is voiced, for overseas students are often weaker performers or more demanding students but higher education institu 2012 The Authors. Higher Education Quarterly 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

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tions need to recognise their needs and help them in adapting to the higher education system by managing such diversity (Dobbins, 2009; Shaw, 2009). This study was undertaken to investigate the transition period for IMS, its consequences and impacts and was driven by questions about their performance. Despite traditional (costly) support mechanisms (induction, tutor availability and welfare support), with additional weekend workshops and longitudinal study skills sessions that were also introduced when the International MBA was created ve years ago in 20042005, international mobile student performance was signicantly poorer. However, this limited improvement in the host (UK) education system also needs to be analysed during the rst ve years of data (1999 to 20042005) prior to the validation of the new MBA International programme in 2005. Consequently the further comparisons of these time periods are needed to investigate any possible improvements in the pre and post periods of the MBA International. One of the most likely explanations for this minimal improvement focuses on the duration of the transition period but it also includes other IMS attributes such as gender and age. For example, the typical young, male-dominated international student is, just like his home country student counterpart, more likely to underperform. This may be due to the experiences of a different education system. Thus often, when comparing international with home country cohorts the research is not comparing like with like; there is noise (or possible sampling bias) in the sample. Despite this noise, strong evidence was found to suggest a relatively lengthy transition period. International mobile student cohorts may not be fully aware of how to behave (learn) in their new environments (particularly during the early periods), the conceptual demands of written work or the complexities across different assignments can preclude student transfer of skills and knowledge from one assignment to another (Schmitt, 2008). Assessment practices may not allow students to draw upon their own backgrounds and cultural experiences so that there is an imbalance between the home and educational environment ( Johnston, 2010). In addition, at the start of their programme the IMS may not know the need to read critically, or when to challenge and when to listen since assessments may contain hidden prompts that are disadvantaging them. Another reason could be the lack of support and formative feedback during those periods of adaptation for students new to the higher education system need to know the rules and expectations (Quintrell and Westwood, 1994; Eisenchlas and Trevaskes, 2007; Grayson, 2008; Deakins, 2009).
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IMS also have to be capable of linking the academic aspects with the practical side especially within the structure of an MBA. One possible way of creating this is via regular staff development workshops for the tutors and the inclusion of student personal portfolios assessable within the programme. For example, according to Jones (2010) the portfolio bridges the theoretical and practical elements as well as being a tool for supporting the development of students to become professionals and to act as a guide in measuring the effectiveness of a programme. However, beyond anything else the higher education institution must recognise the tutors role in bridging the gap between their own and the teaching and learning assumptions of their students. For example, some colleagues tend to stereotype the IMS as poor performers and plagiarists, although this can be debated (Kember, 2000; Ramburuth and McCormick, 2001; Leathwood, 2005). Some colleagues also refer to IMS as rote learners (Prosser and Trigwell, 1999) relying on memorisation strategies (Bell, 2000). Possible reasons could be due to the IMS having less-developed English language skills (Ledwith and Seymour, 2001; Tran, 2008) or due to their learning culture (Cadman, 2000; Robertson et al., 2000; Bodenhorn et al., 2005; Kelly, 2008). However, it could be that there are other variables at play here and it is the intention of the authors to investigate in more detail. Consequently, one of the key requirements for successful student interaction with diversity is institutional support (Asmar et al., 2004). A range of mechanisms may be used to support students during the transition period such as longitudinal induction, English language sessions linked to specic modules and the use of smaller class sizes but all these can be costly. In addition team bonding exercises, communication activities with peers and the allocation of mentors (students on later stages of the MBA) in order to develop relationships may ease the process of adaptation. Research shows that students do want common identity with other students at postgraduate level despite many international students preferring to develop links with their international peers rather than with their domestic students (Caruana and Ploner, 2010). Buddy-mentoring systems mixing UK with non-UK students may be the way forward in increasing learner maturity and improving general well-being. Combining different cultures in groupwork can help the process of adaptation with home country students communicating more frequently with IMS. This research found higher average marks where students collaborate with each other in student-centric environments. Nevertheless groupwork is a valuable process of allowing diverse students to challenge the learning opportunities for all members of the group and
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develop accordingly (Bowering et al., 2007; Carroll, 2008; De Vita, 2008; Ryan, 2008; Summers and Volet, 2008) since it encourages more deep learning (Lonka and Lindblom, 1996; De Vita, 2000; Green, 2007). The international student is someone who is part of the movement of people in response to globalisation and should not be separate from other students (Asmar, 2005). Poor IMS performance, despite language and other support mechanisms, suggests that current strategies (frequently relying on the IMS to change and adapt to a new education system) are not working as effectively as one would assume and there is a need for either type-three or type-four strategy where the higher education institution also adapts to meet global demands. The main argument for this comes from the duration of the transition period, which is typically greater than the duration of the taught higher education programme. In this case it does not mean the higher education institution simply supports the international mobile student it means it must design a better education system to close the gap and provide full curriculum support and resources for staff. The challenge of what we might mean by an international curriculum is one which we need to tackle if international students are to feel truly included in our programmes, and we need to confront the content and methods of our teaching (Stiasny, 2008). Proposed design As international students can change the demographics of the classroom, there needs to be a shift from being mono-cultural to multicultural, if internal cohesion is to be maintained (Caruana and Ploner, 2010). Consequently there are many factors that might be adjusted by a higher education institution to create an international pedagogy or a term called a glocal pedagogy via an education system that is not too far from that which students have experienced in their home countries. Factors might include: class size, credit size, module and assessment sequence and assessment strategy. Recommendations could include the following: educators should seek to make the rst semester of study more global and, therefore, more similar to that already experienced by the IMS.This may mean making greater use of examinations (in a tutor-centric class), in addition to group work, during semester one. Semester one coursework involving group work should develop critical thinking skills and provide student mutual support mechanisms. It is group work that enhances managerial and business skills (Hansen, 2006; Heikkila and Lonka, 2006; Lizzio and Wilson, 2006; Wang, 2007; Kelly, 2008). Delivering larger credit-size modules covering the core subjects in the rst semester
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allows more studentteacher contact hours and enables relationships to be developed over time. It also allows continuous assessments to take place and to provide second chances for students to improve (Slee, 2010). This also gives the tutor time to explore what skills international students bring with them and what expectations they may have (McLean and Ransom, 2008) by allowing strategies that utilise the experience and knowledge of students to be developed (Egege and Kutieleh, 2004; Gregory and Jones, 2009). If this is done, the second semester can take more of the traditional M (Masterliness) level. For example, smaller credit-size modules (options) in the second semester with a maximum of 15 students, perhaps delivered by familiar teaching staff, is another way to nurture students progression and create an M level environment. Having a different style to the rst semester has many benets. First, it will help to increase student satisfaction and therefore motivation with improved performance. Second, it will enable the IMS to learn something of the host country education system. Finally, the student should be prepared for a more autonomous second semester where critical and wider reading can be emphasised. Second-semester assessments will be more (essay) coursework based. Such a pedagogy must focus on the special role of feedback, student relationships, student affective outcomes (satisfaction and well-being) and opportunities for the IMS to learn the expectations with the assumptions of the host education system.These factors will determine the design of curricula.Throughout both semesters but in particular during the rst semester, intercultural interaction and group work (written or oral) should be promoted to foster a climate of inclusion. Within the classroom, tutors need to be more explicit, provide assessment guidance, disseminate documentation, encourage more reading in advance, incorporate student-centred activities and develop cross-cultural skills. One reason for the increased performance at the dissertation stage could be the regular supervisory meetings that include individual discussions with relevant feedback in a timely fashion. Here students meet and discuss individually (rather than in a formal teaching environment) their progress to date and the topic is frequently chosen by themselves with their motivation and personal interest being higher. However for the taught modules, module tutors and or personal tutors need to spend time disseminating full feedback frequently so that students can learn and proceed successfully. However, these are merely the pieces that may be assembled to create the international pedagogy. The design of teaching strategies and courses with their subsystems must t with each other and the situation. Thus the education system should mirror the transition period, starting more
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familiar to the IMS and then evolving towards that generally considered to be postgraduate (autonomous and critical-thinking learners). It is during this transition period that overseas students in particular need to be provided with a longitudinal induction programme (weekly cohort study-skills classes) so that they develop in their learning ability and hence their condence over time. Hence, there is a need for IMS to familiarise themselves with the culture of the institution and higher education institutions to provide an opportunity for them to integrate and develop a sense of belonging within the host system especially on a longitudinal basis. The question remains: which party should be made to adapt, the student or the higher education institution or both? Perhaps the latter is the way forward in helping the IMS to achieve their outputs for IMS are weaker when assessed in host country education systems (such as in the UK) at M level, which may be due to the cohort characteristics (age, gender, experience) and more importantly due to the lengthy transition period. Conclusion In conclusion, limited value is added by the higher education institution pursuing a traditional education strategy where the higher education institution expects IMS to adapt within the taught component of a postgraduate programme. Given the importance of student satisfaction upon education performance, the higher education institution has to change, especially if the value-added process of the UK higher education institution system operating globally is to improve. It is important that the assumptions of the multicultural classroom are questioned and addressed. IMS can be seen to be problematic by the higher education institution but the institution is also problematic to the IMS. Unless higher education institutions adapt their resources (staff and organisational) to meet the needs of the overseas students, their expectations will not be achieved (Harris, 1995; Briguglio, 2000; Skyrme, 2007; Hall et al., 2009). Despite attempts to help students adapt, many higher education institutions and their staff are still unfamiliar with the needs of IMS since cultural diversity has an impact on pedagogy as well as on staff and student welfare Rudzki, 1995; (Cheney, 2001; Ridley, 2004; Jones, 2005). Again such impact is perhaps more prevalent with IMS who probably have more traumatic experiences than home country students. The gap or education system distance between the IMS and the higher education institution may in some cases present itself more as a crack whilst in other cases it will be a distinct crevice; the size of the differences
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will impact upon the duration of the transition period and the changes made by either entity to close the gap. Limitations and future study The main limitations of this study concerned sampling. In some cases, the home country students and IMS were sometimes not in the same classroom but in other cases they did share the same tutor. Further research is required for this study is just the starting point and qualitative research will be undertaken by the researchers in the future. The higher education institution used for sampling in this study mainly recruit IMS from India, Pakistan and China, though up to twenty countries are often represented in the MBA cohorts. Finally the predominantly quantitative approach now requires supplementing with some qualitative research so that future research can also nd out what really happens in the classroom and investigate the student- and tutor-centric environments in more detail. References
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