Social Group

Human beings are social by nature. They never like to live in Isolation. They live in groups such as family, clan, tribal community, etc. These groups are known as natural groups of them. The reason why the human beings are social is that they are gregarious by nature. They are fond of group life. Apart from this, they form groups consciously with a view to satisfy their various needs. Thus they live in groups, natural arid artificial. They form these artificial groups consciously and continuously with the help of the fellow beings. Thanks to their circumstance and nature, they have always lived in groups.

Meaning of Social Group

A group means different things to different persons. Some people say that a group is a number of units of anything in close proximity to one another. Thus, a number of persons working together or sitting face to face in a single room or bus or railway compartment may be regarded as example of groups. Likewise, a number of houses on a street, number planes in an airport, a number of buses in a bus-stand or a number of trees in a forest may also be accepted as the other examples of groups. According to some other people a group consists of individuals who do not know each other at all a group also implies any aggregation of human beings. But judging from the strict sociological point of view, the different versions of groups which we have already mentioned do not give us a correct idea about what a social group means.

Definition of Social Group

There are many scholars who have attempted defining social, group in different ways. Some of the important definitions are mentioned below. Arnold W. Green says that, "a group is an aggregate of individuals which persists in time, which has one or more interests and activities in common and which is organized". Mac Iver and Page think a group is any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationship with one another. Ogburn and Nimkoff hold the view that, "Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another they may be said to constitute a social group". E.S. Bogardus is of the opinion that a group is, "a number of persons, two or more who have some common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have a common loyalty and participate in similar activities. Sheriff and Sheriff remarks that, "a group is a social unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationship to one another and which possesses a set of values or norms of its own regulating the behavior of individual members at last in matters of consequence to group'. Williams remarks that a social group, is a given aggregate of people playing interrelated roles are reorganized by themselves or others as a unit of interaction. Considering the definition given above, we reach the conclusion that a social group consists of such members who have reciprocal relations. The members are bound by a sense of unity. The

we-feeling, dominate them. Their interests and ideals are common and behavior is similar. Two or more persons in interaction constitute a social group are bound by the common consciousness of interaction. The example of social groups include a family, husband and wife, a group of friends, political party, caste community, village, trade union, cricket club, social class etc.

Characteristics or Features of Social Group

It is not easy to point out the various characteristics of social group. Even then, eminent sociologists state that a social group possesses certain characteristics. These characteristics are evident from its various definitions, for instance are reflected in a group like family. We should discuss them in detail. They are stated below: 1. Collection of individuals: Social group consists of people. Without individuals there can be no group. Just as we cannot have a college or a university without students and teachers we cannot have a group in the absence of people. 2. Mutual relations or mutual attachment The members of a social group must be mutually related to one another. A mere aggregate of individuals cannot constitute a social group unless reciprocal relationship exists among them. Therefore, mutual relations are considered essential for the formation of a social group. It is regarded as an important distinctive feature.
3. Sense of unity

The sense of unity is another important feature of a social group. Each social group requires for the development of a feeling or sense of belonging. The members of a social group develop loyalty of feeling or sympathy among themselves in all matters because of the sense of unity. Thus, they are united with one another in this group.
4. A sense of 'we' feeling

The members of social group develop a sense of unity. They treat the members of their own group as friends and the persons belonging to other groups as outsiders. They co-operate with them who belong to their groups in this sphere of the activity and all of them protect their interests unitedly.
5. One or more common interests

The individuals who form a group should possess one or more than one interests and ideals. They constitute the group for the achievement of their common interests. The group is always formed on account of common interest alone.
6. Similarity of behavior

The members of a group behave in a similar way because they have common interests, ideals and values or norms. In other words, the mode of behavior of the members in a group is more similar.
7. Social rules or norms

Just as the state has laws to offer so, also a social group possesses certain rules or norms of its own. The members of the group follow the norms. He who deviates from the existing group norms is severely punished. The group exercises some control over its members through the prevailing rules or norms. 8. Groups are dynamic: Social groups are not static but dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow .or rapid. Old members die and new members are born. Whether due to internal or external pressures or forces, groups undergo changes. 9. Size of the group: Every group involves an idea of size. A group may be as small as that of 'two-members group e.g. husband and wife or as big as that of a political party having lakhs of members. Size will have its own impact on the character of the group.

Types of groups
Primary groups: According to Charles Horton Cooley (18641929), a primary group is a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. People joined in primary relationships spend a great deal of time together, engage in a wide range of activities, and feel that they know one another well. In short, they show real concern for one another. In every society, the family is the most important primary group. Groups based on lasting friendships are also primary groups. Secondary groups: In contrast to primary groups, these are large groups involving formal and institutional relationships. Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. Most secondary groups are short term, beginning and ending without particular significance. They may last for years or may disband after a short time. The formation of primary groups happens within secondary groups. Primary groups can be present in secondary settings. For example, attending a university exemplifies membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a primary group that you belong to. Likewise, some businesses care deeply about the well being of one another, while some immediate families have hostile relations within it. Reference Groups: According to Merton reference groups are those groups which are the referring points of the individuals, towards which he is oriented and which influences his opinion, tendency and behavior. The individual is surrounded by countless reference groups. Both the memberships and inner groups and non memberships and outer groups may be reference groups. Individuals almost universally have a bond toward what sociologists call reference groups. A reference group is a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions.

Socialization
Socialization is the process, beginning at birth, through which one eventually adopts as one's own the norms, values and beliefs of one's culture, and the roles appropriate to one's social position.

There are two dimensions to socialization. The first, and most basic, occurs in childhood. It involves transformation from totally egocentric infants, whose behaviours are dominated by biological urges, into persons capable of taking the perspective of others. We thus develop a self-concept and become able to anticipate, evaluate, and consciously experience our own behaviour. In the process we also develop an understanding of the expectations, desires, and feelings of others. We learn to relate to other people. The second dimension of socialization is related to the first. It begins in childhood and continues throughout life. We learn what is expected of members of a particular culture, and also what behaviours are appropriate to various situations - both our own roles, present or anticipated, and the roles of relevant others. How is this dramatic transformation possible? Part of the answer lies in the nature of human interaction, and a most significant feature of this interaction is language.

Theories
Socialization is the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential learning process one can experience. Unlike other living species, whose behavior is biologically set, humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive. Although cultural variability manifests in the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups (societies), the most fundamental expression of culture is found at the individual level. This expression can only occur after an individual has been socialized by his or her parents, family, extended family, and extended social networks. This reflexive process of both learning and teaching is how cultural and social characteristics attain continuity. Klaus Hurrelmann From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with the term socialization. One example for this connection is the theory of Klaus Hurrelmann. In his book "Social Structure and Personality Development" (Hurrelmann 1989/2009), he develops the "Model of Productive Processing of Reality (PPR)." The core idea is that socialization refers to an individual's personality development. It is the result of the productive processing of interior and exterior realities. Bodily and mental qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the circumstances of the social and physical environment embody the external reality. Reality processing is productive because human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to cope with the attendant developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the personal and social resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the necessity to reconcile personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity." (Hurrelmann1989/2009: 42) Lawrence Kohlberg Lawrence Kohlberg's (1981) theory of moral development studied moral reasoning (how individuals judge situations as right from wrong) within three stages of young adulthood. The first is the pre-conventional stage, where children experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure. Second, the conventional stage appears in the teen years of maturation. Teenagers learn to define right and wrong according to the desires of their parents and begin to conform to cultural norms resulting in a decrease of selfishness. The last stage of moral development is the post-conventional level where people move beyond society's norms and consider abstract ethical principles.

Carol Gilligan Carol Gilligan compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender and moral development. She claimed (1982, 1990) that boys have a justice perspective meaning that they rely on formal rules to define right and wrong. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and responsibility perspective where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation. Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female teachers and most authority figures are men . Erik H. Erikson Erik H. Erikson (19021994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggles with the challenge of autonomy versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight to life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus selfabsorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge of integrity and despair. George Herbert Mead George Herbert Mead (19021994) developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops an individual's personality. Mead's central concept is the self: the part of an individual's personality composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the others' point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley (1902-1983) coined the term looking glass self, which means self-image based on how we think others see us. According to Mead the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity through imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is the generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference for evaluating others. Judith R. Harris Judith R. Harris (b. 1938) graduated magna cum laude with her masters degree in psychology from Harvard University. She received the George A. Miller Award for her proposed theory of group socialization (GS theory). This theory states that a childs adult personality is determined by childhood and adolescent peer groups outside of the home environment and that parental behaviors have no effect on the psychological characteristics their children will have as adults. Harris proposes this theory based on behavioral genetics, sociological views of group processes, context-specific learning, and evolutionary theory. While Harris proposed this theory, she attributes the original idea to Eleanor E. Maccoby and John A. Martin both of whom are doctors at Standford University and wrote the chapter on family socialization found in the fourth

edition of the Handbook of Child Psychology. After extensively reviewing the research conducted on parent-child interactions, Maccoby and Martin (1983) state that their findings suggest that parental behavior and the home environment has either no effect on the social development of children, or the effect varies significantly between children. Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in adult personality is due to genetic differences. The environment in which a child is raised accounts for only approximately ten percent in the variance of an adults personality. As much as twenty percent of the variance is due measurement error. This suggests that only a very small part of an adults personality is influenced by factors parents control (i.e. the home environment). Harris claims that while its true that siblings dont have identical experiences in the home environment (making it difficult to associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to home environments), the variance found by current methods is so low that researchers should look elsewhere to try to account for the remaining variance. Harris also states that developing long-term personality characteristics away from the home environment would be evolutionarily beneficial because future success is more likely to depend on interactions with peers than interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of already existing genetic similarities with parents, developing personalities outside of childhood home environments would further diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success

Status and Role

The term has two sociological uses: 1. R. Linton (1936) defined status simply as a position in a social system, such as child or parent. Status refers to what a person is, whereas the closely linked notion of role refers to the behaviour expected of people in a status. 2. Status is also used as a synonym for honor or prestige, when social status denotes the relative position of a person on a publicly recognized scale or hierarchy of social worth. (See 'Social Stratification'). It is the first meaning of the term status, status as position, which we are going to refer to in the following paragraphs. Status as honour or prestige is a part of the study of social stratification. A status is simply a rank or position that one holds in a group. One occupies the status of son or daughter, playmate, pupil, radical, militant and so on. Eventually one occupies the statuses of husband, mother bread-winner, cricket fan, and so on, one has as many statuses as there are groups of which one is a member. For analytical purposes, statuses are divided into two basic types: Ascribed Statuses Ascribed statuses are those which are fixed for an individual at birth. Ascribed statuses that exist in all societies include those based upon gender, age, race ethnic group and family background.Similarly, power, prestige, privileges, and obligations always are differentially distributed in societies by the age of the participants. Achieved Statuses Achieved statuses are those which the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, skill and/or perseverance.